Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 2 (2020) 100042

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Agriculture and Food Research

journal homepage: www.journals.elsevier.com/journal-of-agriculture-and-food-research/

Defatted coconut flour improved the bioactive components, dietary fibre,

antioxidant and sensory properties of nixtamalized maize flour
Jumoke Bukola Adeloye *, Halimat Osho, Lydia Olayemi Idris
Department of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Coconut residue obtained after the extraction of oil or milk is mostly used as animal feeds or discarded. However,
Bioactive components this residue is high in dietary fibre which is known to significantly promote digestion. Therefore, in order to
Defatted coconut flour explore its potentials in food formulations, flour blends were produced with nixtamalized maize and defatted
Masa
coconut flour which were analyzed for the dietary fibre, functional, pasting and antioxidant properties while the
Dietary fibre
Antioxidants
sensory acceptability of masa from the flour blends was evaluated. The outcomes revealed that protein, fat and
fibre increased while carbohydrate decreased as coconut flour inclusion increased. Bulk density decreased and
water and oil absorption capacity of the flour blends increased. The soluble and insoluble dietary fibre was
significantly increased as well as the bioactive constituents and antioxidant properties. Sensory evaluation showed
that 10% incorporation of coconut flour was comparable to the control and preferred by the consumers.
Conclusively, defatted coconut flour significantly enhanced the dietary fibre, functional and antioxidant prop-
erties of the flour blends which suggests their application in diverse food products.

1. Introduction Masa is a traditionally fermented food product derived from cereals

Coconut, Cocos nucifera, is one of the palm species with significant
economic importance and cultivated mainly for the endosperm. Virgin
coconut oil is highly demanded in the market globally and alongside
resulting in the generation of coconut residues, the by-product, that is
often discarded. There is the need for converting industrial by-products
into functional ingredients for food formulations. Coconut flour is
derived from coconut residue generated during the wet processing of
coconut for milk extraction or dry processing for oil extraction. Trinidad
et al [1] emphasized on coconut flour as a rich source of dietary fibre and
income to the industry. Coconut flour is not just abundant in dietary
fibre, but also free of trans-fatty acids and low in carbohydrates. Coconut
flour is gluten free which makes it suitable for individuals having celiac
disease.
Maize (Zea mays) is an important cereal grain cultivated worldwide
like rice, wheat, and sorghum and used as staple food in most parts of the
world. It has been utilized greatly and widely as food, feeds and for in-
dustrial purposes [2] while been subjected to various food processes such
as fermentation, germination, roasting, boiling, milling and malting [3].
Maize contains both macro and micronutrients. However, it is deficient
in lysine, and low in protein compared to legumes and some oil seeds.
such as rice, millet or maize and is popular in West African countries. It is
eaten as snacks or breakfast complements [4] and consumed by all age
group. Masa is still produced traditionally in the home by the local
women and the fermentation is spontaneous and uncontrolled. Due to the
mode of production of ‘masa’, there are variations in the taste, flavor,
sourness and the microbial load [5]. Since it has a sour taste, it is eaten
with granulated sugar or with honey [2,6]. As popular as masa is, it at-
tracts little attention [7].
Exploits of by-products and wastes generated from food is attracting
more attention in the food industry. The use of flour blends in food
product development to enhance nutritional values, promote health
status and to meet several consumer preferences is growing globally.
Flour blends are predominantly utilized to combat micro and macronu-
trient deficiency, reduce dependency on wheat flour for bakery products
and to manage chronic diseases.
The dependence on cereal as a staple food in African countries has
necessitated the need for improving the quality and acceptability of
cereal-based foods. This study tends to look into the utilization of by-
product from virgin coconut oil production that is rich in protein and
fibre. The by-products could be greatly utilized for nutritional enhance-
ment of food products by incorporation into various types of food

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: bolatujoye@futa.edu.ng (J.B. Adeloye).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafr.2020.100042
Received 24 February 2020; Received in revised form 14 April 2020; Accepted 15 April 2020
2666-1543/© 2020 Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
J.B. Adeloye et al.
Table 1
Proportions (%) of maize and defatted coconut used in flour blends.
Samples Maize flour Defatted coconut flour
MC0 100 0
MC10 90 10
MC20 80 20
MC30 70 30
MC40 60 40
MC50 50 50
formulations. The study therefore investigates the nutritional composi-
tion, antioxidant properties, bioactive constituents, total dietary fibre,
functional and pasting properties of flour blends developed from maize
and defatted coconut flour and the sensory evaluation of masa from the
flour blends of maize and defatted coconut flour.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
Dried yellow maize (Zea mays L.), coconut (Cocos nucifera) and
vegetable oil were purchased at Sabo Market, Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria.
All chemicals were of analytical grades.
2.2. Preparation of maize flour
The yellow maize was sorted to remove extraneous materials and
damaged seeds. It was then cooked in a lime alkaline solution (i.e nix-
tamalization) at a ratio of 1:2 for 45 min. The nixtamalized maize was
soaked with the water used in cooking at room temperature overnight. It
was then washed thoroughly and dried in an air oven. The dried maize
was milled using hammer mill to obtain flour, sieved and then packaged
in an airtight container.
2.3. Preparation of defatted coconut flour
Mature coconuts, freshly procured, were subjected to preprocessing
operations of deshelling, paring (removal of testa) and removal of co-
conut water (manually). The white coconut kernels were grated using
manual hand grater to obtain a thin slice of coconut which enhances
drying. The grated coconuts were oven dried at 70
C for 40 min. The
dried grated coconuts were milled using an electric blender to obtain
flour which was sieved afterwards. The coconut flour was then defatted
using solvent extraction method which comprises of the use of n-hexane
to remove the fat in soxhlet apparatus for 48 h. The defatted coconut
flour was dried at room temperature to aid the removal of the hexane and
then packaged in an airtight container for further analyses. The formu-
lation of the flour blends is presented in Table 1.
2.4. Determination of proximate composition of flour blends
The proximate composition of the flour blends was determined using
standard method as described by AOAC 2005 [8]. The carbohydrate
content was calculated by difference.
2.5. Determination of mineral composition of flour blends
The mineral composition (Na, Ca, Mg, Zn, Fe, K) of the flour blends
was determined as described by Tuncturk, et al [9] using an atomic ab-
sorption spectrophotometer (Hitachi Z6100, Tokyo, Japan).
2.6. Functional properties
2.6.1. Bulk density
Bulk density was determined by the method described by Oladele and
2
Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 2 (2020) 100042
Aina [10]. 100 mL capacity graduated measuring cylinder was filled
gently with certain weighed sample. The bottom of the cylinder was
gently tapped on a laboratory bench several times until a constant vol-
ume was attained. Bulk density was calculated as shown below.
g Weight of sample ðgÞ
Bulk density ¼ equ 1
ml Volume of sample after tapping ðmlÞ
2.6.2. Foam capacity
Foaming capacity (FC) was determined according to the method
described by Onwuka [11]. Two grams of flour sample was weighed and
added to 50 ml distilled water in a 100 ml measuring cylinder. The sus-
pension was mixed and properly shaken to foam and the total volume
after 30 s was recorded. The percentage increase in volume after 30 s is
expressed as foaming capacity.
Vol of foam after whipping  Vol of foam before whipping
Foam capacity % ¼
Vol of foam after whipping
 100
equ (2)
2.6.3. Water absorption capacity (WAC)
The method described by Onwuka [11] was used. About 1 g of the
flour sample was weighed into a 15 ml centrifuge tube and suspended in
10 ml of water. It was shaken on a flat form tube rocker for 1 min at room
temperature. The sample was allowed to stand for 30 min and centri-
fuged at 1200g for 30 min. The volume of free water was read directly
from the centrifuge tube.
Amount of water added  free water ðmlÞ
WAC % ¼  density of water
Weight of sample ðgÞ
 100
equ 3
2.6.4. Oil absorption capacity (OAC)
The method of Onwuka [11] was used for determining oil absorption
capacity. One gram of the flour was thoroughly mixed with 10 ml refined
corn oil in a centrifuge tube and allowed to stand at room temperature
(30  2
C) for 1 h. It was centrifuged at 1600g for 20 min. The volume
of free oil was recorded and decanted. Oil absorption capacity was
expressed as ml of oil bound by100g dried flour.
Amount of oil added  free oil ðmlÞ
OAC % ¼  density of oil  100 equ 4
Weight of sample ðgÞ
2.7. Determination of pasting properties of flours
The pasting characteristics of the samples were determined using a
Rapid Visco Analyser 3C (RVA, model 3C, Newport Scientific PTY Ltd,
Sydney, Australia) as described by Ross, et al. [12]. Three grams of
sample was weighed into a weighing vessel while 25 ml of distilled water
was dispensed into a new test canister. The weighed sample was mixed
with water in the canister to form a slurry. The slurry was heated from 50
O
C to 95 OC with a holding time of 2 min and cooled to 50 OC for 2 min
holding time. The rates of heating and cooling were done at a constant
rate of 11.25 OC/min. Peak viscosity, trough, breakdown, final viscosity,
set back, peak time and pasting temperature were read from the pasting
profile with the aid of thermocline for windows software connected to a
computer.
2.8. Soluble and insoluble fibre content of the flour blends
The modified klason dietary fibre method was derived from the
standardized method using AOAC, [13]. In the modified method, 300 mg
of the defatted fibre were impregnated with 10 ml of 72% sulphuric acid
J.B. Adeloye et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 2 (2020) 100042

Table 2
Proximate composition of the flour blends (g/100 g dry weight).
Sample Moisture content (%) Crude protein (%) Crude fat (%) Total ash (%) Crude fibre (%) Carbohydrate (%)
c f d c c
MC0 6.89  0.14 6.75  0.10 11.46  0.17 1.76  0.09 2.96  0.06 70.19  0.33a
MC10 7.53  0.15b 13.651  0.18e 12.13  0.04c 1.87  0.08bc 3.30  .015bc 61.53  0.05b
MC20 7.41  0.16b 14.53  0.28d 12.19  0.06bc 2.03  0.02bc 3.62  0.18ab 60.23  0.23c
MC30 7.54  0.20b 15.18  0.12c 12.71  0.13bc 2.19  0.06ab 3.37  0.24a 58.98  0.06d
MC40 7.52  0.24b 16.28  0.14b 12.42  0.09ab 2.20  0.11ab 3.81  0.07a 57.74  0.33e
MC50 8.04  0.60a 17.33  0.12a 13.62  0.17a 2.50  0.29a 3.95  0.07a 55.57  0.38f

Means (SEM) with different alphabetic superscript in the same column are significantly (p<0.05) different. MC0: 100% maize flour; MC10: 90% maize and 10%
defatted coconut flour; MC20: 80% maize and 20% of defatted coconut flour; MC30: 70% maize and 30% defatted coconut flour; MC40: 60% maize and 40% defatted
coconut flour; MC50: 50% maize and 50% defatted coconut flour.

and placed in a water bath with a controlled temperature of 30 OC for 2 h.
After, this was followed by the addition of 100 ml of demineralised water
to the sample and it was placed in an autoclave at 125 OC for 1 h. The
sample was then removed, cooled and filtered. The insoluble fibre (re-
sidual) was washed with demineralised water until neutral pH of 7 was
obtained and the dried in hot air oven at 105 OC until constant weight
was obtained. The sample was then placed in a desiccator and cooled to
room temperature before being weighed. The analysis was carried out in
triplicate for each sample treatment. The fibre content was calculated by
subtracting the final weight from the original. The filtrate obtained was
used to determine the soluble fibre content in sulphuric acid by the
spectrophotometric method. In this method, 5 ml of 3% sulphuric acid
was added to 5 ml of the filtrate. A UV spectrophotometer (JENWAY Inc.,
Staffordshire, UK) was used to measure the absorbance at 205 nm.
2.9. Bioactive constituents of flour blends
2.9.1. Determination of total phenol content
The total phenol content of the sample extracts was determined by
mixing appropriate dilutions of the extracts with 2.5 mL 10% Folin cio-
calteau reagent (v/v), and 2 mL of 7.5% sodium carbonate was subse-
quently added. The reaction mixture was incubated for 40 min at 45 OC,
and absorbance was measured at 765 nm in the spectrophotometer. The
total phenol content was calculated and expressed as the gallic acid
equivalent (GAE) [14].
2.9.2. Determination of total flavonoid content
The total flavonoid content of the sample extracts was determined
using the method described by Meda, et al. [15]. Briefly, 0.5 mL of
appropriately diluted extracts was mixed with 0.5 mL of methanol, 50 μL
of 10% AlCl3, 50 μL of 1 M potassium acetate, and 1.4 mL of distilled
water. The mixture was incubated at 25 OC for 30 min. The absorbance of
the reaction mixture was subsequently measured at 415 nm, and the total
flavonoid content was calculated and expressed as the quercetin equiv-
alent (QUE).
2.10. Antioxidant properties of the samples
2.10.1. Determination of DPPH free radical scavenging ability
The radical scavenging ability of the extracts against DPPH free
radical was evaluated as described by Gyamfi et al. [16]. In brief,
appropriate dilution of the extracts (1 mL) was mixed with 1 mL of
0.4 mM methanolic solution containing DPPH; the mixture was left in the
dark for 30 min, and the absorbance of the remaining DPPH was
measured at 516 nm. The percentage DPPH scavenging ability of the
extracts was subsequently calculated as percentage of control.
2.10.2. Determination of ferric reducing antioxidant power
The reducing property of the extracts was determined by assessing the
ability of the extract to reduce FeCl3 solution as described by Oyaizu
[17]. 2.5 mL aliquot mixed with 2.5 mL of 200 mM sodium phosphate
buffer (pH 6.6) and 2.5 mL of 1% potassium ferricyanide. The mixture
was incubated at 50 OC for 20 min and then 2.5 mL of 10% trichloroacetic
acid was added. This mixture was centrifuged at 6500 rpm for 10 min.
5 mL of the supernatant was mixed with an equal volume of water and
1 mL of 0.1% ferric chloride. The absorbance was measured at 700 nm in
the JENWAY UV–Visible spectrophotometer. Then, the ferric reducing
antioxidant property was subsequently calculated as ascorbic acid
equivalent.
2.11. Sensory acceptability of masa from the maize-defatted coconut flour
blends
Masa was prepared from the maize-defatted coconut flour blends by
mixing with water certain quantity of the flour blends separately to form
a paste. Thereafter, the paste was deep fried and turned at interval to
ensure proper frying. The masa was cooled before being evaluated. The
evaluation was done by 20 untrained panelists who are regular con-
sumers of maize-based masa. The sensory attributes of masa including
appearance, taste, texture, aroma and overall acceptability were evalu-
ated using the 9–point hedonic scale (Like extremely ¼ 9 to dislike
extremely ¼ 1) for preference of the masa produced from the maize-
defatted coconut flours.
2.12. Statistical analysis
The data obtained were made in replicates and analyzed using one
way Analysis of variance (ANOVA) of Statistical Package for Social Sci-
ences (SPSS version 17.0). Significant means were separated using the
New Duncan’s Multiple Range Test (NDMRT) at 95% confidence interval.
3. Results and discussions
3.1. Proximate composition of the flour blends
Table 2 summarized the result of the proximate composition of maize
and defatted coconut flour blends. Protein content of the samples varied
significantly from each other and increased as the level of defatted co-
conut flour increased with the maximum occurring at 50% level of
addition. It implied that the flour blends are a rich source of protein. The
defatted coconut flour contributed to the protein content significantly.
The values in the present finding are higher than 9.90% reported for
coconut/wheat flour [18], 12.31% for defatted coconut flour [19] but
within the range stated by other researchers for coconut rice extruded
product, 14.31% [20] and 22% for coconut flour [21]. The process of
defatting might have contributed relatively to the concentration of pro-
tein in the coconut flour. Coconut meal from dry processing and pro-
duction of virgin coconut oil is particularly rich in protein [22]. Protein
serves as a good source of amino acids and plays a significant role in body
building. Protein-energy malnutrition could be addressed potentially by
the application of defatted coconut/maize flour blends for snacks pro-
duction. This work corroborates other research works that showed the
nutritional enhancement of flour blends through the incorporation of
protein rich food materials such as legumes or oil seeds [6,23,24]. Ash
and fibre content of the flour blends ranged from 1.76% to 2.50% and
2.96%–3.95% respectively. The incorporated defatted coconut flour

3
J.B. Adeloye et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 2 (2020) 100042

Table 3
Mineral composition of maize-defatted coconut flour blends.
Samples Na (ppm) K (ppm) Ca (ppm) Mg (ppm) Fe (ppm) Zn (ppm)
e e f c d
MC0 15.70  0.10 37.80  0.20 8.29  0.50 2.05  0.24 0.15  0.00 0.20  0.02c
MC10 16.90  0.43d 40.10  0.23d 9.32  0.22e 2.36  0.11c 0.23  0.03c 0.23  0.01c
MC20 17.50  0.33c 43.50  0.22c 10.37  0.17d 2.74  0.08bc 0.28  0.00c 0.26  0.00bc
MC30 18.30  0.02b 45.10  0.10b 11.47  0.23c 2.95  0.06b 0.36  0.03b 0.27  0.00bc
MC40 19.20  0.21a 46.60  0.40b 12.53  0.20b 3.23  0.11a 0.43  0.00b 0.28  0.02b
MC50 20.30  0.15a 49.00  0.28a 13.96  0.34a 3.29  0.83a 1.06  0.22a 0.32  0.01a

Means (SEM) with different alphabetic superscript in the same column are significantly (p<0.05) different. MC0: 100% maize flour; MC10: 90% maize and 10%
defatted coconut flour; MC20: 80% maize and 20% of defatted coconut flour; MC30: 70% maize and 30% defatted coconut flour; MC40: 60% maize and 40% defatted
coconut flour; MC50: 50% maize and 50% defatted coconut flour.

increased the crude fibre content which aids digestion and the ash con-
Table 4
tent which is an indication of the presence of mineral elements in the
Physicochemical and functional properties of flour blends.
flour blends. Other researchers also observed that ash content was
increased due to the incorporation of defatted coconut flour in wheat Samples BD (g/ml) FC (%) WAC (%) OAC (%)

flour biscuits [25] and maize-based snacks [26] similar to the findings in
the present study. Health benefits including weight control, cholesterol
and glucose level reduction were associated with diets rich in coconut
fibre [27]. The fat content of the flour blends slightly increased from
11.46% to 13.62% as the percentage level of defatted coconut flour
increased from 0 to 50%. Amongst the flour blends there was no signif-
icant difference but are all different (p<0.05) from MC0 (control). The
observed increase in fat content suggests that defatted coconut flour still
retained a little amount of fat which is bound to fibre within the cell wall
constituents of the coconut flour and not extracted [28] The high fat
content confer on the flour blends the ability to expedite the absorption
of fat-soluble vitamins and flavor preservation. On the other hand, lipid
oxidation is facilitated by high fat content in flour. The moisture content
of the flour blends ranged from 6.89- 8.04% with MC50 having the
highest moisture content. Increase in the percentage addition of defatted
coconut flour resulted in a significant increase in moisture content when
compared to the control (MC0). The increase in moisture content may be
attributed to the water holding capacity of the high protein [29] and fibre
content [30] in the defatted coconut flour. High moisture content in food
lowers nutrient density and results in poor keeping quality causing food
spoilage [31,32] which invariably affects the chemical and microbial
stability. The carbohydrate content of the various blends varied from
55.57% to 70.18%, with MC0 having the highest value compared with
samples MC10, MC20, MC30, MC40, and MC50 with significant differ-
ence (P < 0.05) observed between the means. MC0 is a rich carbohydrate
staple food and as it was substituted with defatted coconut flour, the
carbohydrate content decreased significantly. Defatted coconut flour was
reported to have low carbohydrate content (23.40%) [20] which is lower
than MC0 (70.19%) in this study. Hence, defatted coconut flour
contributed greatly to the decrease in carbohydrate content. There is an
agreement in the findings of this study with those reported by Hossain et
al [33] who showed a decrease in carbohydrate content of plain cake
with the addition of coconut flour and Ojali et al [34] who also observed
breakfast cereal’s carbohydrate content reduced due to the incorporation
of defatted coconut flour. Interestingly, the increase in fat content could
make up for loss in carbohydrate-derived energy [35].
3.2. Mineral content analysis
Table 3 shows the mineral content of the various flour blends. The
iron content of the samples ranged significantly from 0.15 ppm to
1.06 ppm with flour blends containing defatted coconut flour showing
higher iron contents compared to MC0. The increase in the iron content
of flour blends as there was an increase in defatted coconut flour suggests
that coconut flour is rich in iron and this agrees with the observation of
Sivakami and Sarojini [36] on the formulation of biscuit using defatted
coconut flour. This study also suggests that snacks with high iron content
could be produced with the flour blends containing defatted coconut
flour. The production of blood in the body is associated with the
MC0 0.72  0.00a 16.67  0.00a 390.00  10.00c 172.00  9.10d
MC10 0.66  0.00b 15.06  0.37a 430.00  10.00c 200.20  0.00a
MC20 0.62  0.00c 11.10  0.65b 470.00  10.00ab 218.40  0.00c
MC30 0.54  0.00d 8.30  0.70c 490.00  10.00ab 245.70  9.10b
MC40 0.50  0.00e 6.91  0.73c 510.00  30.00a 263.90  9.00a
MC50 0.40  0.00f 3.99  0.77d 520.00  20.00a 282.10  9.10a
Means (SEM) with different alphabetic superscript in the same column are
significantly (p<0.05) different. MC0: 100% maize flour; MC10: 90% maize and
10% defatted coconut flour; MC20: 80% maize and 20% of defatted coconut
flour; MC30: 70% maize and 30% defatted coconut flour; MC40: 60% maize and
40% defatted coconut flour; MC50: 50% maize and 50% defatted coconut flour.
BD: Bulk density; FC: Foaming capacity; WAC: Water absorption capacity; OAC:
Oil absorption capacity.
availability of iron which is a crucial component of haemoglobin [37].
The deficiency of iron in the body can lead to anaemia. Significant dif-
ference (p<0.05) was observed in the calcium content of the flour blends.
The calcium content of MC10, MC20, MC30, MC40, and MC50 was
higher than that of the MC0 and this could be attributed to the higher
calcium content of the defatted coconut flour [1]. According to Makinde
and Eyitayo [38], an increase in calcium content of wheat/defatted co-
conut flour blends as the level of substitution of wheat flour with defatted
coconut flour increased was reported. Zinc is a cofactor that influences
enzymes activities affecting growth and digestion and its deficiency can
lead to growth retardation and impaired immune response. Generally,
protein containing foods are a good source of zinc [39]. Zinc content of
the flour blends varied from 0.20 ppm to 0.32 ppm with the flour blend
MC50 having the highest content while MC0 had the lowest. Aside being
a mineral, sodium serves as an electrolyte that keeps the body fluid
balanced, controls blood pressure and regulates the function of the
muscles and nerves [40]. From the analysis, it was seen that there was no
significant difference in the Na content of the sample MC50 and MC40
with the others having a significant difference at p<0.05. Potassium is an
important nutrient that manages blood pressure, anxiety, stress and more
health disorders [41]. The analysis revealed potassium as the dominant
mineral element and there is a significant difference in the content of
potassium of all the flour blends with MC0 having the least content. From
literature it is discovered that coconut contained a high portion of po-
tassium which is responsible for sample MC50 with 50% defatted coco-
nut flour having the highest potassium content [28]. The magnesium
content ranged from 2.05 ppm in MC0 to 3.29 ppm in MC50. The in-
crease in the minerals due to the increase in defatted coconut flour is
similar to observation in biscuits formulated using defatted coconut flour
as reported by Ref. [36].
3.3. Functional properties of the flour blends
The result of the functional properties is presented in Table 4. It was
observed that the bulk density of the flour samples significantly (p<0.05)
decreased with increase in the level of defatted coconut flour inclusion.

4
J.B. Adeloye et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 2 (2020) 100042

Table 5 capacity of biscuit developed from wheat flour, rice flour, green gram
Total, soluble and insoluble dietary fibre contents of maize-defatted coconut flour and potato flour. The increase observed could be attributed to the
flour blends. presence of protein which exposes more non-polar amino acids to the fat
Sample Insoluble fibre Soluble fibre Total fibre [47] and can also be related to the higher fibre content in the coconut
MC0 11.35  0.12e 3.56  0.56d 14.91  0.12e
flour samples as a result of which the flour absorbs more oil [48]. The oil
MC10 18.52  0.10d 4.04  0.19c 22.56  0.15d absorption characteristic of food products helps in the improvement of
MC20 29.84  0.16c 4.56  0.28b 34.40  0.16c mouth-feel and retention of flavor. Therefore, coconut flour could be
MC30 34.59  0.23b 4.96  0.13ab 39.55  0.20b potentially useful in food application of some bakery products where
MC40 38.49  0.36b 5.01  0.14a 43.50  0.24b
palatability and flavor retention are important. Forming capacity is
MC50 45.95  0.05a 5.12  0.13a 51.07  0.60a
influenced by protein and it represents the ability of protein to be
Means (SEM) with different alphabetic superscript in the same column are dispersed and adsorbed at the air-water interface during mixing affecting
significantly (p<0.05) different. MC0: 100% maize flour; MC10: 90% maize and surface tension. The foaming capacity decreased significantly with in-
10% defatted coconut flour; MC20: 80% maize and 20% of defatted coconut
crease in defatted coconut flour with values ranging from 3.99-16.67%.
flour; MC30: 70% maize and 30% defatted coconut flour; MC40: 60% maize and
MC0 had the highest foaming capacity compared to the flour blends.
40% defatted coconut flour; MC50: 50% maize and 50% defatted coconut flour.
Proteins play vital role as foaming agent in some food products. The
flexible proteins compared to globular proteins are recognised to have
better foaming ability. Factors such as heat can affect the foaming ca-
MC0 and MC50 had the highest and least bulk density respectively. The
pacity of protein in food preparation [49]. The low foaming capacity of
decrease in bulk density which is attributed to the addition of coconut
the flour blends for this study may be due to the denaturation of proteins
flour may be due to various factors including the weight and structure of
during the processing of the coconut flour before the defatting procedure.
the coconut flour. A similar observation to the present study was
expressed by other researchers. Okafor [42] observed a decrease in the
3.4. Total dietary fibre of the flour blends
bulk density of flour blends of african yam bean, maize and defatted
coconut. The addition of popped gorgon nut flour to wheat flour resulted
The total dietary fibre for the flour blends increased significantly with
in low bulk density of the flour blends [43]. The values of the bulk
increase in percentage level of defatted coconut flour (Table 5) which
density in this study are similar to the values reported by Tumuhimbise,
agreed to the work of Trinidad et al [1] on coconut flour supplemented
Tumwine and Kyamuhangire [44] who described the flour to be desir-
foods who reported the maximum dietary fibre at the highest coconut
able for the preparation of complementary food where bulkiness is less
flour addition. Sample MC50 has the highest total fibre content and is
desirable over nutrient density. The bulk density of flour samples has
approximately 3 times greater than MC0. According to Teresita et al [50],
crucial impact on the energy density, amount and strength of packaging
total dietary fibre is widely recognised as an essential element of good
material requirements [45]. Water absorption capacity expresses the
nutrition. Dietary fibre are non-starch polysaccharides which are neither
absorption and interaction of flour with water. Increase in defatted co-
digestible nor absorbed in the small intestine. Soluble fibre (pectin, gums
conut flours significantly (p<0.05) increased the water absorption ca-
and mucilage) forms a viscous gel-like material in water that lines the
pacity of the flour samples from 390-520%. High water absorption
walls of the intestine and reduces the absorption of glucose and choles-
capacity attributed to the incorporation of defatted coconut flour may be
terol into the blood stream during digestion [51]. The soluble fibre
attributed to the components of the flour. Hydrophilic components of
content of the samples ranged from 3.56% in MC0 to 5.12% in MC50.
food product are implicated in the interaction with water and invariably
Insoluble dietary fibre are plant cell wall components that bind water as
with water absorption capacity. The defatted coconut flour is rich in
they pass through the digestive tract, making stools softer and bulkier;
protein which has both hydrophobic and hydrophilic parts. The hydro-
they include cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin. Hemorrhoids and
philic part of proteins confers the ability for interaction with water. In
constipation are managed by the consumption of diets rich in insoluble
addition, coconut flour is high in soluble fibre that has the potential of
dietary fibre. In addition, toxins and extra bile acids are eliminated,
increasing the absorption of water. Contrary to the observation in this
thereby reducing the risk of some cancers, especially colon cancer [52].
study, water absorption capacity reduced from 62.8 to 58% in the flour
The insoluble dietary fibre of the flour blends increased from 11.35% to
blends produced from skimmed milk, amaranth leaves and orange
45.95%. This is attributed to the incorporation of defatted coconut flour
fleshed sweet potato [44]. Our observation in the present study is in
which is reported to be high in dietary fibre [1]. According to the
agreement with other researchers’ reports. Chandra, Singh and Kumari
research carried out by Trinidad et al [1] coconut flour contains 60.9%
[46] observed an increase in water absorption capacity due to the
total dietary fibre consisting of 56.8% insoluble and 3.8% soluble.
incorporation of potato flour, green gram flour and rice flour to wheat
flour in biscuit production. High water absorption capacity in this study
suggests the flour to be potentially suitable for high viscous food 3.5. Pasting properties of the flour blends
formulation. The oil absorption capacity of the flour samples ranged
between 172.90 and 282.10%. The result is in agreement with that of The pasting properties are important for predicting the behavior of
Chandra et al [46] who observed a significant increase in oil absorption flour during and after cooking or cooling. The peak viscosity of the flour
blends which describes the point at which gelatinized starch reaches the

Table 6
Pasting properties of the maize-defatted coconut flour blends.
Samples Peak viscosity (RVU) Trough (RVU) Breakdown (RVU) Final viscosity (RVU) Setback (RVU) Peak time (min)

MC0 58.00  0.30a 52.00  1.00a 6.00  0.01a 79.00  0.10a 28.00  0.01c 6.90  0.12a
MC10 45.00  1.00b 40.00  0.01b 5.00  0.10a 65.00  1.00c 25.00  0.10d 7.00  0.10a
MC20 35.00  0.01d 29.00  0.00d 5.00  0.01a 51.00  0.02d 22.00  0.01e 7.00  0.01a
MC30 43.00  0.03c 36.00  1.00c 7.00  1.00a 69.00  0.01b 33.00  0.00b 6.93  0.03a
MC40 42.00  0.10c 36.00  0.01c 6.00  1.01a 77.00  1.00a 41.00  0.01a 6.87  40.00a
MC50 26.00  1.00e 25.00  1.00e 1.00  0.00a 76.00  1.01a 47.00  1.00a 6.53  0.03a

Means (SEM) with different alphabetic superscript in the same column are significantly (p<0.05) different. MC0: 100% maize flour; MC10: 90% maize and 10%
defatted coconut flour; MC20: 80% maize and 20% of defatted coconut flour; MC30: 70% maize and 30% defatted coconut flour; MC40: 60% maize and 40% defatted
coconut flour; MC50: 50% maize and 50% defatted coconut flour.

5
J.B. Adeloye et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 2 (2020) 100042

Fig. 1. The TPC (a) and TFC (b) of maize-defatted coconut flour blends. Means (SEM) and bars with different alphabetic superscript are significantly (p<0.05)
different. MC0: 100% maize flour; MC10: 90% maize and 10% defatted coconut flour; MC20: 80% maize and 20% of defatted coconut flour; MC30: 70% maize and
30% defatted coconut flour; MC40: 60% maize and 40% defatted coconut flour; MC50: 50% maize and 50% defatted coconut flour.

maximum viscosity during heating is shown in Table 6. Peak viscosity is
the ability of starch to swell freely before their physical breakdown [53].
High peak viscosity is an indication of high starch content [54]. It also
provides an indication of the viscous load likely to be encountered during
mixing. Peak viscosity was highest in MC0 and least in MC50. A decrease
from 58.00 RVU to 26.00 RVU was recorded as the incorporation of
defatted coconut flour increased. The decrease in peak viscosity may be
attributed to the high fibre content contributed by the coconut flour
which competes with the starch granules for limited water. Similar
decrease in peak viscosity due to a high fibre content from amaranth
leaves and skimmed milk supplementation in orange fleshed sweet
potato-based flour blends was reported [44]. High protein content was
reported to have a reducing effect on the pasting viscosity in wheat flour
supplemented with various level of groundnut protein concentrate flour
[55]. The implication of the relatively low peak viscosity in the higher
level of coconut in the flour blends indicates that the flour may be

6
J.B. Adeloye et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 2 (2020) 100042

Fig. 2. The DPPH (a) and FRAP (b) of maize-defatted coconut flour blends. Means (SEM) and bars with different alphabetic superscript are significantly (p<0.05)
different. MC0: 100% maize flour; MC10: 90% maize and 10% defatted coconut flour; MC20: 80% maize and 20% of defatted coconut flour; MC30: 70% maize and
30% defatted coconut flour; MC40: 60% maize and 40% defatted coconut flour; MC50: 50% maize and 50% defatted coconut flour.

desirable for food preparations requiring low gel strength and elasticity
[56]. The trough or holding strength also decreased with increase in the
percentage inclusion of defatted coconut flour in the flour blends. The
trough values ranged between 25.00 and 52.00 (RVU). The trough is the
minimum viscosity value in the constant temperature phase of the RVA
profile and measures the ability of paste to withstand breakdown during
cooling. Higher values of trough indicate a paste with less stability to
breakdown and prone to disintegration. The trough values of the flour
blends, MC10, MC20, MC30, MC40 and MC50 were lower than MC0 and
suggest the suitability for the formation of stable paste.
The stability of formed paste is indicated by the breakdown viscosity.
It explains the ability of flour to withstand controlled heating and
application of shear during food processing [53]. Breakdown is a mea-
sure of susceptibility of cooked starch granules to disintegration and has
been reported by Beta et al. [57] to affect the stability of the flour
products. Sample MC0 has the highest breakdown which is 6.00 (RVU)
while sample MC50 has the lowest breakdown 1.00 (RVU) as illustrated
in Table 6. The setback value increased with an increase in defatted co-
conut flour with sample MC50 having the highest value and sample
MC20 had the lowest set back value of 22 (RVU). Setback value expresses

7
J.B. Adeloye et al.
Table 7
Sensory acceptability of masa from maize-defatted coconut flour blends.
Samples Appearance Taste
a a
MC0 8.52  0.51 8.45  0.51
MC10 8.55  0.51a 8.42  0.62a
MC20 7.48  0.64b 7.65  0.55b
MC30 7.32  0.54c 7.16  0.58c
MC40 6.49  0.57d 6.68  0.65d
MC50 5.97  0.84e 5.90  0.65e
Means (SEM) with different alphabetic superscript in the same column are significantly (p<0.05) different. MC0: 100% maize flour; MC10: 90% maize and 10%
defatted coconut flour; MC20: 80% maize and 20% of defatted coconut flour; MC30: 70% maize and 30% defatted coconut flour; MC40: 60% maize and 40% defatted
coconut flour; MC50: 50% maize and 50% defatted coconut flour.
the tendency of starch to associate and retrograde on cooling. The in-
clusion of defatted coconut flour at 10% and 20% reduced the viscosity of
the cooked paste after cooling to 50 OC and expressed as the setback
value. Higher setback values were observed from the incorporation of
defatted coconut flour at 30%, 40% and 50% than MC0. Flour blends
with higher setback values are susceptible to retrogradation, syneresis
and lower digestibility [58]. Peroni et al [59] indicated that flours with
low setback may have low values of amylose which have high molecular
weight. This suggests highly digestible food product could be made from
MC10and M20 having a low setback value. The pasting time which is the
time taken to cook to reach the maximum starch gelatinization and peak
viscosity ranged between 6.53 – 7.00 min. Sample MC50 has the lowest
pasting time of 6.53 min while sample MC20 has the highest pasting time
which is 7.00. Low peak time is indicative of its ability to cook fast. Since
there was no significant difference in the peak time of the flour blends, it
is an indication that time required for cooking is the same for all the flour
samples. The peak time reported in this study is within the range
observed for plantain-tigernut flour blends [60], pearl millet-kidney
beans-tigernut flour blends [61] and plantain-moringa flour blends [62].
Final viscosity indicates the ability of the flour to form a viscous paste
or gel after cooking and cooling [63]. Final viscosity was measured after
the cooked starch was held at 50 OC. The final viscosity ranged between
51.00 – 79.00 RVU. Sample MC0 has the highest value while sample
MC20 has the least value. Samples MC10, MC20 and MC30 have
significantly lower final viscosity than MC0, MC40 and MC50 which are
however not significantly different from one another. Flour blends with
the lower final viscosity may be suitable for nutritious and less viscous
complementary foods.
MC20 showed a different behavior in the trends for the pasting
properties analyzed and this might be due to the mode of starch cross-
linking at the holding time.
3.6. Bioactive compounds and anti-oxidants properties of the flour blends
The bioactive compounds and antioxidant properties of the flour
blends consisting of maize flour and defatted coconut flour are presented
in Figs. 1 and 2. The total phenolics and flavonoids content of the flour
samples followed the same trend of increase as the defatted coconut flour
incorporated increased. The total phenolics and flavonoids content in the
flour blends increased from 78.60-116.40 mgGAE and 65.06–94.81 mg/
100g respectively. These phytochemicals are bioactive compounds
responsible for the antioxidant activities associated with various health
benefits. Flavonoids play a vital role in ameliorating various car-
diometabolic risks.
The antioxidant properties of the flour blends were expressed by the
ability to scavenge free radicals and reduce iron. Metabolic activities in
the human system naturally generate free radicals which are highly
reactive with great potency to cause cellular damages. The chains of
reaction of free radicals are altered and terminated by antioxidants.
Antioxidants possess the capacity to scavenge free radicals hence pre-
venting oxidative stress that can lead to various chronic degenerative
diseases. The DPPH scavenging activity of the flour blends as shown in
Fig. 2a ranged between 56.51- 68.07% with MC30 and MC40 exhibiting
8
Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 2 (2020) 100042
Texture Aroma Overall Acceptability
a a
8.61  0.50 8.26  0.53 8.45  0.57a
8.48  0.57a 7.61  0.72b 8.34  0.49a
7.94  0.36b 7.20  0.40c 7.55  0.51b
7.22  0.56c 7.07  0.63c 6.87  0.50c
6.58  0.67d 6.52  0.51d 6.33  0.48d
6.00  0.63e 5.52  0.57e 5.97  0.66d
significantly the highest radical scavenging activities. However, MC30
and MC40 are not significantly different from each other. Increase in
defatted coconut flour increased the DPPH content of the samples. Awolu
and Olabiran [64] also reported increase in DPPH as the substitution of
defatted soybean increased in the supplementation of rice flour with
carrot and date palm. The high antioxidant activity could be due to the
increase in hydroxyl groups or amino groups in antioxidant compound
[65].
The ferric reducing antioxidant power of the flour blends (Fig. 2b)
showed that defatted coconut flour addition enhanced the ferric ion
reducing activity of the flour blends. FRAP expresses the ability of a
reductant to reduce Fe3þ to Fe2þ. The FRAP of MC40 was the highest and
significantly different from the other flour blends. This might be attrib-
uted to the synergistic activities of the high total flavonoids and total
phenolic contents present in MC40. High antioxidant activities are
positively correlated with total phenolic and total flavonoids content.
Generally, plants are natural source of antioxidants which are responsible
for prevention and management of diseases such as diabetes. The ability
of the flour blends to scavenge free radicals and reduce ferric iron sug-
gests the application in the formulation of functional food products.
3.7. Sensory acceptability of masa from maize-defatted coconut flour
blends
The mean sensory scores of masa produced from maize-defatted co-
conut flour blends are presented in Table 7. The degree of liking for
texture, appearance, taste and aroma which was evaluated decreased
with an increase in the substitution levels of defatted coconut flour. A
similar trend of decrease was observed for appearance, taste and texture
and masa from MC0 and MC10 were not significantly different from each
other but were scored significantly higher than masa from MC20, MC30,
MC40 and MC50. With respect to the scores for the aroma of masa from
flour blends ranging from 5.52 to 8.29, there is a significant difference
amongst the samples with masa from MC10 and MC50 rated highest and
least respectively while MC20 and MC30 are not significantly different
from each other. The consumer acceptance or preference for the masa
samples from the flour blends was assessed by overall acceptability. The
overall acceptability in this study showed that masa from MC0 was the
most accepted while that from MC50 was the least accepted. Masa is a
popular snack produced from maize or rice and consumed by all age
group in various part of Nigeria. Hence, the overall consumer acceptance
for masa from MC10 over the other masa samples may be due to the
familiarity to the taste, texture and aroma of the masa produced from
only maize flour.
4. Conclusion
The inclusion of defatted coconut flour in nixtamalized maize flour
resulted in flour blends with enhanced nutrients with great improvement
in the total dietary fibre, protein content, bioactive compounds and
antioxidant properties. The acceptability of masa produced from the flour
blends with the 10% defatted coconut flour incorporation having a
comparable consumer preference with control showed the possibility of
J.B. Adeloye et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 2 (2020) 100042

using the by-product of virgin coconut oil extraction in food preparation. [22] K. Kaur, N. Chhikara, P. Sharma, M.K. Garg, A. Panghal, Coconut meal:
nutraceutical importance and food industry application, Foods and Raw Materials 7
The study showed maize flour enriched with defatted coconut flour has
(2) (2019) 419–427, https://doi.org/10.21603/2308-4057-2019-2-419-427.
the potential to manage protein –energy malnutrition in developing [23] K.T. Adegbehinde, Production of masa using maize-sorghum blends, Int. J. Sci. Res.
countries and also promote the utilization of coconut residue in food 3 (8) (2014) 484–489.
formulation rather than being discarded. [24] I. Nkama, N.G. Malleshi, Production and nutritional quality of traditional Nigerian
masa from mixtures of rice, pearl millet, cowpea, and groundnut, Food Nutr. Bull.
19 (1998) 366–373.
Funding [25] T. Srivastava, A.D. Semwal, G.K. Sharma, A.S. Bawa, Effect of Virgin Coconut meal
on the textural, thermal and physicochemical properties of biscuits, Food Nutr. Sci.
1 (2010) 38–44.
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies [26] O.J. Adebowale, O.M. Komolafe, Effect of supplementation with defatted coconut
in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. paste on proximate composition, physical and sensory qualities of a maize-based
snack, J. Culin. Sci. Technol. (2017), https://doi.org/10.1080/
15428052.2017.1315322.
Declaration of competing interest [27] E.D. Franco, G.M.M. de Oliveira, R.R. Luiz, G. Rosa, Effect of hypoenergetic diet
combined with consumption of coconut flour in overweight women, Nutrition
Hospitalaria 32 (5) (2015) 2012–2018.
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial [28] C. Yalegama, K.D. Gunathilake, A.A. Kumara, Use of coconut flour as a source of
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence protein and dietary fibre in wheat bread, Asian J. Food and Agro-Industry 2 (2013)
382–391.
the work reported in this paper.
[29] J. Singthong, S. Yaowapan, S. Teankaew, Physicochemical properties and
utilization dietary fibre from coconut residue, 12th ASEAN Food Conference (2011)
References 128–132.
[30] N. Sujirtha, T. Mahendran, Use of defatted coconut flour as a source of protein and
dietary fibre in wheat biscuits, Int. J. Innovat.Res. Sci.Eng. Technol. 4 (8) (2015)
[1] P.T. Trinidad, A.C. Mallillin, D.H. Valdez, A.S. Loyola, F.C. Askali-Mercado,
7344–7352.
J.C. Castillo, R.R. Encabo, D.B. Masa, A.S. Maglaya, M.T. Chua, Dietary fibre from
[31] M.O. Aremu, O. Olaofe, E.T. Akintayo, Functional properties of some Nigerian
coconut flour: a functional food, Innovat. Food Sci. Emerg. Technol. 7 (4) (2006)
varieties of legume seed flours and flour concentration effect on foaming and
309–317, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.2004.04.003.
gelation properties, J. Food Technol. 5 (2) (2007) 109–115.
[2] A.I. Sanni, A.T. Adesulu, Microbiological and physico-chemical changes during
[32] J.C. Anuonye, A.A. Jigam, G.M. Ndaceko, Effects of extrusion-cooking on the
fermentation of maize for masa production, Afr. J. Microbiol. Res. 7 (2013)
nutrient and anti-nutrient composition of pigeon pea and unripe plantain blends,
4355–4362, https://doi.org/10.5897/AJMR12.1362.
J. Appl. Pharmaceut. Sci. 2 (5) (2012) 158–162.
[3] J.A. Oladejo, M.O. Adetunji, Economic analysis of maize (Zea mays) production in
[33] S. Hossain, M.R. I Shishir, M. Saifullah, M.S. Kayshar, S.W. Tonmoy, A. Rahman, et
oyo state of Nigeria, Agric. Sci. Res.J 2 (2) (2012) 77–83. http://www.resjournals.
al., Incorporation of coconut flour in plain cake and investigation of the effect of
com/ARJ.
sugar and baking powder on its baking quality, Int. J. Food Sci. Nutr. 5 (1) (2016)
[4] J. Owusu-Kwarteng, F. Akabanda, Soybean fortification of maasa: a Ghanaian
31–38, https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijnfs.20160501.15.
fermented millet-based cake, Can. J. Pure Appl. Sci. 8 (1) (2014) 2733–2738.
[34] G. Ojali, A.U. Elijah, A.O. Nicholas, R. Morayo, Proximate composition and anti-
[5] P.T. Fowoyo, S.T. Ogunbanwo, Phenotypic diversity of lactic acid bacteria isolated
nutrient properties of breakfast cereal made from blends of local rice, soybeans and
from massa. A fermented maize dough, Afr. J. Microbiol. Res. 4 (24) (2010)
defatted coconut flours, Nutr. Food Sci. (2015) 11–15.
2682–2691.
[35] P. Udomkun, C. Tirawattananwanich, J. Ilukor, P. Sridonpai, E. Njukwe,
[6] F.O. Samuel, O.R. Ishola, B.O. Otegbayo, Nutritional and sensory evaluation of rice-
P. Nimbona, B. Vanlauwe, Promoting the use of locally produced crops in making
based masa enriched with soybean and crayfish, Food Nutr. Sci. 6 (2015) 234–241,
cereal-legume-based flour blends: an assessment of nutrient, antinutrient, mineral
https://doi.org/10.4236/fns.2015.62024.
molar ratios, and aflatoxin content, Food Chem. 286 (2019) 651–658.
[7] E.C. Igwe, Y.B. Oyebode, M.A. Dandago, Effect of fermentation time and leavening
[36] P.L.S. Sivakami, K. S Sarojini, Formulation of value-added biscuits using defatted
agent on the quality of laboratory produced and market samples of masa (a local
coconut flour, Am. J. Food Technol. 8 (2013) 207–212.
cereal based puff batter), Afr. J. Food Nutr. Sci. 13 (2013) 8415–8427.
[37] E.N. Whitney, E.M.N. Hamilton, S.R. Rolfes, Understanding Nutrition, fifth ed.,
[8] Association of Official Analytical Chemists, AOAC, Official Methods of Analysis
West Publishing Company, St. Paul, Minnesota, 1990. J3 – J4.
Association of Official Analytical Chemists International, eighteenth ed.,
[38] F.M. Makinde, A.O. Eyitayo, The evaluation of nutritional composition and
Association of Official Analytical Chemists International, Rockville, Maryland, USA,
functional and pasting properties of wheat flour-coconut flour blends, Croat. J. Food
2005.
Sci. Technol. 11 (1) (2019) 21–29.
[9] M. Tuncturk, T. Eryigit, N. Sekeroglu, F. Ozgokce, Determination of nutritional
[39] T.P. Coultate, Food: the Chemistry of its Components, The Royal Society of
value and mineral composition of some wild Scorzonera species, Am.
Chemistry, Cambridge, UK, 2009.
J.Essent.Oils.Nat. Prod. 3 (2015) 22–25.
[40] S.R. Rolfes, K. Pinna, E. Whitney, Understanding Normal and Clinical Nutrition.
[10] A.K. Oladele, J.O. Aina, Chemical composition and functional properties of flour
Canada, Wadsworth Cengage Learning, eighth ed., 2008.
produced from two varieties of tiger nut (Cyperus esculenta), Afr. J. Biotechnol. 6
[41] K.G. Dewey, K. H Brown, Update on technical issues concerning complementary
(2007) 2473–2476.
feeding of young children in developing countries and implications for intervention
[11] G.I. Onwuka, Food Analysis and Instrumentation: Theory and Practice. Lagos,
programs, Food Nutr. Bull. 24 (1) (2003) 5–28, 2003.
Nigeria, Naphtali Prints, 2005.
[42] G. I Okafor, G.O. Usman, Production and evaluation of breakfast cereals from
[12] A.S. Ross, C.E. Walker, R.I. Booth, R.A. Orth, C.W. Wrigley, The Rapid Visco
blends of african yam bean (sphenostylis stenocarpa), maize (zea mays) and
Analyzer: a new technique for the estimation of sprout damage, Journal of Cereal
defatted coconut (Cocos nucifera), J. Food Process. Preserv. 38 (3) (2013)
chemistry 32 (1987) 827–829.
1037–1043, https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpp.12060.
[13] Association of Official Analytical Chemists, Official Methods of Analysis,
[43] S. Kumar, C.S. Saini, Study of various characteristics of flour blends prepared from
seventeenth ed., Author, Gaithersburg, MD, 2000.
the blends of wheat flour and gorgon nut flour, Int. J. Agric. Environ. Biotechnol. 9
[14] V.L. Singleton, R. Orethofor, R.M. Lamuela-Raventos, Analysis of total phenols and
(4) (2016) 679–689.
other oxidation substrates and antioxidants by means of Folin-Ciocalteau’s reagent,
[44] G.A. Tumuhimbise, G. Tumwine, W. Kyamuhangire, Amaranth leaves and skimmed
Methods Enzymol. 299 (1999) 152–178.
milk powders improve the nutritional, functional, physico-chemical and sensory
[15] A. Meda, C.E. Lamien, M. Romito, J. Millogo, O.G. Nacoulma, Determination of the
properties of orange fleshed sweet potato flour, Foods 8 (13) (2019) 13–20, https://
total phenolic, flavonoid and praline contents in Burkina Faso honey, as well as
doi.org/10.3390/foods8010013.
their radical scavenging activity, Food Chem. 91 (3) (2005) 571–577.
[45] D. Oppong, E. Arthur, S.O. Kwadwo, E. Badu, P. Sakyi, Proximate composition and
[16] M.A. Gyamfi, M. Yonamine, Y. Aniya, Free radical scavenging action of medicinal
some functional properties of soft wheat flour, Int. J.Innovat. Res.Sci. Eng.Technol.
herbs from Ghana: thonningia sanguinea on experimentally induced liver injuries,
4 (2015) 753–758.
Gen. Pharmacol. 32 (6) (1999) 661–667.
[46] S. Chandra, S. Singh, D. Kumari, Evaluation of functional properties of flour blends
[17] M. Oyaizu, Studies on products of browning reaction antioxidative activity of
and sensorial attributes of flour blends biscuits, J. Food Sci. Technol. 52 (2015)
products of browning reaction prepared from glucosamine, JapaneseJ.Nutr.Diet 44
3681–3688.
(6) (1986) 307–315.
[47] S. Jitngarmkusol, J. Hongsuwankul, K. Tananuwong, Chemical composition,
[18] K.D.P.P. Gunathilake, C. Yalegama, A.A.N. Kumara, Use of coconut flour as a source
functional properties and microstructure of defatted macademice flours, Food
of protein and dietary fibre in wheat bread, Asian J. Food and Agro-Industry 2 (3)
Chem. 110 (2008) 23–30.
(2009) 386–395.
[48] O.S. Abioye, Valorization strategies of coconut flour. Department of human
[19] B.D. Igbabul, F.A. Bello, E.C. Ani, Effect of fermentation on the proximate
nutrition faculty of bioscience engineering, ghent university, in: R.A. Day,
composition and functional properties of defatted coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) flour,
A.L. Underwood (Eds.), Quantitative Analysis, fifth ed., Prentice-Hall Publication,
Sky. J. Food Sci. 3 (5) (2014) 34–40.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 2018, p. 704, 1986.
[20] M.A. Khan, C. Mahesh, A.D. Semwal, G.K. Sharma, Effect of virgin coconut meal
[49] G.I. Okafor, O.G. Usman, Production and evaluation of breakfast cereal from blends
(VCM) on the development of rice-based extruded snacks, Int. J. Adv. Res. 3 (10)
of Africa yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa), maize (Zea mays) and defatted coconut
(2015) 717–725.
(Cocos nucifera), J. Food Process. Preserv. 38 (2013) 1037–1043.
[21] T.P. Trinidad, D.H. Valdez, D.B. Masa, Glycemic index of different coconut flour
products, Br. J. Nutr. 90 (2003) 551–556.

9
J.B. Adeloye et al.
[50] R.P. Teresita, V.P. Ma Rachel, A.U. Mildied, Proficiency test on total dietary fibre in
wheat flour, Int. J. Chem. Eng. Appl. 4 (2) (2013) 23–45.
[51] J.W. Anderson, P. Baird, R.H. Davis Jr., S. Ferreri, M. Knudtson, A. Koraym,
U. Waters, C.L. Williams, Health benefits of dietary fibre, Nutrition. Revised. 67 (4)
(2009) 188–205.
[52] R.K. Arbab, A. Sahib, A. Sajid, B. Saiga, A.K. Iqtidar, Dietary fibre profile of food
legumes, Sarhad J. Agric. 23 (3) (2007) 23–26.
[53] E.R. Ohizua, A.A. Adeola, A.I. Micheal, et al., Nutrient composition, functional, and
pasting properties of unripe cooking banana, pigeon pea, and sweet potato flour
blends, Food Sci. Nutr. 5 (2017) 750–762.
[54] T.O. Osungbaro, D. Jimoh, E. Osundeyi, Functional and pasting properties of
composite Cassava-Sorgum flour meals, Agric. Biol. J. N. Am. 1 (4) (2010) 715–720.
[55] B.O. Ocheme, E.A. Olajide, E.C. Chiemela, M.Y. Caleb, H.A. Ugochukwu, Proximate
composition, functional and pasting properties of wheat and groundnut protein
concentrate flour blends, Food Sci. Nutr. 6 (2018) 1173–1178.
[56] V.F. Abioye, B.I.O. Ade-Omowaye, G.O. Babarinde, M.K. Adesigbin, Chemical,
physico-chemical and sensory properties of soy-plantain flour, Afr. J. Food Sci. 5 (4)
(2011) 176–180.
[57] T.C. Beta, W.R. Harold, R.N.T. Lioyd, John, Starch properties as affected by
sorghum grain chemistry, J. Sci. Food Agric. 81 (2000) 245–251.
[58] M.O. Iwe, U. Onyeukwu, A.N. Agiriga, Proximate, Functional and pasting properties
of FARO 44 rice, African yam bean and brown cowpea seeds flour blends, Cogent
Food and Agriculture 2 (2016) 1142409.
10
Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 2 (2020) 100042
[59] F.H.G. Peroni, T.S. Rocha, C.M.L. Franco, Some structural and physicochemical
characteristics of tuber and root starches, Food Sci. Technol. Int. 12 (2006)
505–510.
[60] M.O. Adegunwa, E.O. Adeleke, A.A. Adebowale, A.A. Bakare, E.O. Alamu,
Evaluation of nutritional and functional properties of plantain (Musa paradisiaca L.)
and tigernut (Cyperus esculentus L.) flour blends for food formulations,
J.Cogent.Chem. 3 (1) (2017).
[61] O.O. Awolu, Optimization of the functional characteristics, pasting and rheological
properties of pearl millet-based flour blends, Heylion 3 (2) (2017) 240–249.
[62] A.A. Badejo, A.P. Osunlakin, A. Famakinwa, A.O. Idowu, T.N. Fagbemi, Analyses of
dietary fibre contents, antioxidant composition, functional and pasting properties of
plantain and moringa oleifera flour blends blends, Cogent Food and Agriculture 3
(1) (2017).
[63] S.C. Alcazar-Alay, M. Angela, A. Meireles, Physicochemical properties,
modifications and applications of starches from different botanical sources, Food
Sci. Technol. 35 (2015) 215–236.
[64] O.O. Awolu, T.E. Olabiran, Supplementation of rice flour with carrot, date palm and
defatted soybean flours for enhanced nutritional, antioxidants and physicochemical
properties, Agric. Food Sci.Res. 6 (1) (2019) 134–144.
[65] Olawoye Babatunde, Effect of Processing Methods on the Chemical Composition,
Functional and Antioxidant propertiesOf amaranthus Virides Seed, Department of
Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Technology, Obafemi Awolowo
University, Ile-ife, 2016.