ESSAY SEMINAR

REPORT

ON

COMPOSITE FLOUR

BY

AKINSANMI GRACE AYOMIPOSI

MATRIC NUMBER: 170105018

PROGRAMME: FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

AN ESSAY SEMINAR REPORT SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF

AGRICULTURE, FOOD SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY PROGRAMME,
OLUSEGUN AGAGU UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
(OAUSTECH), OKITIPUPA, IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
(B.TECH) DEGREE IN MICROBIOLOGY.

APRIL, 2023.
 DECLARATION

I, AKINSANMI GRACE AYOMIPOSI hereby declare that this review work was written

by me and it is the record of knowledge gained in textbooks and journals. All sources of

information are clearly acknowledged by means of references.

AKINSANMI GRACE AYOMIPOSI -------------------------

--

Signature/
Date

ii
 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that this seminar report was written by AKINSANMI GRACE

AYOMIPOSI with matriculation number 170105018, and submitted to the Department of

Agricultural Sciences, School of Science, Olusegun Agagu University of Science and Technology,

Okitipupa having met the standard as required by the institution and approved as to contents and

styled by;

DR. O.O. AWOLU _____________________

Supervisor Signature/ Date

DR. C.O. OGIDI ________________________

Seminar coordinator Signature/ Date

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.

Praises go to the almighty God the most merciful and the most beneficent for making this seminar

a successful one.

I also give thanks to my loving and caring parent Mr and Mrs AKINSANMI for their inexhaustible

efforts financially, morally and their consistent prayer toward my success in life.

Appreciation also goes to my very hardworking supervisor Dr. O.O. AWOLU for her guidance

during the course of this seminar. I pray that God bless you and your family.

Though as I cannot mention all, but I believe that the Almighty God knows more than I do. I regard

all my friends and I pray that the most high continue to help you in all you do.

iv
 TABLE OF CONTENT

Title Page

TITLE PAGE i

DECLARATION ii

CERTIFICATION iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv

TABLE OF CONTENT v

LIST OF FIGURE vii

LIST OF TABLES viii

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Composite Flour 1

CHAPTER TWO
2.0 Literature Review Composite Flour 3
2.1 Type of Composite Flour 7
2.2 Necessity of Composite Flour 11
2.3 Role of Composite Flours in the Food Industry 15
2.4 Nutritional composition of various composite flours 17
CHAPTER THREE

3.0 Functional Properties and Importance of Composite Flours 19

3.1 Water absorption capacity (WAC) 20

3.2 Oil absorption capacity (OAC) 21

3.3 Particle size distribution 22

3.4 Least gelation concentration 23

3.5 Foaming capacity 23

3.5 Emulsion capacity 24

3.7 Bulk density 25

3.8 Health benefits of various composite flours 27

v
CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 Conclusion 29

4.1 References 30

vi
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Title Page

1: Wheat grain 5

vii
 LIST OF TABLES

Table Title Page

1: Type of Composite Flour 9

3: Bulk density of different source of flour 25

4: Health benefits of various composite flours 27

viii
 ABSTRACT

Composite flour is a combination of only either various grains or both various grains and

vegetables it is a storehouse of various nutrients like vitamins, minerals, antioxidants, and dietary

fiber. “Composite flours are a mixture of flours from tubers rich in starch (e.g. cassava, yam, sweet

potato) and/or protein-rich flours (e.g. soy, peanut) and /or cereals (e.g. maize, rice, millet,

buckwheat), with or without wheat flour.” In another word, “A flour made by blending or mixing

varying proportions of more than one non-wheat flour with or without wheat flour and used for

the production of leavened or unleavened baked or snack products that are traditionally made from

wheat flour and increase the essential nutrients in the human diet is called composite flour.” In the

present day, there has been an increased demand for nutritional and health-based variants of food

due to changes in lifestyle and socio-economic status. Composite flour is used to produce food

products, namely bread, biscuits, and pasta, with looks at its impact, following some

improvements made, on the sensory quality, rheology characteristics, and nutritional values as

well as its overall acceptance. The blending of wheat flour with various sources of tubers, legumes,

cereals, and fruit flour in different percentages produces a variety of food products.

The function of composite flour was found to be beneficial to enhance the varieties of food

products with acceptance, appearance, organoleptic, nutrition and low cost to fulfill consumers’

demands. Moreover, composite flour probably acts as a product that gives the potential source of

local agricultural products to be useful in the future.

ix
 CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Composite flour

Eating healthy for sustaining a healthy life is the wish of every human being but with the changing

lifestyle & stress from the daily schedule of life, this dream of healthy living going too far. The

utilization of composite flour in daily diets has some health effects on our lifestyle. Composite

flours are known as mixed flours as they include starches & other ingredients that replace wheat

partially & totally and are used for the production of bakery and pastry products. They are either

binary or a ternary mixture of flours from crops like soybean, gram, cassava, mung bean, etc. with

or without wheat flour (Dendy, 1992).

Composite flours are under the spotlight today for being well known to bring down various

lifestyle disorders when consumed frequently in a long run and hence are capturing a major part

of the commercial food and nutritional industry today due to people becoming more aware and

concerned towards their health as they kept running out of time due to their busy lifestyle and

schedule.

The increasing demand for healthy food and the growing market for confectionaries pave the way

towards substituting wheat flour for producing products. Nowadays, several companies come at

the market level to evaluate the viability of alternative flours available to combat wheat flour for

nutritional aspects (Chandra et al., 2015). The FAO stated that the use of composite flour for the

fabrication of various food products would be efficiently advantageous if the significance of wheat

flour could be decreased or even removed and demand for the production of bread & pastry

products could be met by the routine of domestically grown products as a replacement of wheat.

The manufacture of bakery products using composite flour was of virtuous features with some
features similar to wheat flour bread, however, the texture & some properties of composite flour

are different with enhanced nutritional and appearance value (Chandra et al., 2015; Abdelghafor

et al., 2011). No doubt, wheat is a good source of calories but it is considered poor cereal as its

deficient in essential amino acids namely lysine and threonine. Thus, the addition of wheat flour

with other inexpensive staples like cereals & pulses benefits the nutritional status of wheat

products. New composite flour mixes are being introduced by emerging food industries and also

by health professionals and nutritionists to combat deep-rooted food insecurity, malnutrition, and

certain diseases in children and adults. These composite flour mixes prepared by combining

cereals and legumes are economical and contain locally available ingredients to improve the

overall food and nutritional quality (Fenn et al., 2010).

The composite flour mix was developed using sorghum flour, whole wheat flour, khesari dal flour,

sweet potato flour, and flaxseed flour at a different level of incorporation. Hence the present study

was undertaken in an attempt to develop a composite flour mix from functional ingredients. In the

21st century, the new lifestyle adopted by people has changed their basic food leading to the

consumption of more processed foods which leads to several lifestyle disorders and the onset of

metabolic diseases due to improper nutrition (Noor Aziah et al., 2009).

2
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 Literature Review Composite Flour

Composite flours may be considered firstly as blends of wheat and other flours for the production

of:

 leavened bread,

 unleavened baked products,

 pasta,

 porridges, and

 Snack foods; or, secondly, wholly non-wheat blends of flours or meals, for the same

purpose.

Sometimes, only flour is used as a replacement-for example, tortillas and wheat-less bread from

sorghum, pasta from sorghum, or maize. The composite flour for staple foods such as baking

items, it should be noted that there are two reasons for mixing the wheat with other flours i.e.

economic and nutritional. For that soy flour to increase the protein content of the baked products,

or add vitamins, is of marginal economic relevance and of debatable use in the health context.

Using blends, now called composite flours (CF), of wheat and other flours for biscuit making has

always occurred in times of scarcity of wheat, from whatever cause, climatic or economic. As

ingredients being blended in composite flour may be cassava, maize, rice, sorghum, millet, potato,

barley, sweet potato, and yam. In selecting raw materials for use as alternatives one must consider

such as

(a) Compatibility - that is to say, suitability for end use and

(b) Availability and cost at the point of use (Dendy 1993).

3
Composite flours are quite different from the ready-mixed flours familiar to millers and bakers.

Whereas ready-mixed flours contain all the non-perishable constituents of the recipe for certain

baked products. Composite flours are only a mixture of different vegetable flours rich in starch or

protein, with or without wheat flour, for certain groups of bakery products.

Composite flours are quite different from the ready-mixed flours familiar to millers and bakers.

Whereas ready-mixed flours contain all the non-perishable constituents of the recipe for certain

baked products. Composite flours are only a mixture of different vegetable flours rich in starch or

protein, with or without wheat flour, for certain groups of bakery products. This gives rise to the

following definition: “Composite flours are a mixture of flours from tubers rich in starch (e.g.

cassava, yam, sweet potato) and/or protein-rich flours (e.g. soy, peanut) and /or cereals (e.g. maize,

rice, millet, buckwheat), with or without wheat flour.” In another word, “A flour made by blending

or mixing varying proportions of more than one non-wheat flour with or without wheat flour and

used for the production of leavened or unleavened baked or snack products that are traditionally

made from wheat flour and increase the essential nutrients in the human diet is called composite

flour.” Functional properties are the fundamental physicochemical properties that reflect the

complex interaction between the composition, structure, molecular conformation, and physic-

chemical properties of food components together with the nature of the environment in which

these are associated and measured (Kinsella 1976).

Functional characteristics are required to evaluate and possibly help to predict how new proteins,

fat, fiber and carbohydrates may behave in specific systems as well as demonstrate whether or not

such protein can be used to stimulate or replace conventional protein (Mattil 1971).

4
Figure 1: Wheat grain

(Source: Menon, 2015)

5
Composite flour is a combination of only either various grains or both various grains and

vegetables it is a storehouse of various nutrients like vitamins, minerals, antioxidants, and dietary

fiber. In the present day, there has been an increased demand for nutritional and health-based

variants of food due to changes in lifestyle and socio-economic status.

There is no surprise in saying that people are seeing the food being consumed on a day-to-day

basis as a status symbol and are striving to get better quality of health through the food they

consume and are ready to spend huge amounts of money on the products which are so-called

healthy and are being commercially marketed in a smart manner capturing both peoples mind and

attention knowing to bring down various lifestyle disorders like Diabetes, Cardiovascular diseases,

Hypertension, Cancer, Atherosclerosis, Ischemic stroke, Obesity, Coeliac disease, Alzheimer’s

and many other diseases and disorders when consumed frequently in long run ((Chandra et al.,

2015).

The foods which fall under such category especially are composite flours and ready-to-cook mixes

occupying more than 70% of both the food and health industry today and being recommended by

most nutritional experts. This paper is a review-based article collected from various papers

focusing on the role of the consumption of composite flours in the management of lifestyle

disorders such as diabetes, hypertension, cancer etc.

6
2.1 Type of Composite Flour

There are numerous formulations of composite flours available commercially today due to the

increased demand for more fiber content in the food being consumed on which the various research

works have been carried out and several articles have been published in different journals. Listed

below are some formulations collected from different reviews and research-based articles. A study

was undertaken to evaluate the functional and sensorial attributes of biscuits made out of

composite flours (Chandra et al., 2015) by blending different ingredients like wheat flour with rice

flour and green gram flour along with potato flour and curry leaves powder in different ratios and

was baked using the conventional method at 180 degrees Celsius for around 10-15 minutes and

various functional properties of them was tested by using different methods and materials.

Another undertaken by a team of Agrahar Murugkar et al. (2014) to evaluate the various attributes

like textural, nutrient quality, of biscuits developed using composite flour made by blending both

sprouted and malted ingredients which comprised using flours obtained from corn, whole wheat,

sorghum, finger millet (whole), both green gram dal whole and split, peanuts (unsalted), papaya,

dairy whitener and isolate of soy protein all the ingredients were taken in different quantities and

powdered using various methods the flours were sieved through the mesh of 300 microns and

combined it was found that biscuits made out of multi-nutrient composite flour were superior in

all the physical and functional aspects and were found to be healthy.

A study was reported by Noorafarahzilah et al. (2014) to see the applications of composite flour

in the development of various food products like bread, pasta, biscuits, etc. The development of

food products using composite flour has increased and is attracting much attention from

researchers, especially in the production of bakery products and pastries.

7
This report focuses on the use of composite flour to produce food products, namely bread, biscuits,

and pasta, with looks at on its impact, following some improvements made, on the sensory quality,

rheology characteristics, and nutritional values as well as its overall acceptance. The blending of

wheat flour with various sources of tubers, legumes, cereals, and fruit flour in different percentages

to produce a variety of food products is also reported in this review. It was found that composite

flour used to produce food products is still able to maintain similar characteristics to products

made from full-wheat flour. The positive effects of the use of composite flour can be seen in the

final product related to the functional and physicochemical properties and health benefits of raw

blended flour along with percentage blending.

Overall, composite flour is a good new approach to utilizing uncommon food products as the

application of composite flour produced products with different characteristics and quality,

depending on the types and percentage of wheat flour used in the formulation. The various types

of flours for product development are discussed in Table 1.

8
Table 1: Type of Composite Flour
Types of Flour
Wheat flour (100:0:0:0)+ rice
flour(85:5:5:5) + green gram
flour(70:10:10:10) + potato
flour (55:15:15:15)
Wheat flour (85:70:60) + Soy
flour (5:10:14) +
sprouted mung bean flour
(5:10:13)+ mango
kernel flour (5:10:13)
Chickpea (10:5) + sorghum
(10:5) + buckwheat
(10:5)+ Sprouted wheat
(10:5) + sprouted barley
(10:5) + corn flour (10:5) +
Defatted soy (10:5)
Finger millet (10:20) +
Wheat flour (10:20)
Whole wheat flour (90:80:70)
+ finger millet flour (--
:10:20) + defatted soy flour
(10:10:10)
Rice flour (10:20:30:40) +
wheat flour
(10:20:30:40)
Acha flour
(100:90:80:70:60:50) +
Malted soybean flour
(0:10:20:30:40:50)
Oat: Sorghum flour:
amaranth (Mix flour) (0:5:
Product Reported Significant Findings
Biscuits • Good swelling capacity
• Water absorption capacity
• Oil absorption capacity
• Emulsion stability
• Foam stability
• Effective for malnutrition
children’s
Bread • Significant functional
• Physico-chemical
• Organoleptic attributes
Bread • Good water holding
capacity
• Oil holding capacity
• Water absorption capacity
• Increases nutritive value
Biscuits • Good water absorption &
solubility index
• Increases nutritional aspects
of product
Noodles • Healthy & nutritious
product
Sponge cakes • Increases functional &
nutritious aspects • Enhance
overall acceptability of
product
Biscuits + Bread • Good sensory properties •
Improved nutritional value
Cookies • Low cost product with
desired textural properties
9
 10:15: 20:25) + wheat flour
(100:95:90:85:80:75)
Pigeon pea flour Biscuits • Healthy product with high
(0:25:50:75:100) + wheat nutritional values
flour (100:75:50:25:0)

(Source: Ayo et al., 2014)

10
2.2 Necessity of Composite Flour

The development of food products using composite flour has increased and is attracting much

attention from researchers, especially in the production of bakery products and pastries.

Composite flour is used to produce food products, namely bread, biscuits, and pasta, with looks at

its impact, following some improvements made, on the sensory quality, rheology characteristics,

and nutritional values as well as its overall acceptance. The blending of wheat flour with various

sources of tubers, legumes, cereals, and fruit flour in different percentages produces a variety of

food products.

It was found that composite flour used to produce food products is still able to maintain similar

characteristics to products made from full-wheat flour. The positive effects of the use of composite

flour can be seen in the final product related to the functional and physicochemical properties and

health benefits of raw blended flour along with percentage blending. Overall, composite flour is a

good new approach to utilizing uncommon food products as the application of composite flour

produced products with different characteristics and quality, depending on the types and

percentage of wheat flour used in the formulation. In this review paper, the application of

composite flour its impact, following some improvements made, on the sensory qualities, rheology

characteristics, and nutritional values of different types of food products are reported. The review

starts with bread, followed by biscuits, and pasta.

11
  Bread

Bread consumption has increased continuously in many developing countries due to changing

eating habits, a steadily growing population and because a large proportion of the overall increased

incomes can now be spent on foods (Seibel, 2011). However, the wheat flour needed for making

bread had to be imported, since the climatic conditions and soil did not permit wheat to be grown

locally (Seibel, 2011).

Thus, research interest in composite flours has been on the rise in the recent past, driven by the

desire to find non-wheat bread-making alternatives in order to reduce non-wheat-producing

countries’ dependence on imported wheat (Mepba et al., 2007). Much effort has been made to

promote the use of composite flours, in which a portion of wheat flour is replaced by locally grown

crops, in bread, thereby decreasing the cost associated with imported wheat (Olaoye et al., 2006),

which in turn decreases the demand for imported wheat while producing protein-enriched bread

(Giami et al., 2004). Flours from corn, barley, cassava, and chickpea are among the most

predominant studies for the production of composite flour bread (Ali et al., 2000).

Legume proteins can be successfully used in baked products to obtain a protein-enriched product

with improved amino acid balance (Bojňanská et al., 2012). The potential use of legumes as

protein-enriching agents of baked products, mainly in the form of protein flours, has been reported

by several authors. Among the legume protein products tested are various soybean protein

preparations, chickpea flour, germinated chickpea flour, germinated pea flour (Sadowska et al.,

2003) and lupin flour (Doxastakis et al., 2002).

12
  Biscuits/Cookies

Among ready-to-eat snacks, biscuits/cookies possess several attractive features, including a wider

consumer base, relatively long shelf life, greater convenience, and good eating quality (Hooda and

Jood, 2005). The growing interest in these types of bakery products is due to their better nutritional

properties and the possibility of their use in feeding programs and catastrophic situations such as

starvation or earthquakes (Pratima and Yadava, 2000). In many countries, cookies are prepared

with fortified or composite flour to increase their nutritive value (Gonzalez-Galan et al., 1991) –

for example, high-protein cookies made using composite flours that include blends of soybean

(Shrestha and Noomhorm, 2002) with field pea and defatted peanut replacing the wheat flour by

up to 30 g/100 g (McWatters, 1978) and with chickpea and lupin by up to 20 g/100 g (Faheid and

Hegazi, 1991). Legumes are higher in nutrients, especially in protein (18–24%), than cereal grains

(Noor Aziah et al., 2012). Cowpea and peanut flour have been reported to successfully replace up

to 20% wheat flour in cookies (McWatters, 1978). There are also reports of cookies with up to 30

g/100 g of navy bean and sesame seed flour pigeon pea flour (Eneche, 1999), as well as pulse

flours and fibers (Piteira et al., 2006).

The incorporation of chickpea flour and mung bean flour into wheat flour does not change the

functional properties but increases the protein, resistant starch content and acceptability of

cookies. However, the aftertaste was found to be pronounced in the mung bean and chickpea

cookies (Noor Aziah et al., 2012). The beany flavor in legume flour could be reduced by exposing

the material to moist heat. In addition, more strength was needed to break cookies incorporated

with legume flour (Noor Aziah et al., 2012) which might have resulted from the incorporation of

protein-rich flour which needs more water to obtain good cookie dough, and the cookies prepared

from high-absorption dough tend to be extremely hard (Hoojjat and Zabik, 1984).

13
  Pasta

Pasta is a staple food product that is produced mainly by mixing durum wheat semolina and water

(Sozer, 2009). In recent years, pasta has become recognized as healthy food, with a low-fat content,

no cholesterol and a low glycaemic index (Cleary and Brennan, 2006). In pasta processing, gluten

is considered to be the most significant factor related to pasta cooking quality (Dexter and Matsuo,

1978). Gluten consists of gliadin and glutenin and is responsible for the elasticity and al dente

chew ability of pasta, which is highly appreciated by consumers (Sozer, 2009).

Since rice protein lacks the functionality of wheat gluten in making a cohesive dough structure,

some starch gelatinization is required to act as a binder when rice is the only material used in pasta

production (Sozer, 2009). Due to the absence of a binding agent in rice, the water absorption rate

is very low. Thus, a system with a definable structure cannot be formed and there are also repulsive

forces acting between the starch granules due to the absence of a binding agent (Sivaramakrishnan

et al., 2004). Therefore, Wood (2009) reported on the understanding of the underlying mechanisms

of pasta quality: i) gluten content/ composition appears to be more important than protein content

for pasta firmness; ii) the protein–polysaccharide matrix appears to be more important than the

starch composition for cooking loss; iii) supportive of previous findings, increased protein and

amylose contents are associated with decreased pasta stickiness; iv) cooking loss and stickiness

are not necessarily as strongly related as commonly believed.

14
2.3 Role of Composite Flours in the Food Industry

Composite flour is a combination of different protein-enriched foods and starches. The most used

starches and proteins to prepare the composite flour are jam, sweet potatoes as well as also peanut,

and soy, respectively. Different cereals and pulses are used to make composite flour including

rice, millet, barley, maize, wheat, chickpea, and corn. In recent years, consumers have diverted

their attention toward ready-to-eat snacks due to a lack of time and changes in lifestyle and eating

habits (Ju et al., 2006). The production of composite flours gives a chance to the producers to

attain and support their crops. Changes in the pattern of lifestyles and the shifting of a large

population to urban areas lead to enhance consumption of flour to prepare bread and other bakery

commodities. In developing economies, blended flours are good in nutrition and make them more

economic due to the presence of cheap ingredients (Ayo et al., 2014). This phenomenon caused a

reduction in prices and is readily available. Composite flours play a significant role by replacing

wheat flour and are more economical by decreasing wheat imports. This flour has a role in

confectionery products whereas deficient in essential amino acids in wheat and enrichment of

threonine and lysine in pulse flours.

Mixing of these flours makes flour more nutritionally and economically (Chandra et al., 2015).

The composite food's functional characteristics are markedly enhanced with the increment of

flours through the addition of emulsion stability, swelling capacity, and bulk density, accordingly.

Composite flour is mainly used to enhance the nutritional values, and quality of the product in

bakery products, besides, it also prevents the suffering from degenerative diseases associated with

the modern lifestyle (Mughal et al., 2019). The main aspect of the utilization of composite flour

is for the production of bakery and pastry flours to fulfill the nutritional demand of humans, to

better supply of protein, to reduced costs in developing countries by stopping the importation of

15
wheat flour and selecting alternatives for wheat flour. As wheat is deficient in essential amino

acids and considered nutritionally poor, therefore utilization of composite flours for the fabrication

of bakery & pastry products is a blessing for food industries and humans as they improve the

nutritional value & protein content of products. By taking into account examples; soybean,

cassava, and sorghum flours are highly rich in protein content as compared to common wheat flour

(Iwe et al., 2016; Abioye et al., 2011). The bakery goods differed in nutritional composition by

incorporating different value-added ingredients. The growth of composite flours in bakery and

pastry goods enhances a growing number of studies on the different materials used for the

manufacture of flours and their effect on the physio-chemical & functional aspects of food

products. Composite flour products are a course with a bundle of nutritional importance (Sawant

et al., 2012). The multigrain is used mostly in bakery and breakfast cereals production and they

provide a positive effect on the taste & texture of the product and enhance the acceptability and

health benefits of products. They also have a role to reduce diabetes, and cardiac attacks, helping

to control weight, improving the digestive system, etc. There was a need to enumerate the various

grains for the production of baked goods (Ho and Aziah, 2013).

16
2.4 Nutritional composition of various composite flours

The composite flours are prepared by the addition of different ingredients like soy flour, chickpea

flour, soybean flour, and addition of other substitutes available regarding wheat. The composite

flour has high protein, ash, amino acids, and compounds such as Zn, Cu, K, Mg, and Ca. Wheat is

the main and very widely used flour for the manufacture of bakery products as it has the congenital

property to form dough & retain gases (Krishnan et al., 2011). Wheat has protein content as low

as 8 to 15 %. Wheat flour is used for the production of bakery products including cookies, noodles,

bread, cake, and pastries. The incorporation of different flours with wheat for the production of

composite flour for bakery goods production is probable to create an effect in the functional

properties of the combined samples (Bhatt and Gupta, 2015). Legumes like soybean, chickpea,

and lentil are good sources of proteins, vitamins, carbohydrates & minerals and are utilized for

traditional diet consumption. Soybean legume is an excellent healthy bean as it contains a high

amount of protein and its oilseeds have oil 18 %. Soy protein is good in lowering cholesterol levels

and has excellent properties and its amino acid profile is good among other plant proteins (Islam

et al., 2012). It is also rich in soluble fibers, calcium, phosphorous, and vitamins. Oats flour is

mostly used for the manufacture of bread, muffins, cookies, rusk, pastry, biscuits, etc. Oats are

rich in dietary fibers and soluble dietary fibers ß-glucans. They are excellent in lowering the blood

glucose and cholesterol level of the body.

Oats are a good substitute for diabetic patients. Millets used for the production of flour are rich in

vitamin B, minerals including iron, calcium, phosphorous, dietary fibers, polyphenols, and lipids.

Millets do not possess gluten so they could be supplied to those with celiac disease (Krishnan et

al., 2011). Millets also have good nutritional and sensory properties and their hypoglycemic

properties are underlying so, they can be explored better for future product production. Rice flour

17
is also utilized for the production of bakery products but due to the presence of prolamins (2.5-3.5

%) in rice its viscoelastic feature doesn’t advance in the production of flour when kneaded with

water (Chandra et al., 2015). The literature has reported that the addition of 4% hydroxypropyl

methylcellulose (HPMC) in rice flour made it real to explore bread from rice flour. Maize flour

also supplied a high level of vitamins and minerals including zinc, phosphorus, iron, calcium,

potassium, niacin, thiamine, folate, vitamin B6, etc.

The fortification of maize flour at up to 40 % & defatted maize germ flour at 15 % produces bread

with good nutritious and quality attributes (Agrahar-Murugkar et al., 2015; Emmanuel et al.,

2010). The composite blend of rice + corn + cassava flour obtains gluten-free bread with satisfying

flavor, appearance, and well-structured crumb. Gluten-free products are highly demanded from

the market point of view and also demand of busy lifestyle of humans. Different hydrocolloids

and gums are available at the market level for the fabrication of gluten-free bread and are also used

for generating the same polymer network addressed by wheat gluten proteins. Mainly gluten-free

bread is created by using several combinations of cellulose derivatives (Abdelghafor et al., 2011).

The buckwheat flour used in composite flour for product manufacturing is superior one compared

to wheat flour, as it reported with higher lysine, iron, magnesium, calcium, and copper

constituents.

18
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 Functional Properties and Importance of Composite Flours

The functional properties of composite flours play an essential role in the manufacturing of food

products. The functional properties determine whether the blends would be useful in bakery

products where hydration to improve handling is desired and in ground meat, doughnuts, and

pancakes where oil absorption property is of prime importance (Mepba et al., 2007). According

to Kinsella (1976), functional properties are the significant physicochemical properties that are

determining the complex interaction between the composition, structure, and molecular

conformation. In this review paper, the functional properties of composite flour such as water

absorption capacity, oil absorption capacity, particle size distribution, least gelling concentration,

foaming capacity, emulsion capacity, and bulk density are reported.

3.1 Water absorption capacity (WAC)

Water absorption capacity (WAC) consists of adding water or an aqueous solution to material,

followed by centrifugation and quantification of the water retained by the pelleted material in the

centrifuge tube (Köhn et al., 2015). Water absorption capacity is referring to the ability of the flour

or starch to hold water against gravity that can comprise bound water, hydrodynamic water,

capillary water, and physically entrapped water (Moure et al., 2006). The farinographic studies

showed that the blending of wheat flour with cowpea flour, germinated cowpea flour, and

fermented cowpea flour increased the water absorption capacity significantly (Masood et al.,

2011). This is due to the increment in protein and fiber content supplemented from wheat flour.

The water absorption capacity of raw cowpea flour (2.6 g/g flour) is similar to that of raw winged

bean flour (2.1 g/g flour). Water absorption characteristics represent the ability of a product to

associate with water under conditions where water is limiting, such as dough and pastes (Giambi

19
and Bekebain, 1992). The results obtained suggest that raw and heat-treated cowpea flour would

be useful in food systems such as bakery products.

The high WAC of composite flours suggests that the flours are used in the formulation of some

foods such as bakery products, meat products, and dairy products. The increment in the WAC

correlated with an increase in the amylose leaching and solubility and loss of crystalline starch

structure. The flour with high water absorption may have more hydrophilic constituents such as

polysaccharides. Protein has both hydrophilic and hydrophobic nature, and therefore they can

interact with water in foods (Suresh et al., 2015).

3.2 Oil absorption capacity (OAC)

Oil absorption capacity has been attributed to the physical entrapment of oil. This is important

since fat acts as a flavor retainer and increases the mouth feel of food. It is an indication of the rate

at which the protein binds to fat in food formulations. Oil absorption capability is required in most

food applications, such as in bakery products, wherein required in flavor retention and

improvement of palatability (Abu et al., 2005).

Soybean flour has the lowest oil absorption capacity (29.59%) compare to lara flour and Barinas

flour has a higher oil absorption capacity, 35.08 and 35.70%, respectively (Padilla et al., 1995).

The non-germinated yellow tiger nut flour had the highest oil absorption capacity (5.00%). Shih

and Daigle (1999) compared to the rice flour and wheat flour containing batters and found that

rice flour resisted oil absorption better but was less effective as a thickening agent than wheat

flour. The addition of pregelatinized rice flour resulted in increased oil absorption because of the

porous nature of the fried product (Mohamed et al., 1998).

Another study shows that the oil absorption capacity of the defatted flours from the macadamia

cultivar was more significant than those of the partially defatted flour. It has been reported by

20
Nakai (1983) that the higher the amount of heat treatment given to a protein, the more hydrophobic

the protein becomes, as a result of a higher number of hydrophobic groups exposed through the

unfolding of the protein molecules. Similar observations were reported for autoclaved and oven-

dried cowpea flour (Giami, 1993), micronized cowpea flour (Mwangwela et al., 2007), roasted

peanut flour (Yu et al., 2007) and low-fat soy flour (Heywood et al., 2002).

Hutton and Campbell (1981), on the contrary, showed that the oil absorption capacity of soya

protein decreased with increased heat. In the investigation by Maruatona et al. (2010), the higher

oil absorption capacity of defatted flour from unheated marama beans was reported. It is related

to the fact that defatted flour from unheated marama beans contained more amino acids with

nonpolar side chains than did the other flours, thereby contributing to increased oil absorption.

Otherwise, it is also due to increased lipid-lipid interactions.

3.3 Particle size distribution

An essential point for the formulation of different kinds of products for different functionalities is

the size of the particles (Abu et al., 2005). It is reported that a higher amount of smaller flour

particles leads to a less extensible and less fluid able dough, due to high water uptake. Generally,

the hard-milling wheat, as predicted, gives flours with excellent flowing properties, and soft-

milling wheat produce flours with poor flowing properties, which may tend to flake on the smooth

reduction rolls during the milling of wheat (Yasui et al., 1999). Anmol (a wheat variety available

in Pakistan) produced fine powdery flour, which adhered to a sieve during sifting and resulted in

a low yield of the under-sieve fractions (<110 um) (Rehman et al., 2007). This behavior is

explained by the typical inferior quality of soft flour (Posner and Hibbs, 1997).

21
3.4 Least gelation concentration

The least gelation concentration (LGC), which is defined as the lowest protein concentration at

which gel remained in the inverted tube, was used as an index of gelation capacity. Least gelation

concentration is used to measure the ability of the protein to form a gel, whereby a lower least

gelation concentration suggests a better gelling capacity (Abu et al., 2005). The presence of

carbohydrates such as lactose, maltose, and sucrose is reported to decrease the thermodynamic

affinity of the protein for an aqueous solution and magnify the magnitude of the interaction

between protein molecules, thus improving the gelling capacity (Adebowale and Adebowale,

2008).

LGC for various legume flours ranged from 12% to 14% (Maninder et al., 2007) pigeon pea flour

(10%) (Onimawo and Asugo, 2004), lupin seed flour (14%) (Sathe et al., 1982), and high northern

bean flour (10%) (Sathe and Salunkhe, 1981). Oshodi and Ekperigin (1989) reported the least

gelation concentration of 12% in pigeon pea flour. The lower the least gelation concentration, the

better the gelating ability of the protein ingredient (Akintayo et al., 1999).

3.5 Foaming capacity

The foaming capacity measures the amount of interfacial area created by protein during foaming

(Zhu et al., 2017). The foaming properties of oilseed proteins are important for the domestic

market to be used in the preparation of various food products. Flours can produce foams due to

surface-active proteins (Adebowale and Lawal, 2003). The foams produced by legume flours were

relatively thick with low foam volume but high foam solubility. Wani et al. (2013) reported the

foaming capacity of kidney bean flours at different pH (2, 4, 6, 8, and 10) varied from 82.1 to

132.0%. Change in pH significantly (p ≤ 0.05) influenced the foaming capacities of flours. Suresh

and Samsher (2013) observed the foaming capacity of different flours, that is, wheat flour, rice

22
flour, green gram flour, and potato flour. The highest foam capacity was observed for green gram

flour (24.23%) followed by wheat flour (12.92%), potato flour (6.84%), and lowest for rice flour

(3.52%). Green gram flour elucidated the highest foam capacity that is due to high protein content

that may cause a lowering of the surface tension at the water-air interface, thus always been due

to protein, which forms a continuous, cohesive film around the air bubbles in the foam (Kaushal

et al., 2012).

3.6 Emulsion capacity

Fat emulsion capacity is the extent to which the dietary protein will would dietary oil into fine

particles. It directly measures the extent to which the dietary protein will mix oil (Abulude et al.,

2013). The emulsion is a two-phase system, whereby protein surface activity significantly

influenced its formation (Moure et al., 2006). Food emulsions are thermodynamically unstable

mixtures of immiscible liquids between water and oil. Ahn et al. (2005) reported that the addition

of 20% soy flour to the wheat produced a significant positive effect on the emulsifying activity of

the samples. However, the addition of 5% of pea or soybean protein isolates to rice flour hardly

modified the emulsifying activity of rice flour dough (Marco and Rosell, 2008). Based on the

report by Rosell and Marco (2008), these differences may be attributed to the different hydration

of the composite blends, since water acts as a plasticizer defining the functional properties of the

dough. Singh and Singh (1991) reported that the emulsion capacity of peanut flour was reduced

by 26.5% as a result of boiling. An emulsion prepared from raw wild mango seed flour was more

stable than that prepared from heat-treated flour, whereas heat treatment reduced the emulsion

capacity of the flour by 16.7% (Giami et al., 1994).

23
3.7 Bulk density

Bulk density is a measure of the heaviness of a flour sample (Oladele and Aina, 2007). The bulk

density of flour is used to determine its packaging requirements. It is depending on the particle

size and moisture content of the flour. The bulk density of composite flour increased with an

increase in the incorporation of different flours with wheat flour. The high bulk density of flour

suggests its suitability for use in food preparations (liquids, semisolids or solids). In contrast, low

bulk density would be an advantage in the formulation of weaning foods (Akapata and Akubor,

1999). Du et al. (2014) investigated bulk density for whole flours from the pinto bean, lima bean,

red kidney bean, black bean, navy bean, small red bean, black eye bean, mung bean, lentil, and

chickpea. They reported that the bulk density for legume flours varied from 0.543 g/mL to

0.816g/mL, where the highest and the lowest values were obtained from lentil flour and black bean

flour, respectively. The results obtained are in agreement with the results reported by Kaur and

Singh (2005), who reported the bulk densities of different chickpea cultivars to range from 0.536

g/mL to 0.571 g/mL.

24
Table 2: Bulk density of different source of flour

(Source: Suresh et al. 2015)

25
3.8 Health benefits of various composite flours

Composite flour has a considerable amount of phenolic acid (ferulic acid, benzoic acid, sinapic

acid, diferulic acid, p-coumaric acid) and it also plays an important role to prevent cancer, diabetes,

and cardiovascular disease. Moreover, composite flour significantly reduces the serum

glycosylated protein level, lipoprotein cholesterol, glycosylated albumin level, and serum lipid

level (Mughal, 2019). Waleed et al., 2017 and Noorfarahzilah et al., 2014 studied that production

and consumption of functional composite flour enhance the dietary quality and nutritional aspects

of flour. However, it also helps people suffering from degenerative diseases related to

contemporary lifestyles and surroundings. Bhatt and Gupta, (2015) investigated phenols and

flavonoids in raw composite flour (sorghum, whole wheat flour, chickpea, sprouted wheat, and

sprouted barley) with the help of chromatography techniques (HPLC and GCMS). High-

performance liquid chromatography was used to analyze flavonoids (rutin, quercetin, epicatechin,

and chlorogenic acid) and Gas chromatography-mass spectrometers were utilized to identify

secondary metabolite, vitamin E, and hexadecanoic acid. Besides, the secondary metabolite

compound contributes high antioxidant and therapeutic prosperities in the composite extract of

flours.

26
Table 3: Health benefits of various composite flours

Composite Flour Potential health benefits

Wheat flour • Reduce the risk of heart attack • Anti-
diabetic • Lower the risk of obesity • Support
healthy digestion • Anti-oxidant
Rice flour • Anti-allergic • Improve digestive health •
Enhances liver health • Maintain bone and
skeletal health • Boost immune system •
Natural exfoliant
Soybean flour • Anti-cancer • Improves bone health • Anti-
diabetic • Boost digestive health • Enhance
metabolic activities • Enhance heart health
Cowpea flour • Control blood cholesterol • Anti-cancer •
Treat cardiovascular diseases • Anti-diabetic •
Enhance hair growth
Oat flour • Anti-diabetic • Reduces bad cholesterol
level • Anti-oxidant • Prevent constipation
and diarrhea • Suitable for celiac patients
Sorghum flour • Inhibit tumour growth • Provide strong
bones • Helps in weight control • Anti-
diabetic • Anti-oxidant • Hypocholestrolemic
effect • Staple food for celiac patients
Finger Millet flour • Treat coronary artery disorder • Prevent
celiac ailment • Helps in relieving menstrual
cramps • Control diabetes • Increase lactation
• Treat anemia • Increase bone strength
Chickpea flour • Reduce cholesterol • Anti-diabetic •
Detoxifies sulphites • Boost immunity •
Induce peaceful sleep • Good fiber source •

27
 Good for heart • Aids in weight loss • Control
blood sugar
Corn flour • Helpful during pregnancy • Energy booster •
Helps in preventing Haemorrhoids • Anti-
cancer • Anti-diabetic • Anti-oxidant • Help
in preventing anemia
Buckwheat flour • Reduce risk of gallstones • Improves
digestion • Prevents heart attack • Prevent
asthma • Manages diabetes • Low in fat

28
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 Conclusion

The function of composite flour was found to be beneficial to enhance the varieties of food

products with acceptance, appearance, organoleptic, nutrition and low cost to fulfill consumers’

demands. Moreover, composite flour probably acts as a product that gives the potential source of

local agricultural products to be useful in the future.

Composite flours have been used extensively and successfully in the production of food products.

The functional properties of composite flour are an essential parameter to producing various food

products that are good quality in terms of appearance, organoleptic, and acceptance from

consumers. The blending of wheat flour with other types of powders showed a significant effect

on the functional properties of the flour blends as well as their finished products. These

investigations inferred that composite flour showed positive and negative effects, and it is useful

for enhancing quality in the development of food production. Most of the research intensify the

desired functional properties to improve composite flour to meet higher requirements. Moreover,

composite flour probably acts as a product that gave the potential source of locally agriculture

products to be usefulness in the future.

29
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