Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 11 (2023) 100508

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Agriculture and Food Research

journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/journal-of-agriculture-and-food-research

Effect of drying methods on physicochemical, antioxidant and functional

properties of potato peel flour and quality evaluation of potato peel
composite cake
Moushumi Akter, Nishat Anjum, Falguni Roy, Sabina Yasmin, Mouluda Sohany,
Md Sultan Mahomud *
Department of Food Engineering and Technology, Hajee Mohammad Danesh Science and Technology University, Dinajpur, 5200, Bangladesh

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Cakes are usually consumed bakery item all over the world; so, their enrichment with nutrients is an effective
Potato peel flour way to increase nutrition to the people health. This goal can be achieved using the potato peel flour (PPF) on
Drying cake formulation. This research was carried out to compare the effect of drying methods (cabinet and sun drying)
Antioxidant
on the physicochemical, antioxidant and functional properties of dried potato peel flour (PPF). The physical,
Physico-chemical properties
Cakes
textural and sensory characteristics of the PPF incorporated cakes were also evaluated. The PPF was prepared by
Functional property blanching (at 90–95 ◦ C for 2–3 min), drying (65 ◦ C and 30 ◦ C) and grinding the potato peel; afterwards, the
physical and chemical properties of PPF were analyzed. Results showed that cabinet dried PPF contains higher
protein (11.39 ± 0.07%), fat (7.23 ± 0.12%), fibre (12.92 ± 0.09%) and carbohydrate content (55.42 ± 1.07%),
as well as a lower amount of moisture (7.61 ± 0.01%), and ash (9.63 ± 0.67%) percentage than the sun-dried
PPF. Furthermore, the mineral and antioxidant activity was more significant in the cabinet dried PPF compared
to sun-dried PPF. Other functional properties such as water and oil absorption capacity, bulk density, foaming
capacity, emulsifying activity and swelling capacity were also found to be higher for the cabinet-dried PPF than
the sun-dried. Composite cakes were prepared at different ratios of wheat flour to cabinet-dried PPF (100: 0, 96:
4, 94: 6 and 92: 8). The addition of PPF increased the height, volume and weight of cakes compared to the
control (100% wheat flour) cakes. In the sensory evaluation, the cakes enriched with 4% PPF achieved the
highest score for the sensory attributes. Therefore, the incorporation of 4% cabinet-dried PPF with WF could be
suggested for the formulation of composite cakes with better physical and organoleptic qualities.

1. Introduction
Potato (Solanum tuberosum) is an edible tuber of the family Sol­
anaceae which mostly consumed as vegetables. It is herbaceous, usually
propagated by planting pieces of tubers that bear two or three eyes. The
fleshy part of the potato plant root (potato) is commonly eaten as a
vegetable. Every year huge amount of potatoes is produced in the world.
Due to the suitable environment, potato production is increasing day by
day, and in 2019, Bangladesh became the seventh-largest potato pro­
ducing country in the world [1]. At the industrial level, the demand for
potatoes increases day by day. There are lots of palatable foods made
from potatoes such as fried potato strips, chips, crackers, crisps, french
fries and starch, are now available in the market [2]. Still, it is negligible
compared to developed countries, where 10% of their production is
converted to processed food, and 4% is processed for starch [3]. The
potato’s starchy portion is usually consumed, but the peel is discarded as
waste material. Therefore, researchers are concerned about minimizing
the by-product waste such as peel/skin, fibres, rind, and pomace from
agro-food processing raw materials (fruits/vegetables). They are giving
attention to utilizing these by-products to produce value-added food,
feed, fibres, proteins, carbohydrates, organic acids, biopolymers, oils
and so on [4,5]. However, potato peel is often considered a zero value
waste of the food processing plants.
In food processing industries, a huge amount of potato peels is
released as a by-product during the processing of potatoes [6]. It con­
stitutes a significant waste of potato processing that ranges from 15 to
40% of the initial product’s mass; therefore, their valorization should be
of interest to the food industry [7,8]. Potato peel used as a by-product of

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: msmahomud@hstu.ac.bd (M.S. Mahomud).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafr.2023.100508
Received 15 September 2022; Received in revised form 20 December 2022; Accepted 8 January 2023
Available online 10 January 2023
2666-1543/© 2023 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
M. Akter et al.
the food processing industry poses to be inexpensive, valuable, and
affordable starting material for producing economically important
substances. Various applications of potato peels such as value addition,
product extraction including dietary fibre, biopolymers, natural anti­
oxidants, and natural food additives are found Chiellini et al., [9]. With
possible new applications of potato peels, such as inclusion in an inno­
vative food product or as a source of natural antioxidants to stabilize
food lipids, the proper utilization of this by-product could be ensured.
There are several ways to preserve agricultural produce. Drying is
one of the oldest methods used to preserve perishable agricultural pro­
duce in order to ensure their availability all year round. It is one of the
safe methods for preventing spoilage and increasing shelf life of products
[10]. There are two types of drying; sun drying and mechanical drying.
Mechanical dryer (cabinet dryer) is not dependent on sun so it can be
operating when necessary. Cabinet dryer is advantageous for its high
thermal efficiency, suitable for applying high temperature, reduce labor
cost, and easy operate [11]. Drying methods affected the moisture
content, colour, physiochemical and functional properties of potato peel
flour [12].
Cakes are a commonly consumed snack in the fast-food industry and
a highlight of many celebrations. Different types of cakes are available in
the market throughout the world, and these are categorized based on the
baking methods, constituents, size and shape etc. [13,14]. Various types
of cakes can be made using wheat flour incorporated with different
vegetable flour. Different percentages of pumpkin flour [15], ginseng
flour [16], Sweet potato flour [17] etc., are incorporated with wheat
flour to make sponge cakes. Baked goods are also suitable food products
for supplementing dietary fibre from food residue [18]. Dhingra et al.
[19] incorporated dietary fibre from potato peel into biscuits and found
it an acceptable carrier for nutritional supplements.
Although, potato peel flour exhibited a positive outcome on the
nutritional attributes of bakery products, very few researches was found
on the preparation of cakes by using those flours. Therefore, this work
focused on the preparation of cakes enriched with potato peel flour and
evaluating the effectiveness of PPF used as a raw material in increasing
cakes’ nutritional and physical characteristics. In a nut shell, the study
aimed to prepare potato peel flour (PPF), analyze its physicochemical
and nutritional properties, and assess the physical and sensory attributes
of potato peel composite cake.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Preparation of potato peel flour (PPF)
Matured and uniform sized potatoes (Solanum tuberosum) were
collected from the farmer’s field of Hajee Mohammad Danesh Science
and Technology University area. Fresh potatoes of the cardinal variety
were chosen for preparing peel flour. Potatoes were washed with tap
water and cleaned to remove any sticking dirt, soil and sand. Potato
peels were collected using a manual hand peeler of 1.5 mm thickness
and washed twice with the tap water. Then the peels were pretreated
(blanching) in hot water at 90-95 ◦ C for 2–3 min [20] (Sun et al., 2020).
One portion of the pretreated potato peels was dried in the sun for three
(3) days at 30 ◦ C, and the rest were dried in the Multipurpose Cabinet
Dryer (HSTU, Bangladesh) at 65 ◦ C for 12 hours up to constant weight
[21]. Afterwards, the dried peels were cooled in a desiccator at room
temperature (26 ◦ C) and ground into fine powder having nearly 0.2 mm
particle size using a grinder machine (Jaipan CM/L- 7360065, Japan).
The sieved peel flour was packed in high-density polyethene (HDPE)
bags in an airtight condition and kept in the desiccator at room tem­
perature (25 ◦ C) for further analysis.
2.2. Proximate composition of potato peel flour (PPF)
Potato peel flour was analyzed for moisture, protein, fat, ash and
crude fibre by the methods of the Association Official Analytical Chemist
2
Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 11 (2023) 100508
AOAC [22]. The total carbohydrate content of the sample was deter­
mined by the difference method, which was subtracting the measured
protein, fat, ash, moisture and fibre from 100, Pearson, [23].
2.3. Determination of mineral content
The mineral content was measured by digesting the samples and
taking absorbance for a specific mineral. At first, the sample was accu­
rately weighed (0.5 g) and placed in a 100 ml polytetrafluoroethylene
(PTEF) beaker. Then, it was subjected to the acid digestion method to
measure the absorbance for determining the mineral contents. About 5
ml of 65% HNO3 was added to the sample, and then the mixture was
boiled gently for 30–45 min. After cooling, 2.5 ml of 70% HClO4 was
added, and the mixture was gently boiled until a dense white fume
appeared. Later, the mixture was allowed to cool, and 10 ml of deionized
water was added, followed by further boiling until the fumes were
released [24]. Finally, the digested sample was put in a colorimeter
(HACH DR/890 Portable Colorimeter) to analyze the mineral contents.
2.4. Preparation of potato peel flour extract
Potato peel flour extract was prepared according to the method of
Rehman et al. [25]. Two grams of PPF was extracted with 20 ml of
organic solvents (methanol) overnight in a shaker at room temperature.
The extracts were filtered through filter paper (whatman No.1) and the
residues were re-extracted under the same conditions. The extracts were
obtained after filtration was subjected to measure the natural antioxi­
dant present in peel flour.
2.5. Determination of total phenolic content (TPC)
The total phenolic content (TPC) of each sample was determined
according to the method of singleton et al. [26] and Saikia et al. [27].
Briefly, 0.5 ml of extracted sample was taken in a falcon tube and mixed
with 0.5 ml Folin-Ciocalteu’s reagent thoroughly. The mixture was
allowed to react with 1 ml of 7.5% Na2CO3 to the test tube for
neutralization. Then, 8 ml of distilled water was added and vortexed for
20 seconds. After that, the mixture was allowed to stand for 35 min in a
dark place at room temperature followed by centrifugation for 10 min at
4000 rpm. Then, absorbance of the supernatant was taken at 725 nm
using spectrophotometer (UV/VIS, UV-1800, Japan). The concentration
of the total phenolics was calculated as micro g/g of gallic acid equiv­
alent by using an equation obtained from gallic acid calibration curve.
2.6. Determination of antioxidant activity (radical scavenging activity
assay)
The antioxidant capacity of potato peel extracts was determined
using 2, 2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging assay
described by Madhujith and Shahidi [28] with some modifications. A
solution of DPPH was freshly prepared by dissolving 6 mg DPPH in 50 ml
methanol (about 0.3 mM). The extract (1 ml) and DPPH solution (1.9
ml) were mixed in a test tube. The contents were mixed thoroughly and
kept in the dark for 30 mins at ambient temperature (27 ◦ C). The
absorbance was read at 517 nm using a spectrophotometer (UV/VIS,
UV-1800), where methanol was used as a blank. Antioxidant activity
was expressed as percentage inhibition of the DPPH radical and was
determined by the following equation:
Scavenging activity (%) = 1 – (As/Ao) × 100 (i)
Where, As is the absorbance of the sample and DPPH solution and Ao is
the absorbance of the control (methanol and DPPH solution).
M. Akter et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 11 (2023) 100508

2.7. Determination of water and oil absorption capacity
The water and oil absorption capacities were determined by the
method of Sosulski et al. [29]. The sample (0.50 g) was mixed with 12.5
ml distilled water for measuring water absorption capacity or refined
soybean oil for oil absorption capacity. It was kept at ambient temper­
ature (27 ◦ C) for 1 hr. and centrifuged for 20 min at 3000 rpm. Water
and oil absorption capacity was expressed as g of water/oil g− 1 distilled
water and determined by the following equation:
/ 2.11. Physical analyses of cake
Weight of sample − Expel water
Water Oil holding capacity = (ii)
Weight of sample
2.8. Determination of bulk density, emulsifying activity and swelling
capacity
The bulk density, emulsifying activity and swelling capacity were
determined according to the method described by Okaka and Potter
[30]. For bulk density, the sample (50 g) was put into a 100 ml gradu­
ated cylinder and tapped by fingers 20–30 times. For emulsifying ac­
tivity, the sample (0.5 g) was added to 10 ml distilled water and shaking
the mixture for 3 min in a centrifuge tube. The mixture was made up to
12.5 ml by adding oil and homogenized for 3 min. The resulting emul­
sion was centrifuged at 2000 rpm for 5 min and then the emulsion
volume was measured. For swelling capacity, the sample filled up to 10
ml mark in a 100 ml graduated cylinder was added with water to adjust
total volume to 50 ml. The top of the graduated cylinder was tightly
covered and mixed by inverting the cylinder. The suspension was
inverted again after 2 min and allowed to stand for further 30 min. There
were three replicates for each test.
2.9. Determination of foaming capacity of potato peel flour (PPF)
Foaming capacity was determined using the method described by
Narayana and Narasinga Rao [31] with slight modifications. The sample
(1.0 g) was added to 50 ml distilled water in a graduated cylinder at 30
± 2 ◦ C. The suspension was mixed and shaken for 5 min to foam. There
were three replicates for this test. The volume of the foam after whipping
for 30 sec was expressed as foaming capacity. The experiments were
done in three replicates.
The foaming capacity was calculated as follows:
% of Foaming Capacity =
After foam − Before foam
× 100 (iii)
Before foam
percentages (0%, 4%, 6%, and 8%) of cabinet dried potato peel flour
(PPF). After that, about 88 g egg was taken into a bowl and mix well with
mixer at 3 min. After mixing of egg, sugar, butter, and milk powder were
added and mix well. Therefore, flour of pusti brand and baking powder
were added in the batter and mix properly. No water was added in the
batter. Finally, the mixture was poured into a cake pan and baked at
170–180 ◦ C about 25–30 min. The baked product was removed from the
oven and cooled on a rack for 15–20 min at ambient temperature.
Physical properties of the cakes, for instance, weight, volume, height
and color, were measured. The weight of cakes was measured with the
help of a digital weighing balance. The volume (cm3) was estimated by
the rapeseed replace method, AACC [32]. The specific volume was ob­
tained by dividing the volume of cakes by their weights. The height of
cakes was recorded by using a meter scale.
The color attributes (L*, a* and b*) of potato peel flour (PPF) and
prepared cakes were determined using a BIOBASE Colorimeter (BC-110/
200, China). The lightness of PPF and cake was represented by L* (100:
white, 0: black). The redness and greenness were represented by positive
and negative a* (redness (+)/greenness (− )) values, respectively. The
positive and negative b* (yellowness (+)/blueness (− )) represented the
yellowness, and blueness of the samples, respectively. Three mean color
values were obtained based on three repeated measurements for each
cake sample.
2.12. Sensory evaluation
Sensory analysis (color, flavor, taste, texture, and overall accept­
ability) of the PPF cakes were evaluated by 30 panelists on a 9-point
hedonic rating scale Amerine et al., [33]. Randomly coded cake sam­
ples were presented to the panelists. The scores were recorded, where 1
= dislike extremely, 2 = dislike very much, 3 = dislike moderately, 4 =
dislike slightly, 5 = neither like nor dislike, 6 = like slightly, 7 = like
moderately, 8 = like very much, 9 = like extremely.
2.13. Statistical analysis
All tests were performed in triplicates and presented as the mean ±
SD. Data were analyzed using statistical software (SAS for Windows
Version 9.3). Significant differences between the means were estimated
using Duncan’s Multiple Range Tests at a 95% significance level (P <
0.05).

2.10. Preparation of potato peel flour (PPF) cakes 3. Results and discussions

Whole grain wheat flour along with all necessary ingredients was 3.1. Proximate composition of potato peel flour (PPF)
collected from local market, Dinajpur for making cake (Table 1). Plain
cakes were prepared by supplementing the wheat flour with different The proximate composition of the potato peel flour (PPF) was pre­
sented in Table 2. Lower moisture and ash content was found in cabinet
Table 1 dried PPF (7.61 ± 0.01% and 9.64 ± 0.67%, respectively) than in sun-
Formulation of Potato Peel Flour (PPF) enriched cake. dried PPF (10.27 ± 0.15% and 10.39 ± 0.21%). The difference of
Ingredients S1 S2 S3 S4 moisture content may due to drying methods. Similar findings have been
reported by Marak et al. [34] in biscuits developed from foxtail millet
Wheat flour (g) 100 96 94 92
Potato peel flour (g) 0 04 06 08
Sugar (g) 90 90 90 90 Table 2
Oil (g) 40 40 40 40 Proximate composition of cabinet-dried and sun-dried PPF.
Butter (g) 25 25 25 25
Baking powder (g) 04 04 04 04 Components Cabinet dried PPF Sun dried PPF
Milk powder (g) 25 25 25 25 Moisture (%) 7.61 ± 0.01 a
10.27 ± 0.15b
Salt (g) 02 02 02 02 Protein (%) 11.38 ± 0.07a 9.33 ± 0.45b
Egg (gm) 88 88 88 88 Fat (%) 7.23 ± 0.12a 6.71 ± 0.41a
Vanilla Essence (Drops) 02 02 02 02 Ash (%) 9.64 ± 0.67b 10.39 ± 0.21a
Crude Fiber (%) 12.93 ± 0.09a 12.40 ± 0.16a
Here, S1 = 100% Wheat Flour (Control); S2 = 96% Wheat Flour + 4% Potato Peel
Carbohydrates (%) 55.43 ± 0.01a 50.49 ± 0.67b
Flour; S3 = 94% Wheat Flour + 6% Potato Peel Flour; S4 = 92% Wheat Flour +
8% Potato Peel Flour. All values are the mean ± SD of three replicates.

3
M. Akter et al.
and ginger powder. Lower moisture content extends the shelf life of
product and prevents spoilage in time of storage.
On the contrary, the cabinet dried PPF possessed a higher amount of
protein, fat, crude fibre, and carbohydrate (11.38 ± 0.07%, 7.23 ±
0.12%, 12.92 ± 0.09%, and 55.43 ± 0.01%, respectively) than the sun-
dried PPF (9.33 ± 0.45%, 6.71 ± 0.41%, 12.40 ± 0.16%, and 50.49 ±
0.67%, respectively). The higher percentage of nutrients was observed
due to the higher moisture removal in cabinet drying. The potato peel
flour is a rich source of dietary fiber and protein [35].
Drying methods could have affected the nutrient content of the PPF,
and these results are in agreement with Amin et al. [35] and Rowayshed
et al. [36] who found in potato peel flour (PPF) has higher amount of
nutrients. Jemziya et al. [37] reported that high fibre increases the
utility of potato peel flour in various food products. A high level of
carbohydrates is desirable in baked products because upon heating,
starch granules in the presence of water swell and form a gel which is
vital for the textural and structural characteristics of baked goods [17].
A lower amount of water content could be beneficial to achieving higher
nutrition in the dried potato peel wastes during the drying process. The
overall proximate analysis results indicated that the cabinet dried PPF
exhibited higher nutrition values than the sun-dried PPF.
3.2. Mineral content of PPF
K, Ca, and Mg is the minerals found in the greatest abundance in
potato peel flour. One of the most vital minerals for the human body is
potassium It is seen from Fig. 1, K of cabinet-dried and sun-dried potato
peel flour had 11.04 ± 0.03 mg and 9.62 ± 0.29 mg of 100 g, respec­
tively. At the same time, the largest value for another main mineral, Ca,
was found in cabinet-dried PPF (2.89 ± 0.01 mg), which was the least in
the sun-dried PPF (2.26 ± 0.16 mg). Cabinet-dried PPF possessed 1.02
± 0.02 mg Mg, 293.67 ± 1.05 mg Fe and 16.57 ± 0.02 mg Zn, which is
in agreement with Rowayshed et al. [36]. In contrast, sun-dried PPF
contained 0.55 ± 0.07 mg Mg, 188.80 ± 0.50 mg Fe and 17.21 ± 0.29
mg Zn. This study showed that cabinet-dried PPF exhibited a moderately
higher amount of minerals, particularly essential micronutrients such as
K, Ca and Fe.
3.3. Total phenolic content (TPC) and DPPH antioxidant of PPF
The TPC of the extracts was measured using the FC method, which
showed in Fig. 2. The TPC of cabinet and sun-dried PPF was 12.18 ±
0.60 and 9.98 ± 0.53 mg Gallic acid equivalent/g of extract (Fig. 2).
Cabinet-dried PPF showed higher total phenolic content than sun-drying
PPF. These results are in agreement with Khan et al. [38], in potato peel
biscuit. From Fig. 3, it is seen that, the antioxidant activity of cabinet and
sun dried PPF was 54.48 ± 0.90 and 53.89 ± 0.48%, respectively.
Cabinet dried PPF had significantly higher antioxidant than sun dried
PPF. This may due to uniform distribution of thermal energy in cabinet
drying process. Potato peel had the highest antioxidant activity owing to
its high content of phenolic compounds and flavonoids [39].
3.4. Functional properties of potato peel flour (PPF)
The functional properties of both cabinet and sun-dried PPF was
determined and tabulated in Table 3. The water absorption capacity of
cabinet and sun-dried PPF was not significantly different, which was
ranged from 5.67 ± 0.01 to 5.45 ± 0.60 g of water g− 1 dw. The oil
absorption capacity for both samples differed significantly, and the
values for cabinet and sun-dried PPF was 2.84 ± 0.01 and 1.21 ± 0.15 g
of oil g− 1 dw, respectively. These results are similar with Traynham et al.
[40], and El-Safy et al., [41].
The bulk density (g/cm3) of potato peel flour is the density measured
without any influences. The bulk density of cabinet and sun-dried PPF
was 0.64 ± 0.06 and 0.36 ± 0.04 g/ml, accordingly. The bulk density
depends on the particle size and initial moisture content of the flour
4
Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 11 (2023) 100508
[42]. The high bulk density of powder shows its suitability for use in
food preparation. On the other hand, the low bulk density would be an
advantage in the formulation of the complementary food preparation
[43].
The foaming capacity of a protein refers to the amount of interfacial
area created by the protein [44]. Foam means sticky of many gas bubbles
trapped in solid or liquid. From Table 3, the foaming capacity of the
cabinet and sun-dried PPF was statistically similar (12.05 ± 0.01% and
12.62 ± 0.26%, respectively). Foaming capacity increases with the
increasing of blending of powder. The higher the foaming capacity, the
higher the formation of gas bubbles. Protein emulsifying activity is the
ability of the protein to participate in emulsion formation and to stabi­
lize the newly created emulsion. The emulsifying capacity is the ability
of the protein solution or suspension to emulsify the oil. From Table 3,
significant difference was found for the emulsion activity of both cabinet
and sun-dried PPF (25.56 ± 0.03% and 19.14 ± 0.39%, respectively).
Cabinet dried potato peel flour showed a relatively better capacity for
emulsifying activity.
Table 3 showed that the swelling capacity of cabinet and sun-dried
PPF was almost similar (8.29 ± 0.11 and 08.16 ± 0.17 ml/g, respec­
tively). Flour which have lower swelling power and solubility cause the
bakery product will not swell well [45]. The swelling capacity of flours
depends on size of particles, types of variety and types of processing
methods or unit operations [42]. The hunter color values (L*, a* and b*)
of PPF as affected by drying methods (Table 3). The range of values for
cabinet and sun dried PPF was: L* values varied from 60.55 to 62.50, a*
(14.18–15.70) and b* (22.32–24.60). In terms of color, the L* values
indicated that the cabinet dried PPF (62.50 ± 0.10) was lighter than sun
drying PPF (60.55 ± 0.13). The a* values indicated that the color of
cabinet dried PPF (14.18 ± 0.13) was more towards greenness whereas
the sun drying PPF (15.70 ± 0.20) was more towards redness. Lastly, the
b* values indicated more yellowness in cabinet dried PPF (24.60 ± 0.26)
than sun drying PPF (22.32 ± 0.27).
All data are the mean ± SD of three replicates.
3.5. Effect of cabinet dried potato peel flour (PPF) on physical
characteristics of cakes
The physical properties of wheat flour (WF) cakes supplemented
with different percentage of cabinet dried PPF (4%, 6%, and 8%) were
shown in Table 4. The values showed that the heights of the formulated
cakes were increased with the increasing amount of potato peel flour
incorporated and was ranged from 2.76 to 2.89 cm. There were no
significant differences (P > 0.05). Sample S4 obtained highest score in
height. The weight of sample S1, S2 and sample S3, S4 were similar where
both group weight varied significantly (P < 0.05). Sample S4 gained the
highest weight due to potato peel flour contains higher percentages of
crude fiber. The fiber holds the water, which contributed to the higher
weight of the composite flour cake.
The cake volume is the most important physical quality parameter
used for the evaluation of the cake. For samples S2 and S3, the volume of
the processed cake gradually decreased with the increase of PPF per­
centages; however, for sample S4 the volume did not differ significantly
compared to the control sample (S1). S1 demonstrated the highest vol­
ume 121.09 ± 1.00 cm3. Furthermore, no significant difference was
observed among the cake samples; nevertheless, the values for specific
volumes of the processed cakes decreased with the increase of PPF.
These results could be attributed due to the increasing PPF level could
have affected the gluten network with low strength and gas retention.
These results are in agreement with some previous studies conducted by
Kim et al. [46].
The color parameters values slowed that with the higher amount of
PPF replacement with wheat flour reduced the L*, a*, and b* values
which indicates the darkness of the cake samples increased and the color
shifted towards greenness and blueness. Potato peel flour was dark
brown in nature, ascribed to the colors of the PPF added cake samples.
M. Akter et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 11 (2023) 100508

Fig. 1. Mineral compositions of sun and cabinet dried PPF.

5
M. Akter et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 11 (2023) 100508

Table 4
Physical properties of cakes supplemented with 0%, 4%, 6%, and 8% of PPF.
Parameters S1 S2 S3 S4

Height (cm) 2.767 ± 2.860 ± 2.840 ± 2.890 ±

0.047b 0.056a 0.079a 0.017a
Weight (g) 68.387 ± 68.653 ± 69.193 ± 69.713 ±
0.374b 0.241b 0.227a 0.323a
Volume (cm3) 121.197 ± 120.797 ± 120.507 ± 121.240 ±
0.110b 0.514a 0.532a 0.697b
S. volume 1.757 ± 1.750 ± 1.750 ± 1.727 ±
(cm3/g) 0.011a 0.026a 0.020a 0.015a
L* 63.930 ± 56.980 ± 55.473 ± 53.387 ±
0.025a 0.231d 0.599c 0.432b
a* 14.943 ± 13.723 ± 11.797 ± 10.667 ±
0.042a 0.133b 0.148c 0.185d
b* 24.723 ± 23.367 ± 22.363 ± 21.713 ±
0.035a 0.246b 0.211c 0.299d

All data are the mean ± SD of three replicates. Means in row with different
Fig. 2. Total phenol content of sun and cabinet dried PPF.
superscript were significantly different (P<0.05 based on ANOVA). Here, S1 =
100% Wheat Flour (Control); S2 = 96% Wheat Flour + 4% Potato Peel Flour; S3
= 94% Wheat Flour + 6% Potato Peel Flour; S4 = 92% Wheat Flour + 8% Potato
Peel Flour; L*, lightness, a* redness, b* yellowness.

Fig. 3. Antioxidant activity of sun and cabinet dried PPF.

Table 3
Functional properties of cabinet and sun-dried PPF.
Properties Cabinet dried PPF Sun-dried PPF
− 1 a
WAC (g of Water g dw) 5.67 ± 0.01 5.45 ± 0.60a
OAC (g of oil g− 1 dw) 2.84 ± 0.01a 1.21 ± 0.15b
Bulk density (g/ml) 0.64 ± 0.06a 0.36 ± 0.04a
Foaming capacity (%) 12.05 ± 0.01a 12.62 ± 0.26a
Emulsifying activity (%) 25.56 ± 0.03a 19.14 ± 0.39b
Swelling capacity (ml/g) 08.29 ± 0.11a 8.16 ± 0.17a
L* 62.50 ± 0.10a 60.55 ± 0.13b
a* 14.18 ± 0.13b 15.70 ± 0.20a
b* 24.60 ± 0.26a 22.32 ± 0.27b

3.6. Effect of potato peel flour (PPF) on symmetrical parameters, crumb

and crust characteristics of cakes

The term “symmetry” is self-explanatory. Symmetry parameters are
considered as Evenness and Edges. Evenness is qualified on the level of
even, uneven and medium even. The most common faults are low edges,
high edges, low centres, high centres and unevenness. The presented
picture (Fig. 4) shows the changes in the potato peel-enriched cakes. The
figure clearly showed that increasing the percentages of PPF resulted in
uniform to medium uniform and low edges cake. The observations on
the symmetry and crumb and crust characteristics of the cake containing
different levels of composite flour are represented in Table 5. From
Table 5, it can be seen that the cake sample S2 (containing 96% Wheat
Flour + 4% Potato Peel Flour) gained better symmetry compared to the
other cakes.
Table 5 also showed that the addition of PPF affected the
Fig. 4. Physical appearance of cakes supplemented with 0%, 4%, 6%, and 8%
of PPF.
characteristics of crust and crumb of the processed cakes, revealing that
the acceptability of PPF supplemented cakes could be decreased due to a
higher percentage of PPF supplementation.
As can be seen in Fig. 4, the more the addition of PPF, the more the
darkness in the cake color was found, which was also verified in Table 4.
Regarding the observations on color differences of cake crumb and crust
(Table 5), the crust color of sample S4 (containing 92% Wheat Flour +
8% Potato Peel Flour) was than other cake samples (S2 and S3). The
differences (deepness) in crust color among different cake samples were
generally higher as the potato peel flour percentage increased.
Consistency of crust applies to the condition of the crust and varies

6
M. Akter et al. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 11 (2023) 100508

Table 5
Symmetry, crust and crumb characteristics of cakes supplemented with PPF.
Sample Symmetry Crust characteristics Crumb characteristics

Evenness Edges Center Color Consistency Color Surface Flavor Grain

Texture
Close or Shape and
airy size

S1 Medium Medium Good Brown Softer Brownish yellow Smooth Appetizing Close Uniform
even
S2 Even Medium Medium Slight black Soft Brownish medium Smooth Appetizing Close Uniform
brown dark
S3 Not even Low Low Medium dark Tough Darkish brown Light smooth Light Less airy Less Uniform
brown appetizing
S4 Medium Medium Medium Darkish black Tough Dark Rough Bitter Flavor airy Less Uniform
even

Here, S1 = 100% Wheat Flour (Control); S2 = 96% Wheat Flour + 4% Potato Peel Flour; S3 = 94% Wheat Flour + 6% Potato Peel Flour; S4 = 92% Wheat Flour + 8%
Potato Peel Flour.

with the types of cake [47]. As shown in Table 5, the softer crust was other cake samples.
obtained in the control (S1) sample. The cake sample S2 (containing 96%
Wheat Flour + 4% Potato Peel Flour) gained soft crust. The Sample S3
3.7. Influence of potato peel flour (PPF) on sensory evaluation of cakes
and S4 had medium tough crust compared to the control (S1) and the
sample S2. Crumb color evaluation was made with interior slices. Color
The organoleptic properties of prepared PPF fortified cakes are
differences were observed between control (S1) cake and composite
presented in Fig. 5. One-way analysis of variance indicated that the
cakes (S2, S3 and S4). As mentioned in Table 5, the crumb color of the
color, flavor, texture, taste and overall acceptability of the different
control (S1) cake was brownish yellow; sample S2 was brownish and
cakes were significantly different at (P<0.05). From the score sheet and
slight dark with 15% darker, sample S3 was darkish brown with 30%
Least Significant Difference (LSD) multiple comparison test, it was found
darker, and sample S4 was dark with 50% darker compared with control
that the PPF supplemented cakes obtained a lower score than the control
sample (S1). Sample S2 gained better crumb color than those obtained
cake sample. Fig. 5 indicated that the percent score of cakes containing
from cakes of different levels of composite flour.
4% PPF (S2) were found to be more acceptable as at 4% level of PPF
Crumb Texture differences were observed between the control (S1)
incorporation, all the sensory attributes scored the highest level. This
cake and the sample S4(Containing 92% WF + 8% PPF). The differences
result verified the previous discussion on the cake characteristics and
decreased with the increasing incorporation of potato peel flour. The
also relatable with the findings of Ben et al., [49]. Thus, the sensory
texture differences between samples S3 and S4 were high. In terms of the
evaluation depicts that the lowest amount of PPF (4%) can be incorpo­
flavor differences, the composite cake samples provided better flavor as
rated into the cake mixture, replacing the wheat flour to develop a
compared to the control one. The flavor of samples S3 and S4 was not as
consumer-friendly cake.
natural as the other samples (S1 and S2); however, a good (i.e. fresh,
sweet, natural) and appetizing flavor was possessed by S2.
4. Conclusion
Crumb grain of cakes indicates the shape, size and character of the
cell wall structure of crumb [48]. The crumb grains of cakes containing
Effects of drying methods (cabinet and sun drying) on the physico­
different levels of composite flour substitution are presented in Table 5.
chemical, antioxidant and functional properties of potato peel flour
The uniformity of size with thin-walled cells is most desirable for crumb
(PPF) were investigated. The results demonstrated that lower moisture
grain. Coarseness, thick-walled cells, uneven cell size, and large holes
content and higher nutrients were found in cabinet-dried potato peel
indicate poor grain. From Table 5, it was observed that the cake samples
flour (PPF) than sun-dried flour. The phenolic and antioxidant content
S3 and S4 gained coarser grain and less uniform shape and size. The
was also higher in cabinet-dried PPF than the sun-dried PPF. Based on
crumb grain of S2 sample was uniform with thin-walled cells than the
physicochemical properties, cabinet-dried PPF was selected for the

Fig. 5. Sensory attributes of cakes supplemented with 0%, 4%, 6%, and 8% of PPF.

7
M. Akter et al.
processing of cakes by incorporating different percentages of potato peel
flour (0%, 4%, 6%. 8%), replacing the wheat flour. The incorporation of
4% cabinet dried PPF with 96% WF had highly acceptable physical and
organoleptic characteristics compared to other combinations. This
finding could be valuable in decision-making for industries that the
potato by-product waste that is potato peel powder could give nutri­
tional advantages as an alternative or supplement to cereal products. At
the same time, it will contribute to minimizing the world waste issue.
Funding
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding
agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Ethical review
This study does not involve any human or animal testing.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare the following financial interests/personal re­
lationships which may be considered as potential competing interests:
Md. Sultan Mahomud reports equipment, drugs, or supplies was pro­
vided by Hajee Mohammad Danesh Science and Technology University.
Md. Sultan Mahomud reports a relationship with Hajee Mohammad
Danesh Science and Technology University that includes: employment.
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgement
The authors wish to thank Faculty member of Department of Food
Engineering and Technology, Hajee Mohammad Danesh Science and
Technology University, Bangladesh to provide the continuous moral
support.
References
[1] Utsarika Singha, S. Maezawa, Production, marketing system, storage and future
aspect of potato in Bangladesh, Rev. Agricult. Sci. 7 (2019) 29–40.
[2] Fakhreddin Salehi, A. Roustaei, A. Haseli, Effect of surface coating with seeds
mucilages and xanthan gum on oil uptake and physical properties of fried potato
strips, Food Sci. Nutr. 9 (2021) 6245–6251.
[3] M.J.H. Keij bets, Potato processing for the consumers: developments and future
challenges, Internation. Potato Res. 51 (2008) 271–281.
[4] Valeria Ventorino, A. Robertiello, S. Viscardi, A. Ambrosanio, V. Faraco, Bio-based
chemical production from Arundo donax feedstock fermentation using Cosenzaea
myxofaciens BPM1, Bioresources 11 (3) (2016) 6566–6581.
[5] Mouluda Sohany, I.S.M.A. Tawakkal, S.H. Ariffin, N. N. A. Karim Shah, Y.A. Yusof,
Characterization of anthocyanin associated purple sweet potato starch and peel-
based pH indicator films, Foods 10 (9) (2021) 2005.
[6] Di Wu, Recycle technology for potato peel waste processing: a review, Procedia
Environ. Sci. 31 (2016) 103–107.
[7] Hazal Akyol, Y. Riciputi, E. Capanoglu, M.F. Caboni, V. Verardo, Phenolic
compounds in the potato and its byproducts: an overview, Int. J. Mol. Sci. 17 (6)
(2016) 835.
[8] Haftom Yemane Gebrechristos, W. Chen, Utilization of potato peel as eco-friendly
products: a review, Food Sci. Nutr. 6 (6) (2018) 1352–1356.
[9] Emo Chiellini, P. Cinelli, F. Chiellini, S.H. Imam, Environmentally degradable bio-
based polymeric blends and composites, Macromol. Biosci. 4 (3) (2004) 218–231.
[10] Fakhreddin Salehi, Recent applications and potential of infrared dryer systems for
drying various agricultural products: a review, Int. J. Fruit Sci. 20 (3) (2020)
586–602.
[11] S. Yasmin, M. Hasan, M. Sohany, M.S.H. Sarker, Drying kinetics and quality aspects
of bitter gourd (Momordica charantia) dried in a novel cabinet dryer, Food Res. 6
(4) (2022) 180–188.
[12] Fakhreddin Salehi, S. Aghajanzadeh, Effect of Dried Fruits and Vegetables Powder
on Cakes Quality: A Review, Trends in Food Science & Technology, 2019.
[13] J. Eke, S.C. Achinewhu, L. Sanni, Nutritional and sensory qualities of some
Nigerian cakes, Niger. Food J. 26 (2) (2008).
8
Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 11 (2023) 100508
[14] Fakhreddin Salehi, Characterization of new biodegradable edible films and
coatings based on seeds gum: a review, J. Pack. Technol. Res. 3 (2) (2019)
193–201.
[15] Wafaa Sh Ali, Nutrition with pumpkin (Cucrbita pepo) cake as lowering cholesterol
in rats, Middle East J. Appl. Sci. 5 (1) (2015) 10–18.
[16] Soo-Bong Yoon, S.Y. Hwang, D.S. Chun, S.K. Kong, K.O. Kang, An investigation of
the characteristics of sponge cake with ginseng powder, Korean J. Food. Nutrit. 20
(1) (2007) 20–26.
[17] S.U. Okorie, E.N. Onyeneke, Production and quality evaluation of baked cake from
blend of sweet potatoes and wheat flour, Part-I: Nat. Appl. Sci. 3 (2) (2012)
171–177.
[18] Shahzad Hussain, F.M. Anjum, M.S. Alamri, Fortification of pan bread with healthy
flaxseed, Austr. J. Basic Appl. Sci. 5 (11) (2011) 978–983.
[19] Devinder Dhingra, M. Mona, R. Hradesh, Physico-chemical characteristics of
dietary fibre from potato peel and its effect on organoleptic characteristics of
biscuits, J. Agricult. Eng. 49 (4) (2012) 25–32.
[20] Xiangfeng Sun, X. Jin, N. Fu, X. Chen, Effects of different pretreatment methods on
the drying characteristics and quality of potatoes, Food Sci. Nutr. 8 (11) (2020)
5767–5775.
[21] A.N. Ohuoba, G.I. Onwuka, R.M. Omodamiro, Effects of drying methods on
physico-chemical properties of hydrocolloids isolated from peel flour of some
selected root and tuber crops, Int. J. Biochem. Res. Rev. 27 (3) (2019) 1–8.
[22] D.C. Washington, Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, and William
Horwitz. Official Methods of Analysis, Vol. 222, fifteenth ed., AOAC, 2005.
[23] David Pearson, The Chemical Analysis of Foods, seventh ed., Churchill Livingstone,
New York, 1970.
[24] Zeng-Yei Hseu, Evaluating heavy metal contents in nine composts using four
digestion methods, Bioresour. Technol. 95 (1) (2004) 53–59.
[25] Zia-ur Rehman, F. Habib, W.H. Shah, Utilization of potato peels extract as a natural
antioxidant in soy bean oil, Food Chem. 85 (2) (2004) 215–220.
[26] Vernon L. Singleton, R. Orthofer, R.M. Lamuela-Raventós, Analysis of total phenols
and other oxidation substrates and antioxidants by means of folin-ciocalteu
reagent, Methods Enzymol. 299 (1999) 152–178.
[27] Sangeeta Saikia, H. Dutta, D. Saikia, C.L. Mahanta, Quality characterisation and
estimation of phytochemicals content and antioxidant capacity of aromatic
pigmented and non-pigmented rice varieties, Food Res. Int. 46 (1) (2012) 334–340.
[28] Terrence Madhujith, F. Shahidi, Antioxidant potential of pea beans (Phaseolus
vulgaris L.), J. Food Sci. 70 (2005) 585–590.
[29] R. Hoover, Ontario, F. Sosulski, Saskatchewan, Effect of cross-linking on functional
properties of legume starches, Starch Staerke 38 (5) (1986) 149–155.
[30] James C. Okaka, N.N. Potter, Functional and storage properties of cowpea powder-
wheat flour blends in breadmaking, J. Food Sci. 42 (3) (1977) 828–833.
[31] K. Narayana, M.S.N. Rao, Functional properties of raw and heat processed winged
bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus) flour, J. Food Sci. 47 (5) (1982) 1534–1538.
[32] M.N. St Paul, American association of cereal chemist, in: Cereal Laboratory
Methods, seventh ed., AACC, 1983.
[33] M.A. Amerine, R.M. Pangborn, E.B. Roessler, Principles of Sensory Evaluation of
Food, Academic Press, New York/London, 1965.
[34] Natasha R. Marak, C.C. Malemnganbi, C.R. Marak, L.K. Mishra, Functional and
antioxidant properties of cookies incorporated with foxtail millet and ginger
powder, J. Food Sci. Technol. 56 (11) (2019) 5087–5096.
[35] Javeria Amin, R. Zubair, Proximate analysis of potato peel composite flour
chapatti, Internation. J. Global Sci. (TIJOGS) 3 (1) (2020) 1–7.
[36] G. Rowayshed, A.M. Sharaf, S.Y. El-Faham, M.M. S Ashour, A.A. Zaky, Utilization
of potato peels extract as source of phytochemicals in biscuits, J. Basic Appl. Res.
Int. 8 (3) (2015) 190–201.
[37] M.B.F. Jemziya, T. Mehendran, Physical quality characters of cookies produced
from composite blends of wheat and sweet potato flour, Ruhuna J. Sci. 8 (2017)
12–23.
[38] M.T. Khan, M. Taimoor, A.S. Shah, Polyphenoles extraction from the potato peel
and their utilization in biscuit, Pure Appl. Biol. 6 (4) (2019) 1269–1275.
[39] Adel AA. Mohdaly, M.A. Sarhan, I. Smetanska, A. Mahmoud, Antioxidant
properties of various solvent extracts of potato peel, sugar beet pulp and sesame
cake, J. Sci. Food Agric. 90 (2) (2010) 218–226.
[40] T.L. Traynham, D.J. Myers, A.L. Carriquiry, L.A. Johnson, Evaluation of water-
holding capacity for wheat–soy flour blends, J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 84 (2) (2007)
151–155.
[41] F. Samia El-Safy, R.H. Salem, M.E.A. El-Ghany, Chemical and nutritional
evaluation of different seed flours as novel sources of protein, World J. Dairy Food
Sci. 7 (1) (2012) 59–65.
[42] Suresh Chandra, S. Singh, D. Kumari, Evaluation of functional properties of
composite flours and sensorial attributes of composite flour biscuits, J. Food Sci.
Technol. 52 (6) (2015) 3681–3688.
[43] M.I. Akpata, P.I. Akubor, Chemical composition and selected functional properties
of sweet orange (Citrus sinensis) seed flour, Plant Foods Hum. Nutr. 54 (4) (1999)
353–362.
[44] R.O. Fennama, Food Chemistry, third ed., Marcel Dekker Inc., New York, Basel,
Hong Kong, 1996, pp. 36–39.
[45] Heny Kusumayanti, N.A. Handayani, H. Santosa, Swelling power and water
solubility of cassava and sweet potatoes flour, Procedia Environ. Sci. 23 (2015)
164–167.
[46] Jae Hwan Kim, H.J. Lee, H.S. Lee, E.J. Lim, J.Y. Imm, H.J. Suh, Physical and
sensory characteristics of fibre-enriched sponge cakes made with Opuntia
humifusa, LWT - Food Sci. Technol. (Lebensmittel-Wissenschaft -Technol.) 47 (2)
(2012) 478–484.
M. Akter et al.
[47] Tamanna Tasnim, P.C. Das, A.A. Begum, A.H. Nupur, M.A.R. Mazumder,
Nutritional, textural and sensory quality of plain cake enriched with rice rinsed
water treated banana blossom flour, J. Agricul. Food Res. 2 (2020), 100071.
[48] Fakhreddin Salehi, Improvement of gluten-free bread and cake properties using
natural hydrocolloids: a review, Food Sci. Nutr. 7 (11) (2019) 3391–3402.
Journal of Agriculture and Food Research 11 (2023) 100508
[49] Khawla Ben Jeddou, F. Bouaziz, S.Z. Ellouzi, F. Chaari, S.E. Chaabouni, R.
E. Ghorbel, O.N. Ellouz, Improvement of texture and sensory properties of cakes by
addition of potato peel powder with high level of dietary fiber and protein, Food
Chem. 217 (2017) 668–677.