EPE Journal

European Power Electronics and Drives

ISSN: 0939-8368 (Print) 2376-9319 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/tepe20

Realization and characterization of instrumented

power diode with aluminum RTD sensor –
application to thermal impedance evaluation

Ibrahima Ka, Yvan Avenas, Laurent Dupont & Mickael Petit

To cite this article: Ibrahima Ka, Yvan Avenas, Laurent Dupont & Mickael Petit (2017) Realization
and characterization of instrumented power diode with aluminum RTD sensor – application to
thermal impedance evaluation, EPE Journal, 27:3, 106-117, DOI: 10.1080/09398368.2017.1388626

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/09398368.2017.1388626

Published online: 20 Oct 2017.

Submit your article to this journal

Article views: 17

View Crossmark data

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=tepe20
EUROPEAN POWER ELECTRONICS AND DRIVES, 2017
VOL. 27, NO. 3, 106–117
https://doi.org/10.1080/09398368.2017.1388626

Realization and characterization of instrumented power diode with aluminum

RTD sensor – application to thermal impedance evaluation
Ibrahima Kaa,b§  , Yvan Avenasa§  , Laurent Dupontb  and Mickael Petitc
a
G2Elab, University Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Grenoble INP, Grenoble, France; bSATIE, IFSTTAR, Versailles, France; cSATIE, ENS Cachan – CNAM –
Université de Cergy Pontoise – CNRS UMR 8029, Cachan, France

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
Semiconductor devices incorporated into power electronics systems are proven to be highly Temperature measurement;
sensitive to their thermal environment. Thus, temperature measurement is a key concern thermo-sensitive electrical
when it comes to reliability of power modules. Some Thermo-Sensitive Electrical Parameters parameters; RTD sensor;
(TSEPs) are used to evaluate online temperature of semiconductor components, in operating infrared thermography;
instrumented chip; thermal
conditions of power converters. However, the accuracy and the reliability of those TSEPs are not impedance
yet fully demonstrated. To overcome this drawback, a power instrumented diode was developed
with a Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) sensor integrated on its top metal surface. This
validation tool is characterized in this paper under constant power dissipation. The embedded
RTD sensor is conditioned in a resistance bridge circuit. A dynamic characterization of a realistic
power module is performed through thermal impedance evaluation. A comparative study is
carried out to discuss the static and dynamic performances of the RTD sensor and those of a
robust and well-known TSEP (Forward voltage drop under low current Vf@Ict).

Introduction this implementation induces an additional cost and

Power electronics systems substantially incorporate
semiconductor devices which stand as key elements to
achieve power conversion. Hence, the reliability of sem-
iconductor components mostly defines the health status
of those systems [1,2]. According to a study published
in 2011 [3], semiconductor components are among the
most sensitive elements in converters; 30% of break-
downs would be connected to these elements. This study
also suggests that temperature would be the first cause of
failures, accounted for about 55% of power components
damages. Thus, chip temperature evaluation is manda-
tory. Several acquisition techniques have been evaluated
for temperature measurements within converters [4].
Manufacturers have developed instrumented power
modules with on-substrate integrated sensors, close to
semiconductor active parts [5]. The temperature in oper-
ating conditions is evaluated with thermal models. But,
thermal modeling is relatively complex because of inac-
curate estimations of component’s power losses, electro
thermal coupling effects and progressive degradation
of the power module assembly. Consequently, the tem-
perature estimated from a model does not necessarily
reflect the current electro thermal status of the system,
particularly when one device is degraded [6].
Sensor integration inside the structure of semicon-
ductor devices is also proposed to more accurately meas-
ure the temperature of the active parts [7]. However,
increases the complexity of power modules. Besides,
the integrated sensor makes local temperature measure-
ments while the global distribution within the chip is
strongly non-uniform [8]. In contrast, Thermo-Sensitive
Electrical Parameters (TSEPs) mostly give a global value
of the chip temperature. Temperature measurements
with TSEPs are made without modifying the modules
integrity, in contrast with other more intrusive methods,
like optical fiber thermometry or infrared thermography.
TSEPs correlate electrical parameters of semicon-
ductor components (forward voltage drop, saturation
current, dynamics characteristics, etc.) and their temper-
ature [9]. It is thus possible to estimate the temperature
of the active parts using calibration curves, generally
adapted to each device. In scientific literature, TSEPs are
generally classified depending on used strategies: online
measurements adapted to operating conditions of con-
verters or offline measurements otherwise. The ‘online’
TSEPs are widely studied [10,11].
In [12], Perpiñà et al. show that the results obtained
with TSEPs typically stemming from static characteristics
I(V) can be erroneous when the conditions of calibration
are different from the converter’s real operating condi-
tions. Besides, the ageing of power modules may disturb
temperature measurements [13]. It is then important
to evaluate the representativeness and the robustness of
TSEPs in operating conditions of converters.

CONTACT  Ibrahima Ka  ibrahima.ka@g2elab.grenoble-inp.fr

§
Institute of Engineering Univ. Grenoble Alpes
© 2017 European Power Electronics and Drives Association

The performances of online temperature measure-
ments with TSEPs are mainly demonstrated using IR
thermography [14,15] or electro thermal simulations
[16]. IR thermography is intrusive, requiring modifica-
tions of power module packaging. Electro thermal mod-
els involve trade-offs and are not fully representative of
investigated systems.
Published work has presented the concept of the
instrumented power diode as a validation tool for TSEPs
[17,18]. Besides reminding the process of realization,
this paper introduces a dedicated power module for
static and dynamic characterization of the instrumented
power diode in order to demonstrate its accuracy. The
temperature measurements with RTD sensor are per-
formed using a conditioning circuit based on a resist-
ance bridge instead of current source circuit. We also
introduce a dynamic study through thermal impedance
measurements. A comparative study is carried out to
discuss about the static and dynamic performances of
the RTD sensor and those of a robust and well-known
TSEP (forward voltage drop under low current Vf@Ict).
Technological basis of the instrumented diode
Structure of the instrumented diode
Technological approach
The basic principle lies on the integration of a temper-
ature sensor on top surface of a power diode [19–21].
This temperature sensor uses the electric resistivity var-
iations of certain materials in respect to temperature.
According to equation 1, resistivity of these materials
varies in almost linear way with a constant Temperature
Coefficient of Resistance (TCR) α [%/°C]. ∆R is the sen-
sor’s resistance variation, R0 the sensor resistance at a
reference temperature T0 and ∆T, the temperature var-
iation in respect to T0. Resistance and temperature units
are Ohms and Celsius respectively.
(a) Top view of the power diode
Figure 1. Topology of RTD sensor integrated onto power diode.
EPE JOURNAL   107
ΔR
= 𝛼ΔT [%] (1)
R0
The material used to design the temperature sensor is
chosen through the analysis of several criteria, in par-
ticular, sensibility which is intrinsically connected to
TCR value, linearity, simplicity of technological imple-
mentation and manufacturing cost. In the light of this
study, the aluminum presents interesting characteristics
with a theoretical TCR of 0.43%/°C [22], a moderate
cost, a good chemical stability and a compatibility with
the technology of wire bondings for external connec-
tions of the sensor.
Technological design
The temperature sensor was integrated on the top face
(Anode) of a standard off-the-shelf power diode (ABB
fast recovery diode 5SLX 12M1711 1700  V/200  A,
13.56 mm × 13.56 mm, 385 μm thickness).
The sensor topology (Figure 1(a)) is defined in such
a way that its temperature can be compared to the mean
value of the power diode temperature given by the TSEP
Vf@Ict. The openings on chip borders labeled ‘openings
for bonding’ allow electrical connections as illustrated
in Figure 1(b). The wire bondings are then connected to
the power diode anode into 1 mm width rectangles. It
should be noted that this configuration is not efficient for
the current distribution nevertheless it remains a good
trade-off with regard to IR thermography measurements
to be made easily in the experimental validation. Thus,
the top surface of the power diode is widely viewable
by IR camera.
The voltage drop across the sensor is intrinsically
linked to resistance variations and the current injected
into the sensor. The theoretical value of the sensor resist-
ance RRTD at 25  °C is 400  Ω according to Equation 2
with the parameters given in Table 1. The minimum
voltage drop across the sensor is then 400  mV with
(b) Bond-wires configuration
108   I. KA ET AL.
measurement current of 1  mA, what offers sufficient
accuracy for temperature higher than 25 °C in accord-
ance with measurement tools.
𝜌Al ⋅ L
RRTD =
e ⋅ hAl
Realization process of the instrumented diode
The instrumented chips are realized under environmen-
tally controlled conditions in cleanroom (Plateforme
Technologique Amont de Grenoble). The process
(Figure 2) is explained in details in [18].
The standard power diodes are delivered without
passivation (polyimide free) and are specially supplied
before the final control tests usually performed by
manufacturers. Step 1 consists of an insulating silicon
oxide layer deposition (SiO2 of 2 μm of thickness), real-
ized by Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition
(PECVD). In step 2, a 500  nm aluminum layer dep-
osition is realized by vacuum evaporation on the top
surface of the chip. The sensor pattern is then drawn
by UV lithography with positive photoresist AZ1512HS
(step 3) and a chemical etching eliminate residual metal.
Protection photoresist is removed by lift-off at step 4. It
is necessary to set up border openings to access to anode
metallization for wire bondings. Reactive Ion Etching
(RIE) allows eliminating thermal oxide on defined loca-
tions using negative photoresist nLof2070 reported by
optical lithography (steps 5 and 6). A protection layer
is realized with negative photoresist spin coated SU8,
hardbaked to 180 °C with adapted pattern defined by
optical lithography (steps 7 and 8).
RTD sensor calibration with microprobes
RTD sensors calibration (Figure 3(a)) is the first step
to evaluate the resistance at the end of the integration
process described previously. An evaluation of RTD
resistance at die level is performed with a low measure-
ment current (1 mA) using four wires (Kelvin) method
to avoid wire resistance contributions. Electrical contacts
on the sensor pads are made using microprobes.
Current injection and voltage measurement are per-
formed with a sourcemeter unit (SMU) Keithley 2602B
which offers a relative accuracy of 0.03% for a current
source level of 1  mA and 0.015% for a voltage meas-
urement range of 1 V. Chip temperature is controlled
by a hotplate (Lab Mix 35) with control range within
±5 K. For preliminary tests on die, high measurement
accuracy is not needed in order to validate good sensor
integration.
Table 1. Sensor parameters.
Aluminum resistivity, ρAl (@25 °C) [23] 2.8 × 10−8 Ωm
Pattern thickness, e 70 μm
Aluminum thickness, hAl 500 nm
Pattern mean length, L 0.5 m
Figure 3(b) shows the resistance variations of three
instrumented power diodes with respect to temperature.
The calibration parameters defined experimentally are
given in Table 2. The sensor resistance evolution is fit-
ted by a linear equation with parameters S and R0; the
(2)
parameter S is the sensitivity of the sensor in Ω/°C and
R0 is the resistance value at T0 = 0◦ C.
RRTD = S ∗ TRTD + R0 [Ω] (3)
The TCR αexp of the sensors is experimentally defined
from equation 4. ∆R is the sensor’s resistance variation,
Rref the sensor resistance at a reference temperature Tref
of 30 °C and ∆T, the temperature variation in respect to
Tref. It can be seem from Table 2 that the experimental
TCR αexp is close to the reference value of 0.43%/°C from
literature [22].
ΔR
= 𝛼exp ΔT [%] (4)
Rref
Experimental validation of the instrumented
power diode
Design of the power module including
instrumented diodes
The instrumented diodes are incorporated in predefined
IGBTs half bridge configuration power modules as free-
wheeling diodes. Figure 4 shows the electrical schematic
of the power module developed by DEEPCONCEPT
Company. This prototype has a 3 mm thick copper base-
plate and DCB AlN substrates. During experiments pre-
sented hereafter, we use only one diode of the module,
power transistors remain OFF as illustrated in Figure 5.
Calibration process of the RTD sensor and the TSEP
Vf@Ict
The RTD sensor and the TSEP Vf@Ict calibrations are
done with reference temperature range from 40 to
160 °C, controlled by a dedicated base plate connected
to a heating fluid circulator Julabo LH-46. The substrate
temperature Tko is monitored using class 2 type K open
thermocouple (±2.5 °C) in contact with the top copper
layer of the DBC substrate.
A conditioning circuitry based on Resistance Bridge
is designed for the experiments presented below (Figure
6). Instead of using a current source conditioner as pre-
sented in one previous paper [18], the RTD sensor is
integrated in a resistance bridge with 1‰ precision
resistance (Rref = 5 kΩ). The ratio between the bridge
voltage and RTD voltage drops defines a parameter 𝛾(T)
(Equation 5) which is monitored with respect to tem-
perature. This conditioning circuit gives a more stable
resistance measurement minimizing the effects of cur-
rent fluctuations through the RTD sensor. Indeed, the
calibration parameters of the sensor are defined by the
ratio between the precision resistance and the resistance
 EPE JOURNAL   109

Figure 2. Different steps of technological process.

(b) Calibration curves of RTD sensors

(a) Calibration with Microprobes (c) Micro Probes positions

Figure 3. RTD sensors calibration using microprobes.

110   I. KA ET AL.

Table 2. RTD sensors parameters. of the sensor at fixed voltage Vbridge. This is done to avoid
Sensors S [Ω/°C] R0 [Ω] αexp [%/°C] interferences from the noisy environment in which the
RTD1 1.62 395.2 0.36 RTD sensor is used (high di/dt).
RTD2 1.61 389.6 0.37
RTD3 1.63 386.2 0.37 Vbridge Rref
𝛾(T) = =1+ (5)
VRTD (T) RRTD (T)

The RTD temperature is then calculated based on

robust cubic polynomial fit of characterization data
(Figure 7(a)). The third order polynomial equation
ensures mean square root fitting errors lower than 1.5 °C
for the sensor calibration from 40 to 160 °C.
TSEP Vf@Ict is used to indirectly estimate junction
temperature of the power diode. Figure 5 shows the elec-
trical schematic with the 100 mA sense current source.
A linear variation of forward voltage across PN junction
drop is observed by low current injection with sensitivity
about −2 mV/°C (Figure 7(b)). It has been shown that
estimated temperature with Vf@Ict is close to the average
junction temperature of power diode [13].

Temperature measurements under constant power

Figure 4.  Schematic of the power module that includes
instrumented diodes.
dissipation
Experimental test bench
The power module with the instrumented diode is
mounted on a cooling system at constant controlled

Figure 5. Electrical schematic for RTD sensor and TSEP Vf@Ict calibration and power dissipation of the power diode.

Figure 6. Conditioning circuit of RTD sensor.


(a) RTD sensor with respect to parameter
Figure 7. Calibration curves of RDT sensor and TSEP Vf@Ict.
temperature of 30 °C thanks to heating fluid circulator
Julabo LH-46. The electrical measurements are per-
formed using HBM GEN3i acquisition unit that offers
2MEch/s frequency and 18bits ADC resolution. A pan-
oramic view of the test bench is shown in Figure 8; the
painted power module is placed under the IR camera.
Experimental circuitry used for power current injec-
tion was developed as part of the work of Thollin et al.
[19]. In Figure 9(a), instrumented chip is the device
under test (DUT). Switches T1 and T2 serve to control
sequentially the direct power current injected into the
DUT. Measuring non-inductive shunt (LEMSYS 1 mΩ)
precisely senses power current with high bandwidth
(2  MHz). Current source can provide maximum cur-
rent of 300 A.
The power instrumented diode is first heated up by a
constant current for ten minutes to attain thermal steady
state. Then, infrared measurement of the device surface
is performed before the power current Ip is turned off.
All required signals are recorded as shown in Figure 10.
Measurement current Ict of 100 mA, used for TSEP Vf@Ict
is fed into the power diode under test during all meas-
urement process.
Experimental test bench
Figure 8. Panoramic view of the experimental test bench.
EPE JOURNAL   111
(b) TSEP Vf@Ict
Measurement principle with TSEP Vf@Ict
In constant power dissipation conditions defined by the
test bench, a power current Ip is injected into the diode to
reach thermal steady state. The power current injection
is then stopped; only measurement current Im used in
TSEP calibration (100 mA) is continuously fed into the
power diode. Cooling curve of the diode is recorded
through forward voltage drop variations under this con-
stant low current. Initial temperature Tj0 at the end of
power current injection is calculated using square root
time based linear extrapolation on a part of the cool-
ing curve (Figure 9(b)). Doing so, transient fluctuation
effects which are prominent during some hundreds of
μs are avoided [24]. Hereafter, the extrapolation data are
taken between 100 and 200 μs (Frame 2 in Figure 10).
Measurement principle with RTD sensor
Sensor data processing allows calculating RTD tem-
perature just before power injection interruption. To
avoid transient effects, calculation is made with samples
recorded between 100 and 60  μs before power inter-
ruption (Frame 1 in Figure 10). Average value on 80
112   I. KA ET AL.
a) Power injection circuit
Figure 9.  Configuration of experimental test and forward voltage treatment at the end of power injection phase for indirect
temperature evaluation by fitting in square root of time.
Figure 10. Measurement sequence with the two time frames of data used to estimate the temperature at the end of power dissipation
phase.
samples is then used to calculate RTD sensor tempera-
ture according to calibration curve.
Measurement principle with IR thermography
IR measurement on black painted power module is
performed using TITANIUM 550  M CEDIP® system
(SC7500 FLIR®) equipped with InSb matrix sensors of
320  ×  256 active cells. 100 IR frames are recorded at
100 Hz frequency for each power current level while the
power module is at steady state (Figure 11(a)). The IR
camera is controlled thanks to a 3-axis positioning sys-
tem to have identical image coordinates. Power module
is black-painted with Pyromark® high-temperature paint
(6–8 μm thickness) to improve chip surface emissivity,
providing homogeneity.
During heating phases, two averaged temperatures are
calculated thanks to infrared camera on an area of inter-
est around the instrumented chip (Figure 11(b)). Matlab
scripts define masks to accurately evaluate temperatures,
b) Data extrapolation of forward voltage
drop Vf@Ict
from averaged images recorded by IR camera. Masks are
used to minimize influences related to wire bondings,
removing that area from average temperature calcula-
tions. Indeed, for high current injection, temperature
range is widened, up to 300 °C by wire bondings, while
temperature of concern is about 100 °C. This results from
the diameter of wire bondings – which is 150 μm in this
first prototype, instead of standard diameter of 250 μm.
First, power diode active part temperature is esti-
mated as an averaged temperature TjvIR of active area of
the instrumented chip (red dotted area – Figure 11(c)).
Then RTD sensor temperature TRTDIR is calculated as
an averaged temperature of central area where the RTD
sensor is located (red dotted area – Figure 11(d)).
Self-heating of the wire bondings under power
dissipation
The self-heating of the wire bondings limits the max-
imum current in conduction due to the design of the

a) Original IR image
c) Active part of the power diode
Figure 11. IR images with applied masks for temperature measurements (Ip = 90 A).
instrumented chip. An electro thermal study performed
as in [25] shows the amount of current density to main-
tain the temperature of wire bondings below 300 °C. One
dimension heat equation without convective effects is
solved considering the boundary temperatures of the
chip and the substrate as experimental values, respec-
tively 108 and 50 °C. The power module we used in this
work incorporate 20 wires with a diameter of 150 μm
which share in balanced manner the total current of the
power diode. The convective effects in fact are not neg-
ligible, the actual maximum current will be higher than
the limit given by the electro thermal study.
It can be seen from Figure 12 that the 150 μm diam-
eter wire bondings attain a temperature higher than
Figure 12. Wire bondings temperature in conduction conditions.
EPE JOURNAL   113
b) Area of interest
d) RTD sensor area
300 °C for a current density of 3 A per wire. The maxi-
mum current delivered to the power diode is then 60 A.
At the same current level, the maximum temperature
of 250  μm diameter wire bondings is close to 100  °C
(Figure 12). Higher power current may thus be injected
into the power instrumented diode. Experimental val-
idations are being performed on power instrumented
modules whose electrical connections are made using
wire bondings with a diameter of 250 μm.
Discussions
From the range of injected power current Ip in constant
power dissipation conditions, RTD sensor temperature
is higher than temperature estimated by TSEP Vf@Ict with
114   I. KA ET AL.

a maximal difference of 2.2  °C (Figure 13 – Table 3). the initial temperature T(t = 0) and Pinj the power level
Measurement uncertainties ∆TRTD with the RTD sensor dissipated in the diode in W.
is lower than 0.2 °C and those related to ∆Tjv on TSEP
Vf@Ict are lower than 5  °C, taking into account linear Tref − T(t)
Zth (t) = (7)
interpolation errors. Pinj
The RTD sensor covers 83% of the top metal surface
of the power diode. The average temperature value, esti- Depending upon the reference of temperature, the
mated with TSEP Vf@Ict is lower, in particular because the instrumented power diode allows calculating two ther-
center of the power diode is hotter than on edges. It can mal impedances. The first one ZthRTD (t) is referred to the
be seen in Figure 14 that the two infrared profiles result RTD sensor and the second one ZthTjv (t) is related to
in two average temperatures with difference of 3.8 °C. the power diode using the virtual junction
Temperature profiles are extracted along yellow dotted ­temperatureTjv (t).
lines (Profiles 1 and 2) of Figures 11(c) and 11(d). The
temperature difference between IR mean temperature Measurement procedure
TRTDIR and RTD sensor temperature TRTD is also lower Thermal impedance evaluation is based on the cooling
than 2.2 °C under constant power dissipation conditions. curve technique described by Blackburn et al. [24]. The
As depicted in Figure 15, the measurement results instrumented power module is heated with a constant
with the infrared camera strengthen those performed power current of 80  A during 15  min to ensure that
with the RTD sensor and the TSEP Vf@Ict in terms of it attains thermal steady state. The power current is
temperature differences. Maximum temperature dif- turned off and the cooling curve of the forward voltage
ference is lower than 2.2  °C throughout the range of drop Vf@Ict across the power diode is recorded under a
injected power currents. Furthermore, wire bondings measurement current of 100  mA. The voltages Vbridge
exclusion from average temperature measurements with and VRTD are also recorded for the sensor temperature
IR camera consequently avoids over-estimation errors calculation. All measurement data are recorded during
regarding TjvIR calculations. 705s at a sampling frequency of 100ksamples/s with the
GEN3i acquisition system. The baseplate temperature is
Thermal impedance evaluation
Table 3. Temperature measurements with TSEP Vf@Ict, RTD
Thermal impedance measurement principle sensor and IR camera.
Thermal impedance is defined, in theory as the differ- ∆T = Tj- ∆T = TRT-
ence in temperature between two isothermal surfaces ∆T = TRTD − Tjv  − Tjv
vIR DIR
 − TRTD
P [W] Tjv [°C] TRTD [°C] [°C] [°C] [°C]
divided by a uniform heat flux entering the hotter of the
3.97 31.68 32.21 0.53 1 0.58
two surfaces [26]. It is used to evaluate the thermal per- 8.85 33.7 34.01 0.31 1.55 1.51
formance of power semiconductor device by its response 19.73 39.82 40.54 0.72 1.56 1.45
31.55 48.13 48.78 0.65 0.3 0.66
to a power unit step. Two thermal impedances ZthTjv (t) 43.89 54.41 56.58 2.17 1.8 1.06
and ZthRTD (t) are calculated with equation 7 where T(t) 56.28 62.88 64.22 1.34 1.4 1.95
69 72.34 74.03 1.7 1.05 1.71
is the temperature of the power diode in K estimated 81.67 82.23 84.05 1.81 0.88 1.93
respectively with the TSEP Vf@Ict and the RTD sensor. 94.35 93.26 94.87 1.62 0.32 2.04
106.55 105.78 107.11 1.34 −0.31 2.1
Tref is a reference temperature in K assumed here to be

Figure 13.  Temperature measurements with RTD sensor and Figure 14. IR temperature profiles for Temperature estimation
TSEP Vf@Ict. by RTD sensor and TSEP Vf@Ict.

a) IR camera and RTD temperatures
Figure 15. Comparison of temperature measurements with IR camera.
Figure 16. Thermal impedances of the instrumented power diode.
set to 30 °C and controlled by a heating fluid circulator
Julabo LH-46.
The TSEP temperature Tjv (t) is deducted from the
voltage Vf@Ict through the calibration parameter in the
time-frame [260 μs – 705s]. For time under 260 μs, the
square root time based linear extrapolation method is
used to avoid fluctuations generated by the power cur-
rent interruption. Data from 260 to 350 μs are used to
extrapolate the temperature of the power diode. The
TSEP reference temperature Tjv0 is the calculated tem-
perature at t = 0 with extrapolated parameters.
The temperature TRTD(t) of the sensor is calculated
using the calibration curve for time higher than 360 μs.
The transient noise generated by the power current
interruption is predominant earlier. The initial steady
state temperature TRTD0 is taken as the reference tem-
perature Tref for the RTD thermal impedance ZthRTD (t) .
Comparing the thermal impedance data showed in
Figure 16, it can be seen that the RTD sensor and the
TSEP Vf@Ict have similar dynamic responses. Close to
thermal steady state, the difference between the ther-
mal impedances ZthRTD and ZthTjv can be explained mainly
by the one of TSEP Vf@Ict and the RTD temperatures.
EPE JOURNAL   115
b) IR camera and TSEP temperatures
Assuming this difference previously noted under con-
stant power dissipation condition, ZthRTD is higher than
ZthTjv. For shorter times, temperature gradients are dif-
ferent and affect the representativeness of temperature
measurements with TSEP Vf@Ict and the RTD sensor.
The thermal resistances calculated at t = 705 s from
the RTD sensor and the TSEP Vf@Ict are respectively
0.67◦ C∕W and0.64◦ C∕W . Those values match the ther-
mal resistances previously estimated in steady state con-
ditions at power current level of 80 A (Pinj = 94.35 W)
which are respectively 0.69◦ C∕W and0.67◦ C∕W .
Conclusion
Given the results presented above, the instrumented
power diode has been fully validated under constant
power dissipation. Indeed, the RTD sensor integrated
on the power diode is able to evaluate the temperature of
the chip; the comparison with TSEP Vf@Ict and infrared
thermography measurements shows good agreement.
In power dissipation configuration, differences between
RTD sensor temperature and that estimated by TSEP Vf@
Ict
on one hand and between the RTD sensor temperature
116   I. KA ET AL.

and that estimated by infrared camera on the other hand
are lower than 2.2 °C. This is because the area of the die
active part is wider than the area covered by the RTD
sensor. The results presented in this paper may be cor-
related with previous study in [17,18].
The dynamic behavior of the RTD sensor was inves-
tigated with thermal impedance evaluation of the power
instrumented diode. The dynamic responses of the RTD
sensor and the TSEP seem to be similar. Future investi-
gations will be run to closely address thermal impedance
evaluations for short times. The predefined power module
will be integrated in converter to fully validate RTD tem-
perature measurements under switching conditions. RTD
sensor results will be then compared with other TSEPs.
The experimental evaluation of good functioning of
RTD temperature sensor will be completed by electro
thermal simulation to estimate the integration impact
on the instrumented chip behavior.
Finally, implementation of temperature measurement
by RTD sensor integration in a power diode being a
first validation step, the technological process will ena-
ble integration of new sensor versions into IGBTs dies.
We will then be able to realize power modules with all
chips being instrumented, using it as an adapted tool to
validate TSEPs in operating conditions.
Acknowledgments
Authors would like to thank ANR agency (MEMPHIS ANR-
13-PRGE-0005-01 PROGELEC project) for financial support
brought for these researches. These works were also partially
supported by French network RENATECH for the realiza-
tion of instrumented chips in the Plateforme Technologique
Amont (PTA) de Grenoble. Authors are grateful to Jean-
Christophe Crebier, Raha Vafaei and Benoit Thollin for their
assistance with chip design and DeepConcept Company for
the realization of the instrumented power module.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
work is part of the health monitoring of power semiconduc-
tor modules in photovoltaic inverters (MEMPHIS) project
supported by the French National Research Agency. His
research interest includes instrumentation of power compo-
nents thanks to microelectronic processes.
Yvan Avenas (yvan.avenas@grenoble-inp.fr)
is Assistant Professor at Grenoble Institute
of Technology (France) since 2005. He
received the PhD degree from the ‘Institut
Polytechnique de Grenoble’ (INPG) in
Grenoble, France, in 2002. He carries out
his research activities in Grenoble Electrical
Engineering Lab (G2Elab) and is co-head of
the power electronics group since 2015. In the past, he spe-
cifically worked on thermal management through heat pipes
and specific fluids (dielectric, magnetic, metallic fluids) for
power electronics cooling. Now he is interested in thermal
characterization, 3D integration and aging monitoring of
power modules.
Laurent Dupont (laurent.dupont@ifsttar.fr)
received the Electrical Engineer in 2002, and
the PhD degree in electrical engineering from
the Ecole Normale Supérieure de Cachan
(ENS-Cachan), France, in 2006. After ten
years of experiences in industry, he works as
researcher scientist in the SATIE Laboratory,
French Institute of Science and Technology
for Transport, Development and Networks,
Versailles, France since 2007. His research interests are geared
towards the robustness evaluation of power semiconductor
modules. The research activities are especially focused about
parameters which allow estimations of the temperatures and the
ageing indicators of power components in functional conditions.
Mickael Petit (mickael.petit@satie.ens-
cachan.fr) is Assistant Professor at CNAM
Paris (France) since 2005. He received the
PhD degree from the ‘Institut Polytechnique
de Grenoble’ (INPG) in Grenoble, France, in
2012. He carries out his research activities in
SATIE Laboratory, at ENS-Paris-Saclay. His
research interests are geared towards the
PCB integration of power electronics. The research activites
are focused on the integration of active and passive compo-
nents and the mutualisation of materials.

Funding
This work was supported by the ANR agency (MEMPHIS
ANR-13-PRGE-0005-01 PROGELEC project) and French
network RENATECH for the realization of instrumented
chips in the Plateforme Technologique Amont (PTA) de
Grenoble.
ORCID
Ibrahima Ka   http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9952-9806
Yvan Avenas   http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6079-8582
Laurent Dupont   http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3491-4711

References
Notes on contributors
 
Ibrahima Ka (ibrahima.ka@grenoble-inp.
fr) received a double engineering degree
from Ecole Centrale Lyon, France and Ecole  
Supérieure Polytechnique, Dakar in 2014.
He then began pursuing his PhD degree at
Université Grenoble Alpes, France the same
year. His thesis focuses on online tempera-  
ture measurements of power semiconductor
devices using thermosensitive electrical parameters. His
[1] Wolfgang E. Examples for failures in power electronics
systems. Presented at ECPE Tutorial ‘Rel. Power
Electron. Syst.’; 2007; Nuremberg.
[2] Automotive Electronic Systems Reliability Standards,
Handbook for robustness validation of automotive
electrical/electronic modules. SAE International,
J1211_201211. Nov 2012.
[3] Yang S, Bryant A, Mawby P, et al. An industry-based
survey of reliability in power electronic converters.
IEEE Trans Ind Appl. 2011;47(3):1441–1451.

 [4]  Avenas Y, Dupont L, Baker N, et al. Condition
monitoring: a decade of proposed techniques. IEEE Ind
Electron Mag. 2015 Dec;9(4):22–36.
  [5] Kim MK, Yoon SW. Novel built-in sensor for in-situ
monitoring of temperature and thermal stress in power
modules. 2015 IEEE Energy Conversion Congress and
Exposition (ECCE); Montreal, QC; 2015. p. 4513–4519.
 [6]  Katsis DC, Van Wyk JD. Void-induced thermal
impedance in power semiconductor modules: some
transient temperature effects. IEEE Trans Ind Appl.
2003 Sept/Oct;39(5):1239–1246.
 [7]  Motto E-R, Donlon J-F. IGBT module with user
accessible on-chip current and temperature sensors.
27th Annual IEEE Applied Power Electronics
Conference and Exposition (APEC); Orlando, FL;
2012. p. 1–6.
 [8]  Schmidt R, Scheuermann U. Using the chip as a
temperature sensor – the influence of steep lateral
temperature gradients on the Vce(T)-measurement.
13th European Conference on Power Electronics and
Applications; Barcelona; 2009. p. 1–9.
 [9]  Avenas Y, Dupont L, Khatir Z. Temperature
measurement of power semiconductor devices by
thermo-sensitive electrical parameters – a review. IEEE
Trans Power Electron. 2012;27(6):3081–3092.
[10]  Baker N, Liserre M, Dupont L, et al. Improved
reliability of power modules: a review of online junction
temperature measurement methods. IEEE Ind Electron
Mag. 2014;8(3):17–27.
[11]  Baker N, Liserre M, Dupont L, et al. Junction
temperature measurements via thermo-sensitive
electrical parameters and their application to condition
monitoring and active thermal control of power
converters. IECON 2013 – 39th Annual Conference of
the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society; Vienna; 2013.
p. 942–948.
[12]  Perpiñà X, Serviere JF, Saiz J, et al. Temperature
measurement on series resistance and devices in power
packs based on on-state voltage drop monitoring at high
current. Microelectron Reliabil. 2006;46:1834–1839.
[13] Dupont L, Avenas Y. Preliminary evaluation of thermo-
sensitive electrical parameters based on the forward
voltage for online chip temperature measurements
of IGBT devices. IEEE Trans Ind Appl. 2015 Nov–
Dec;51(6):4688–4698.
[14] Baker N, Iannuzzo F, Munk-Nielsen S, et al. Experimental
evaluation of IGBT junction temperature measurement
via a Modified-VCE (ΔVCE_ΔVGE) method with
series resistance removal. CIPS 2016; 9th International
Conference on Integrated Power Electronics Systems;
Nuremberg, Germany; 2016. p. 1-6.
EPE JOURNAL   117
[15] Denk M, Bakran MM. Junction temperature meas­
urement during inverter operation using a TJ-IGBT-
driver. Proceedings of PCIM Europe 2015; International
Exhibition and Conference for Power Electronics,
Intelligent Motion, Renewable Energy and Energy
Management; Nuremberg, Germany; 2015. p. 1-8.
[16] Tian B, Qiao W, Wang Z, et al. Monitoring IGBT’s
health condition via junction temperature variations.
2014 IEEE Applied Power Electronics Conference and
Exposition – APEC 2014; Fort Worth, TX; 2014. p.
2550–2555.
[17] Ka I, Avenas Y, Dupont L, et al. Realization of an
instrumented chip for temperature measurements
within power modules. Symposium de Genie Electrique,
Grenoble, France; Jun 2016.
[18] Ka I, Avenas Y, Dupont L, et al. Instrumented chip
dedicated to semiconductor temperature measurements
in power electronic converters. 2016 IEEE Energy
Conversion Congress and Exposition (ECCE);
Milwaukee, WI; 2016.
[19] Thollin B, Dupont L, Khatir Z, et al. Partial thermal
impedance measurement for die interconnection
characterization by a microsecond ‘pulsed heating
curve technique’. Power Electronics and Applications
(EPE), 2013 15th European Conference on, Lille; 2013.
p. 1–10.
[20] Jordà X, Perpiñà X, Vellvehi M, et al. Low-cost and
versatile thermal test chip for power assemblies
assessment and thermometric calibration purposes.
Appl Therm Eng, Elsevier. 2011;31(10):1664–1672.
[21] Thollin B, Crebier JC, Avenas Y, et al. Development
and electrical characterization of a vertical electrical
and thermal test chip (VTTC). IEEE Energy
Conversion Congress and Exposition; Phoenix, AZ;
2011. p. 60–67.
[22] Giancoli DC. Physics: principles with applications. 5th
ed. Upper Saddle River (NJ): Prentice Hall; 1998.
[23] De Vries JWC. Temperature and thickness dependence
of the resistivity of thin polycrystalline aluminium,
cobalt, nickel, palladium, silver and gold films. Thin
Solid Films;1988 Déc;167(1-2):25–32.
[24] Blackburn DL, Oettinger FF. Transient thermal
response measurements of power transistors. In
IEEE Trans Ind Electron Control Instrum;1975
May;IECI-22(2):134–141.
[25] Celnikier Y, Dupont L, Hervé E, et al. Optimization
of wire connections design for power electronics.
Microelectron Reliab. 2011 Sep;51(9-11):1892–1897.
[26] Sofia JW. Fundamentals of thermal resistance
measurement; 1995. Available from: http://www.
analysistech.com/PDF_Files/fundamen.pdf