Bioresource Technology 363 (2022) 127982

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Bioresource Technology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/biortech

CO2 bio-mitigation using genetically modified algae and biofuel production

towards a carbon net-zero society
A. Saravanan a, V.C. Deivayanai a, P. Senthil Kumar b, c, *, Gayathri Rangasamy d, Sunita Varjani e
a
Department of Sustainable Engineering, Institute of Biotechnology, Saveetha School of Engineering, SIMATS, Chennai 602105, India
b
Department of Chemical Engineering, Sri Sivasubramaniya Nadar College of Engineering, Chennai 603110, India
c
Centre of Excellence in Water Research (CEWAR), Sri Sivasubramaniya Nadar College of Engineering, Chennai 603110, India
d
University Centre for Research and Development & Department of Civil Engineering, Chandigarh University, Gharuan, Mohali, Punjab 140413, India
e
Gujarat Pollution Control Board, Gandhinagar 382 010, Gujarat, India

H I G H L I G H T S

• Bio-mitigation of carbons by a micro-algal system is considered a feasible approach.

• Genetically engineered algae usage for CO2 capture and energy generation is detailed.
• The conversion of algae lipids to biofuel through transesterification is described.
• Research and future works in CO2 bio-mitigation-algae-biofuel production are discussed.

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: CO2 sequestration carried by biological methodologies shows enhanced potential and has the advantage that
CO2 capture biomass produced from the captured CO2 can be used for different applications. Bio-mitigation of carbons
Algae through a micro-algal system addresses a promising and feasible option. This review mostly focused on the role
Biofuel
of algae, particular mechanisms, bioreactors in algae cultivation, and genetically modified algae in CO2 fixation
Bio-mitigation
Green energy
and energy generation systems. A combination of CO2 bio-mitigation and biofuel production might deliver an
extremely promising alternative to current CO2 mitigation systems. Bio mitigation in which the excess carbon is
captured and bio fixation which the carbon is captured by algae or autotrophs and used for producing biofuel.
This review revealed that steps for biofuel production from algae include factors affecting, harvesting techniques,
oil extraction and transesterification. This review helps environmentalists and researchers to assess the effect of
algae-based biorefinery on the green environment.

1. Introduction
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) have
reported that the globe’s temperature has been increasing each month of
the year 2021. Globally 2021 has been recorded as the 6th hottest year
in climatic history. Mother earth’s temperature has increased by 1℃
since 2012 predication says that the rise may be up to 5.8℃ by 2050,
and overall warming has risen by 45 % so far. The drastic temperature
change is due to the heavy release of greenhouse gases (GHGs) which are
carbon dioxide, hydrofluorocarbons, methane, ozone, hydro­
chlorofluorocarbons, and nitrous oxide among these gases CO2 occupies
a high percentage of overall GHGs which rapidly increased in the past
years (Modak et al., 2018; De Silva et al., 2015). NOAA 2021, the annual
report states that CO2 emission is the two-thirds cause of the excess heat
wave and solar radiation. As soda, CO2 is mixing in water sources
making them acidic and making a question mark for the ocean
ecosystem. The carbon rate in the atmosphere has increased from 419.13
to 420.99 ppm within a year. The present data for May 2022 is 420.99
ppm. It may further increase by 2023 (Herbert et al., 2021). The com­
bustion of fuels, coal, liquid CO2, oil, natural gas, etc increases the 90 %
of carbon dioxide released in the atmosphere which results in a rise in
heat waves. This worsening in temperature results in drastic floods
which causes an increase in seawater levels, droughts, heat storms,
tsunamis, green lands has been spoiled and unleashes of pure water

* Corresponding author at: Department of Chemical Engineering, Sri Sivasubramaniya Nadar College of Engineering, Chennai 603110, India.
E-mail address: senthilkumarp@ssn.edu.in (P. Senthil Kumar).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2022.127982
Received 3 August 2022; Received in revised form 10 September 2022; Accepted 12 September 2022
Available online 17 September 2022
0960-8524/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
A. Saravanan et al.
(Ekwebelem et al., 2020; Li et al., 2018; Thøgersen et al., 2021).
In human health CO2 level causes intense impact such as increased
heart rates, hypertension, sweating, and coma in severe cases (Jacobson
et al., 2019). United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
has drafted many policies and orders for the reduction of CO2 and other
GHGs, this created awareness among countries, and thereby researchers
worldwide concentrated on decarbonization. Few countries started
imposing a carbon tax on large-scale industries and suggested public to
public transport (Criqui et al., 2019). The carbon sequestration process
has drawn the researcher’s interest, this process in which CO2 is
collected from the atmosphere and stored (Lal et al., 2015; Carey
et al.,2013). This technique has numerous advantages such as the
reduction of emitted CO2 levels, regulating climatic changes, pollutants
being cleared, and captured carbon being used as an energy source in
various applications for industrial chemical production, and fertilizer
manufacturing (Buotte et al., 2020). There are four main methods for
CO2 sequestration they are chemical, physical, geological, and biolog­
ical methods. The chemical process where the carbon is adsorbed by
either metal or chemicals produces carbonates as a stable product, a
large number of reagents is used but the accumulation and yield are very
low (Dai et al., 2020; Krijt et al., 2020). The physical adsorption process
uses carbon, zeolite, and silica act as adsorbents and the major disad­
vantage is deep underground storage is leaked in some cases and has
higher production costs. Geological sequestration the storage is directed
into super deep ground, marine or deep oceans but the leakage of gases
has more harm than its advantage. Biological sequestration is the net
accumulation of carbon from the atmosphere with the help of green
plants and microorganisms in this huge carbon are stored in a cost-
effective manner (Irfan et al., 2019).
No doubtfully biological method has its own added advantage due to
its sustainability, renewability, high bio fixation, more additive prod­
ucts, and eco-friendly nature. Where both photosynthetic and non-
photosynthetic microbes efficiently sequester and fix carbon, they
multiply rapidly in the reactor, and continuously harvesting is available
and uses less nutrient intake (Zhang et al., 2016). Microbes such as
fungi, bacteria, yeast, and algae are efficient sequesters. In 19 groups of
bacteria, 6 are used as the sequester but some of them cannot survive in
O2. Fungi with rigid cell walls fix high concentrated carbon. Alternation
of genes in microbes has a high fixation rate compared to traditional
microbes.
Recently genetically engineered microalgae have drawn researchers’
interest because already naturally available algae are good sequencers
where modification in their gene made them more powerful sequencers
and catalysts in the C4 pathway (Song et al., 2020; Liu et al., 2020; Fang
et al., 2018). Many species have been modified they include Porphyra
purpurea, Pseudo nitzschia, Chlamydomonas, Aureococcus anophageferrens,
Ostreococcus lucimarinus, Phaeodactylum tricornutum, Thalassiosira pseu­
donana, Chlorella vulgaris, Galdieria sulphuraria, Cyanidioschyzon merolae,
Thalassiosira rotula, Fragilariopsis cylindrus, Botryococcus braunii, Micro­
monas pusilla, Dunaliella salina, Micromonas pusilla, and Volvox carteri.
The cultivation of this algae is grown in a bioreactor under optimum
conditions which have a higher growth rate than flora and fauna, this
has a doubling time of two to four hours (Ahmed et al., 2019). 50 percent
increased carbon fixation efficiency is observed, and other environ­
mental uses are power sourcing, biofuel production, etc (Polimene et al.,
2017, Singh et al., 2014).
Reports state that our planet earth is left with fuel only for 52 years.
Traditionally algae are known for crude oil deposition. Microalgae-
based synthesis of biofuel from lipid in them. The fatty acid from
lipids is isolated and used as a combustible fuel source (Spicer and
Molnar, 2018) The paper broadly explains that gene-modified super
algae production of biofuel in industries norms and has cut off gas prices
it has emerged as an alternative source for fuel (Zulu et al., 2018). These
algae have become an effective and cheap source for biodiesel, bio­
ethanol, biogas, and many other combustible agents due to their high
lipid and oil production capacity (Shuba and Kifle, 2018; Adeniyi et al.,
2
Bioresource Technology 363 (2022) 127982
2018). The review paper explains the novel techniques and best methods
for increased yield such as genetically modified algae and its cultivation
parameters, dosages, genetic tools usage, lipid metabolism of micro­
algae, bio mitigation, harvested microalgae usage in the production of
biofuel aiming for zero carbon waste with limited resources usage, and
future works are discussed.
2. Bio-mitigation of CO2
Bio mitigation or biological sequestering of carbon is a technique in
which CO2 open atmosphere is mitigated by sequestering and converting
them into biomass, biofuel, and wastewater treatment (Zhou et al.,
2017). There are various sources of microbes for sequestering but
microalgae act as bio pumps in the reduction of carbon level and it also
fixes the carbon into the soil which makes green land more fertile.
Genetically engineered microalgae have biologically active micro mol­
ecules that are being used in the mitigation process. This method of
mitigation is mainly sustainable, production is rapid and eco-friendly
(Daneshvar et al., 2022).
2.1. CO2 emission and toxic effects
Carbon dioxide is colourless and chemical gas found in traces of the
atmosphere which is 53 % denser than other gases. Naturally, CO2 is
regulated by the atmospheric carbon cycle where carbon is released by
humans, plants, bacteria, and algae in respiration and some organisms
consume carbon in the photosynthesis process to produce glucose. Fish
excretes CO2 into the natural water source (Balcombe et al., 2017; Paine
et al., 2021). Bacteria and yeast produce carbon in the fermentation
process. Degradation of organic waste release carbon these are the
natural and controlled release of CO2 into nature (Manikandan et al,
2021). Until 1950, Carbon emission was minimal in the mid-20th cen­
tury industrial revolution started it was the first time the world released
6 billion tons of CO2 at present we are dumping 35 billion tons of CO2
each year.
Being primary GHG, 79 % of CO2 human emission in which transport
contributes 35 %, factory and industries produces 14 %, electricity 31 %,
houses, and commercial emits about 12 %, and burning of fossil fuels
produces 8 % of CO2 these are major emitters of carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere (Rehman et al., 2021). As a thickly pullulated country, Asia
is the highest emitter of CO2 and other pollutants. Pacific Asian counties
accounted for 52 % of emissions in the last few years. 17.74 billion tons
of CO2. 4.6 billion tons are produced by transportation. India’s emis­
sions are mainly due to coal, cement, and the shipping sector. This
carbon release causes a change in GHGs and results in drastic changes in
seasons and rainfall (Li and Haneklaus, 2021).
CO2 has a very toxic impact on living organisms, but they are used in
the food industry, fuel, color enhancer, etc. CO2 level below 5 % is less
harmful when it crosses above 10 % it is highly toxic and causes
migraine, coma, and sudden death due to breathlessness. WHO reports
that 1.3 % of deaths are due to this carbon toxication. Working in cargo,
the chemical industry’s continuous exposure to carbon causes adverse
side effects (Cazes et al., 2021). Inhaling about 7 % of carbon causes
increased blood pressure levels, heavy migraines, dizziness, and confu­
sion; 6 – 10 % hyperventilation syndrome (rapid breathing disorder); 11
– 17 % muscle twisting, and above 18 % cause death.
Mild exposure to carbon caused hypertension, respiratory problem,
cardiac problems develop, central nervous system (CNS) gets affected
where it causes eye flickering, 50,000 ppm CO2 for 24 h cause muta­
genesis in cells and develops tumors in bone marrow and lungs. The
hazardous and toxic health effects of CO2 onto human, plants and ani­
mals. Carbon gas exposure on the skin causes redness, itching, and
worsening resulting in skin cancer (Dong et al., 2022; Zhang et al 2020).
Many aquatic lives were affected due to the toxicity of dissolved CO2.
Fishes and aquatic organisms were observed with brain dysfunction and
impaired brain syndrome was recorded. A higher volume of CO2 in
A. Saravanan et al. Bioresource Technology 363 (2022) 127982

ocean water results in elevated pH results in more acidic water making
the water body contaminated and a harder place for aquatic life
(Donaldson et al., 2016).
2.2. Approaches for CO2 fixation
CO2 fixation is a technique in which the carbon is deposited, stored,
and fixed into plant roots or soil to produce organic matters. Methods for
fixation like biological and chemical or synthetic methods (Ray et al.,
2022). In a biological way, both plants and microbes are involved. The
three main steps are 1. Carbon fixation, 2. Reduction, and 3. Regener­
ation. Plants are the most common carbon fixers the CO2 is fixed in
mesophyll cells. CO2 fixation is the main step for photosynthesis it fol­
lows the Calvin cycle where in carboxylation ribulose bisphosphate to 3-
phosphoglycerate in this the fixed carbon is used (Photo energy con­
verted to chemical energy).
Microbes are better in CO2 fixation they have a vast variety of en­
zymes this uses acetogen and methanogen’s most advanced pathways
are used the advantage of microorganisms is more efficient and low-cost
production in downstream processing. Archaea bacteria are unicellular
they produce methane by conversion of CO2 from factories (Shen et al.,
2021; Gong et al., 2018). Acetogen and methanogen use low-key en­
zymes which reduce and carbolize CO2 to release formyl-methanofuran
dehydrogenase, which fixes emitted CO2. Algae are the best CO2 fixers,
maximum stress tolerators, nutrient accumulators, and operational in
higher pH they are used in large-scale fixation. Few species are good
biofuel producers. Marine microalgae are more advantageous because
they have unlimited growth due to larger water bodies and less distur­
bance (Liang et al., 2020).
Chemical synthetic methods are CO2 fixation is biomimicry, where
naturally there are more than 5000 methods but advancement in science
have created new methods for fixation which mainly uses nanotubes and
nanotechnology (Lemaire et al., 2020). Carbon nanotube (CNTs) has
become the most superior non-photosynthetic way of carbon capture
and utilization. CNTs are made from gaseous CO2 in a quick process,
they are feasible and used in varied fields like aero, marine, electric,
batteries, etc. Zinc oxide nanoparticles produce syngas by converting
CO2 in the flame spray pyrolysis process. In this method, CO2 can be
used as the precursor for the synthesis of plastics. Metal-based nano­
catalyst and metal motif frameworks are an easy method for fixation
they are 77 % more effective⋅H2O-based nano cables are used for the
capture of CO2 from fossil fuels (Challiwala et al., 2021; Sharma et al.,
2018). Among all chemical fixation, nanoparticle-based was the most
effective studies reports.
3. Cultivation of algae
Naturally, algae are found around water bodies like lakes, ponds,
rivers, puddles, and near waterfalls they prefer humidity and moisture
content for their growth. The term ‘Algaculture’ means the cultivation of
algae blooms by providing them with optimum growth conditions
(Harmon et al., 2021). Table 1 shows the cultivation of micro-algae via
using various bioreactors and reactor configurations. The growth may be
both heterotrophic and autotrophic. Due to the increased need for algae
as food supplementary, anti-cancer drugs, anti-inflammatory products,
and even as a food colour. By 2016 cultivation volume reached 30
million tons. Research and development (R&D) companies have devel­
oped many techniques for bulk products such as an open pond, photo­
bioreactor, and monoculture (Leong et al., 2022; Kumar et al., 2021).
The major environmental factors, parameter conditions for the
growth of algae, and ideal growing conditions are 1) temperatures
ranging from 15 to 35 ◦ C is ideal its main and notable factor where cold
weather inhibits the growth rate. 2) a light provision of 3 to 4 in. is
continuously needed for photosynthesis which increases lipid produc­
tion in some cases artificial fluorescent light source is applied 3) agita­
tion is rapidly needed for mixed nutrient supply, and 4) pH 5–7 should

Table 1
Cultivation of micro-algae via using various bio-reactors and reactor configurations.
S. Algal sp Types of reactors Reactor configurations Algae References
No production
Volume pH Temperature Light
(L) (◦ C)

1. Chlorella minutissima Batch bubble-column 18 & 44 6 25 Linear fluorescent tubes 63 % Pereira et al.,
photobioreactor 2018
2. Chlorella vulgaris Flat plate photobioreactor 18 4 – 10 26 ± 4 Light fux supplied 95 % Klein et al.,2021
3 Ankistrodesmus falcatus Photobioreactor 18 7 25 Photon flux 59.6 % Singh et al.,
2015
4 Chlorella vulgaris Air-lift reactor 28 6.8 ± 27 EKE light bulb of 21 V 1007 g Hincapie and
1.0 Stuart, 2015
5 Chlorella pyrenoidosa Photobioreactors 18 7 23 ± 0.2 Two monochromatic light 68 % He et al., 2021
(red and blue)
6 Selenastrum bibraianum Special photobioreactors 20 6.97 ± 25.0 ± 0.5 White light-emitting 4000 g Ouyang et al.,
0.17 diode 2015
7 Selenastrum obliquus and Photobioreactor 20 6.79 ± 25 ± 0.5 LEDs 82.80 % ± Zhao et al.,
Chlorella vulgaris 0.18 3.08 % 2015
8 Chlorella sp Experimental flask 1 6.8 20 ± 2 Continuous light (240 2.1 g Leflay et al.,
μmol m− 2 s -1) 2021
9 Spirulina platensis Horizontal tubular 150 8.0 to 15 to 26 Light intensity = 4000 60–80 % Mondal et al.,
photobioreactors and stirred 8.4 μmol m− 2 s -1 2017
photobioreactors
10 Chlorella protothecoides Fed-batch bioreactor 22 6.3 25, or 30 Natural sunlight or Lamp 48 % Fei et al.,2015
11 Nannochloropsis sp Photorespiration 18 6.5 and 24 ± 2 Fluorescent lamp 8500 g Chen et al.,
bioreactor 5.6 2020
12 Phaeodactylum Vertical column 17 8.0–10 10–30 Light spectral - 1.47 g Wang et al.,
tricornutum. photobioreactors photosynthetically active 2012
Radiation
13 Chlorella sp Photobioreactor with 18 6.42 ± 25 ± 0.5 LED red:blue light 5.82 ± 0.43 g Yan et al., 2016
polyethylene bag 0.15
14 Chlorella vulgaris Aerated Photobioreactor 16.8 7 25 ± 1 light intensity = 150 ± 5 1.13 ± 0.11 g Wang et al.,
2 − 1
μmol m− s 2017
15 Neochloris oleoabundans, Anaerobic Photobioreactor 16 – 80 7.43 ± 25 ± 0.5 LEDs – 75 % 1.35 ± 0.9 g Sun et al., 2016
Chlorella vulgaris 0.11
& Scenedesmus obliquus

3
A. Saravanan et al. Bioresource Technology 363 (2022) 127982

be maintained. 5) Large amounts of macronutrients such as nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium are required; 6) trace amounts of micro­
nutrients such as silica and iron are required. The most common growth
mediums are Walne medium and Guillard’s medium. In 4 weeks, com­
plete and peak growth was observed (Yang et al., 2018).
3.1. Role of algae in CO2 fixation
Microalgae that grow in low CO2 absorb high carbon and fix them
more effectively they rapidly convert this into biomass. About 1 Kg of
algae fixes 1.89 Kg of carbon. The major ways of fixation by algae are a)
Capturing of CO2 by plasma membrane b) Conversion of bicarbonates
into carbon dioxide and c) Direct intake of bicarbonate by the resolute
carrier. The vast majority of microalgae are photoautotrophic, meaning
they require inorganic carbon and light to convert CO2 into carbohy­
drates by photosynthesis (Gerotto et al., 2020; Razzak et al., 2017).
Through the Calvin-Benson cycle, where the enzyme Rubisco plays a
crucial role, algae fix CO2 plays in the transformation of CO2 into
chemical molecules. Table 2 correspond that microalga - CO2 fixation
and its conversion into biogas and bioenergy.
The photosynthetic reaction in microalgae can be divided into two
types: (i) light-dependent and (ii) dark reactions or light-independent.
Stage one of photosynthesis is a light-driven reaction, with light con­
verting Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP + ) and
Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) molecules into energy-storing NADPH
and Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) molecules (Durall and Lindblad,
2015). The second stage is dark phase is made up of CO2 fixation and
assimilation via the Calvin-Benson cycle in order to produce organic
compounds (glucose) with the help of NADPH and ATP produced in the
first. Ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco) is
important in CO2 sequestration in this case. The process of turning CO2
into 3-phosphoglycerate is catalyzed by rubisco. However, due to its
oxygenase nature, Rubisco binds very weakly to CO2, trying to make it a
poor CO2 fixer. These phosphoglycerates are then used to yield greater
carbohydrates. Furthermore, the majority of these phosphoglycerates
are being used to regenerate RuBP, which is then used to continue the
carbon-fixing cycle. Rubisco’s oxygen ion produces phosphoglycolate,
which inhibits Rubisco’s carboxylase function (Liang et al., 2018; Wei
et al., 2017). Using ATP and releasing CO2, the phosphoglycolate is
further converted into phosphoglycerate. Photorespiration is a response
in which O2 is used and CO2 is released.
As a result, photorespiration wastes carbon and energy, lowering
photosynthesis yield. Nonetheless, atmospheric O2 concentrations are
typically higher than atmospheric CO2, favouring Rubisco’s oxygenase
functionality and thus promoting photorespiration. To combat this,
algae have developed CO2 concentrating mechanisms to increase CO2
concentrations near Rubisco (Huang et al., 2017; Leong et al., 2021).
3.2. Bioreactors in algae cultivation
A microalgal bioreactor is an instrument used to develop micro or
macroalgae. Algae can be grown for biomass production, wastewater
treatment, aquarium/pond filtration, or CO2 fixation. Reactors are of
two types: closed bioreactors and open bioreactors (Valizadeh and

Table 2
Microalgae - CO2 fixation and its conversion into biogas and bioenergy.
S. Microalgal sp Process Type of reactor Reaction Catalyst CO2 Removal Biomass Biomass References
No period gas efficiency yield Product
(days) feed (%)

1. Chlorella Esterification Tubular photo- 7 Nb2O5, SO4, 2% 95 % 57.1 % Biodiesel, Lipid Loures
minutissima reaction bioreactors type H2SO4 et al., 2018
bubble column
2. Scenedesmus Esterification Tubular photo 7 to 8 Carbon – 80 % 27 to 53 Biomass cell He et al.,
obliquus reaction, trans- reactor nanotubes- % 2017
esterification Fe2O3, MgO
reaction
3 Chlorella vulgaris Response surface Flat plate 5–8 NaNO3 7.5 % 32 % 75 % Carbohydrates, Klein
methodology photobioreactor lipids et al.,2021
(RSM)
4 Scenedesmus CO2 fixation Photo-bioreactor 7 NaNO3 32.57 75.5–85.3 84.28 % Microbial He et al.,
obliquus % % biomass 2021
±1.98
%
5. Nitzschia palea Carbon capturing Open pond 6–7 K2HPO4 89.86 86.15 % 81.97 % Biogas Wang et al.,
and fixation cultivation % 2016
±1.58
6. Chlorella Carbon fed-batch 8 Cu2, Zn2, 38 % – 48 % Lipid Fei
protothecoides sequestering bioreactor Fe3, et al.,2015
7 Nannochloropsis Photorespiration Photorespiration 7 NaNO3 20 % 80 % 31.39 % Biolipid Chen et al.,
salina bioreactor 2020
8 Chlorella sp CO2 capture Experimental flask 14 Nitrogen and 5–15 % 17.5 % 50 % Biomass Leflay et al.,
Vitamin B12 2021
9 Dunaliella salina Continuous CO2 Semi-batch reactor 34 – 5% 40.47 ± 70 % High lipid dry In-na et al.,
fixation 1.61 % biomass 2020
10 Scenedesmus sp Carbon Advanced 8 NaNO3 70 % 50 % 3.92 g Biomass Huang
assimilation bioreactor et al., 2020
11 Chlorella vulgaris Biofixation 80 L aquarium 10 KOH 4–8 % 1.7 g 1880 g Biomass for Adamczyk
tanks & 3 L bioremediation et al., 2016
bioreactors
12 Botryococcus Carbon capture Biofilm 5–35 – 20 % 70 % 40 % Biolipids Chaudry
braunii and esterification photobioreactor et al., 2017
13 Botryococcus Carbon capture Open raceways, 10 – 95.51 90 % 57 % Biofilms In-na et al.,
braunii and biofixation and biofilm PBRs % 2022
14 Anabaena Carbon Photo bio reactor 4–7 K2HPO4, 32.57 81.27 % 92.74 % Biofuel Wang et al.,
spiroides sequestering NaNO3 % 2016
15 Scenedesmus Bioremediation Special 7 – 35.28 51 % − 60 – Biogas Ouyang
obliquus photobioreactors %± % et al., 2015
1.86 %

4
A. Saravanan et al.
Davarpanah, 2020). Closed bioreactors are flexible photobioreactor
systems that can be coded to satisfy the physiological needs of the
cultured microbe, resulting in favorable growth rates and purity levels
example tubular photobioreactors, bubble column, flat bioreactor, and
hybrid photobioreactor systems. They are frequently used in the culti­
vation of bioactive components for use in pharmaceuticals, biofuels, and
other industrial applications. Open bioreactors are highly open system
mostly uses natural parameters and factors for growth they are open to
atmosphere systems example race pond, open pond, and cascade
(Granata, 2017; Satapathy et al., 2015).
Closed photobioreactors: a) Plate bioreactor is merely a collection of
slanted or vertically arranged translucent geometrical shapes that are
recurrently divided into two sections to influence reactor fluid agitation.
In particular, these boxes are combined together to form a system. Such
connections are also used in the stuffing process, the introduction of gas,
and the transport of nourishing materials. The flue gas is mostly
launched at the bottom of the box to deliver the carbon dioxide sufficient
time to interact with the algae in the bioreactor fluid. These plates are
typically lit up from both sides and have a maximum optical penetration.
The drawbacks of the flat plate design are its low-pressure sensitivity
and massive space criteria. 97 % more effective compared to other re­
actors (Corpuz et al., 2021).
b) A tubular bioreactor is composed of longitudinal or horizontally
organized tubes that are interconnected together with a pipe system.
This pipework allows the algal blooms fluid to flow freely. The tubes are
normally made of non-reactive plastics or glass, and the continuous flow
is maintained by a pump at the system’s end. The gas is injected at the
side of the tube system. This technique of introducing gas results in a
lack of carbon dioxide and an elevated concentration of oxygen at the
unit’s end during circulation, rendering the process inefficient. Algal
growth on the interior of the tubes can also avert light from penetrating.
The capacity of this reactor ranges from 1 to 115 L (Skoneczny and
Cioch, 2018).
c) A bubble column photo reactor is made up of spiral shape clear
cylindrical columns. The gas is pumped at the bottom of the column,
generating a turbulent stream that allows for optimized gas exchange
(Afifah et al., 2020; Elawwad et al., 2017). The bubbles formed in this
act as a natural aerator. Light is usually provided from outside the col­
umn, but modern models incorporate lights inside the column to
enhance natural lighting and penetration. This method yields highly
concentrated biomass.
d) Hybrid systems address the limitations of open systems as well as
the high initial and ongoing expenditures of closed systems. Hybrid
systems are feasible and can be used for humongous algae cultivation.
To achieve high-density inoculants, microalgae are initially cultured in a
photobioreactor. The microalgae are then transferred to an open plat­
form, actively helping in the production of peak biomass (Cheah et al.,
2015).
Open photobioreactors: a) Simple open pond is probably the easiest
system has the smallest production and operating costs. Ponds require a
rotary mixer to avert algal biomass from trying to settle. However, due
to a lack of environmental control, these systems are vulnerable to
contamination. b) The raceway pond is a revised form of a simple pond
sometimes constructed in cement that utilizes paddlewheels to regulate
the flow in a defined way. The pond is progressing over time biomass
and returning carbon dioxide and other nutrients to it. Due to their
shallow-water depth, these ponds are traditionally very big in size. c) An
incline cascade system, in which the stream is force driven to a retention
tank before being injected back up to start again, is a less common
system. However, this system generates high biomass densities, and it
has higher expenses (Geiss, 2021; Nanda et al., 2016).
3.3. Lipid metabolism
The lipid biosynthesis pathway is the synthesis and breakdown of
lipids in cells. It includes the digestion or storing of fats for power as well
5
Bioresource Technology 363 (2022) 127982
as the synthesis of structural and functional lipids, such as the creation
of cell membranes. It plays an essential role in the antiaging process.
Triglycerides should first undergo hydrolysis to separate into their two
main parts, fatty acids, and glycerol, in need to be converted into energy
(Yang et al., 2017). Microalgae lipids are categorized into two cate­
gories: polar lipids, such as glycerophospholipids, which play a key role
in cell structure, and non-polar lipids, such as triacylglycerols, which are
principally responsible for energy storage.
A few of the initial researchers on fatty acid biosynthesis have been
conducted well with green alga C. vulgaris, and such organisms continue
to provide exciting opportunities for understanding the metabolic ac­
tivity and functional areas of acyl lipids. The biosynthetic pathway of
glycolipids in Chlorella kessleri has recently been investigated, with a
focus on the lipid’s dispersion at the sn-1 and sn-2 locations in membrane
lipids. In the sn-1 position of monogalactosyldiacylglycerol (MGDG) was
almost completely occupied by galactolipids and 18C acids, whereas
both 16C and the sn-2 location of 18C acids was esterified. Lipid species
are classified as “prokaryotic” and “eukaryotic.” attributed for 65 % of
MGDG and 35 % of MGDG, including both. According to the assessment
of fatty acid profile at the sn-2 position, 68 percent of the biomolecules
for digalactosyldiacylglycerol (DGDG) contained “eukaryotic” combi­
nations of fatty acids. Later, the sn-1-18C-sn-2-18C species of these lipids
made some good radioactivity, whereas the C18/C18 species of C18/
C18 species of plasma cell (PC) decreased in radioactivity. The authors
explained their findings by supplying Diacylglycerol (DAG) from PC for
galactolipid biosynthetic pathways in the eukaryotic (Li-Beisson et al.,
2019). As a result, C. kessleri was determined to be related to a group of
plants that contain hexadecatrienoate and synthesize chloroplast lipids
through the collaboration of prokaryotic and eukaryotic pathways, as
opposed to many other green algae that had used a primarily prokary­
otic pathway for chloroplast lipid synthesis. The researchers suggested
that the eukaryotic pathway in C. kessleri’s physiological role was to
provide chloroplast cell membrane with C18:3/C18:3-MGDG for effec­
tive functioning and that the accumulation of this use of this pathway by
green algae prioritized the ultimate evolution of land plants. Palmitic
was the major saturated fatty acid in all of the microalgae photobionts,
oleate was the major monoenoic acid, and linoleic and a-linolenic have
been the main polyunsaturated fatty acids. Each of these species also had
elevated levels of various 16C unsaturated fatty acids, such as hex­
adecatetraenoate (Cupp et al., 2018; Gerotto et al., 2020; Zulu et al.,
2018).
3.4. Genetic engineering tools: Metabolic development
An important area of study is generating novel and effective mech­
anisms for carbon sequestration in microorganisms using genetic engi­
neering. Genetically modified microalgae have already been employed
by researchers to sequester carbon. Although some progress has been
achieved when genetically modifying cyanobacteria, boosting the carbon
fixation in microalgae and dinoflagellates has proven difficult owing to
the unavailability of essential gene transformation techniques (Chae
et al., 2017). Despite early studies of transformation utilizing silicon
carbide whiskers being proposed, it was hard to emulate the trials. For
fleeting expressions, trials with glass beads were performed, but even
these proved challenging to duplicate.
Various genetic totals for metabolic alternations are electroporation
is the most basic tool for deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) transfer using
high voltage and this is used for gene editing using Clustered regularly
interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR), gene integration, and
gene expression. Biolistic is a tool to transfer exogenous ribonucleic acid
(RNA), DNA, and protein into the desired cells by shooting them with a
gene gun. Glass bead agitation, algae cells are genetically altered when
beads and cDNA are combined in vortexing. Compared to previous algae
DNA transformation techniques, this technique is significantly more
efficient. The polyethylene glycol (PEG) method of gene transfer is used
for plastid transformation. It has added merits such in membrane fusion
A. Saravanan et al. Bioresource Technology 363 (2022) 127982

and helps in DNA positioning. The easiest known mechanism of gene
transfer is possibly silicon carbide whisker-mediated transformation.
Targeted tissues and a vector containing the desired gene are vortexed in
the presence of silicon carbide (Ko et al., 2020; Kumar et al., 2020a).
Omics tools are comparatively modern methods for finding bio­
markers and can be used to examine a huge variety of biological mole­
cules. Microbes are thought of as meta organisms, and these techniques
can be used to examine all levels of biological data as well as in situ
environmental features. Table 3 show that role of genetic engineering
and metabolic pathways for CO2 fixation, bioconversion into bio­
products. Direct evolution is the tool through repeating cycles of
genomic diversity and database filtering or selection, directed evolution
creates organisms with desired properties. Genome-scale metabolic
model (GEM) is understanding the network biology of the metabolic
activities inside organisms can be done on a highly quantitative,
organised framework that is provided by a metabolic restoration
(Ershadnia et al., 2020).
4. Biofuel production from algae
35 billion litres of biofuel are expected to be produced annually. The
globe’s primary source of biofuel generation is emerging from algae.
They are regarded as more secure, non-competitive, and quickly
expanding microbes than those that could be employed to produce
biodiesel. Fig. 1 deliberate that CO2 fixation and generation of biomass
form algae biomass. Algal lipids can be converted into excellent bio­
diesel and feedstocks through transesterification, much like the oils
generated by canola, soy, and palm. In a certain process, a catalyst hy­
drolyzes and methylates lipids in the oils to produce a biodiesel fuel.
Furthermore, it could be synthesized using a two-step process in which
the lipids are first isolated and then trans esterified. In both cases,
however, the lipids must be recovered using solvents and alcohols such
as isopropanol, methanol, and petroleum ether (Shuba and Kifle, 2018).
Microalgae synthesize various fuels such as biodiesel, hydrocarbon,
biosyngas, ethanol, hydrogen, etc.
4.1. Factor influencing
The downstream and upstream processing phases of the biofuels
production process consist of a number of factors. The application of
analytical approaches in discovering and comprehending linkages from
observed study parameters via statistical analysis, across algal produc­
tion phases. It also focuses on the various manufacturing and distribu­
tion stages. Mostly industrial-scale productions are carried out in
bioreactors to meet up the demand in the market. A few factors affecting
the manufacturing rate are discussed below.
4.1.1. Strain selection and pilot production
Genetically modified and high efficiency with rapid growth rates and
dense populations, this kind of desired algae strain is picked up for
production. Basic bioprocess principles were applied for pilot produc­
tion to check the feasibility and parameters. The principal components
analysis model was carried out to check the DO, pH, nutritional factor,
agitation and aeration rate, and media quality were analysed with
various software and noted (Lap and Ta, 2020).
The growth phase of the algae is checked using Raman spectroscopy.
In order to conduct Raman mapping, a microscope was used after the
microalgae cells were attached to the microscope slide and sprayed with
poly-l-lysine. This mapping data was compared with standard physio­
logical reaction and growth were estimated in different environmental
conditions. A machine learning model called support vector machine has
been used to determine developmental phases under multiple cultural
conditions this model determined the suitable growth environment. The
production will be carried out in various bioreactor models to check
high production. After analysis of components, environment and growth
rate, the culture is loaded in a bioreactor which is a 200 L pilot scale later
it is scaled up to 2000 L (Xing et al., 2019).

Table 3
Role of genetic engineering and metabolic pathways for CO2 fixation, bioconversion into bioproducts.
S. Algal sp Genetic engineering Enzymes/Genes Pathways Biomass References
No

1 Chlorella vulgaris Plastid transition in peptide & Enhanced green Calvin cycle Increased biomass for CO2 Yang et al., 2017
enhancing re-generation of fluorescent protein biomitigation
ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate gene (EGFP gene)
2 Chlorella Stable nuclear transformation NptII & eGFP gene Heterotrophic Pathway Engineered proteins or Run et al., 2016
pyrenoidosa peptides.
3 Chlamydomonas sp. Gene editing technology Cre01.g000300 gene lipid synthesis pathway Oleic acid and fatty acid Nguyen et al.,
for biodiesel 2020
4 Nannochloropsis RNP electroporation Cas-RNPs gene Homology-directed repair and Biofuels Naduthodi et al.,
oceanica non-homologous end joining 2019
pathway
5 Chlorella vulgaris Agrobacterium-mediated plasmid fad3 gene Excited state proton transfer Biorefinery Lin and Ng,
transfer and gene manipulation pathway 2020
6 Tetraselmis sp. Transformation of RNP AGP-gene ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase Lipid’s synthesis in Chang et al.,
pathway seaweeds, fatty acid oleic 2020
acid for biodiesel
7 Phaeodactylum suppression of UDPase Enzyme UGPase lipid synthesis pathway Lipid synthesizing biocells Zhu et al., 2016
tricornutum
8 Nannochloropsis Editing TAG accumulation DGAT-encoding genes Lipid accumulation pathways Higher biomass: Biofuel Zienkiewicz
oceanica et al., 2017
9 Synechococcus sp Complex genome editing cpf1 gene Metabolic pathway Wide range bioproducts Ungerer, and
Pakrasi, 2016
10 Chlorella vulgaris Genetic transformation nptII gene Calvin cycle High efficient biomass for Yang et al., 2015
carbon capture
11 Nannochloropsis Rational Modulation NoDGAT2s or Acyl-CoA-dependent pathway Best quality of oils Xin et al., 2017
oceanica NoDGTTs gene
12 Nannochloropsis CRISPR–Cas9 TF-encoding gene TAG biosynthetic pathway Lipid biomass production Ajjawi et al.,
gaditan 2017
13 Chlamydomonas Genome editing Cas9 protein and NHEJ pathway Biofuel Shin et al., 2016
reinhardtii sgRNAs
14 Nannochloropsis Rational genetic engineering NoDGAT1A and Acyl-CoA-dependent pathway Bioethanol Wei et al., 2018
oceanica NoDGAT1B genes

6
A. Saravanan et al.
Fig. 1. CO2 fixation and generation of biomass form algae biomass.
4.1.2. Growth nutrients
Industrial-scale production uses bulk waste from agricultural fields,
waste from farms, and farm compost are being used. Water is highly
needed to maintain biomass, large quantities of water are being used in
the development of microalgae mostly because it provides algae a place
to grow and prosper and also acts as a conduit for the supply of nutrients,
the control of temperature, and the removal of waste.
One of the most prevalent components in algae is carbon, it makes up
about 50 percent of the overall mass of the biomass. Algae that are
photoautotrophic use c from the atmosphere as a carbon source to create
biological compounds. Generally, concentrated CO2 and air are bubbled
into the algal body of water to provide CO2 (Gao et al., 2019). According
to research, CO2 purchase is a significant expense that make up roughly
43 % of energy use so carbon emitted for the environment is used. Ni­
trogen makes up between 5 and 10 percent of the volume of microalgae
biomass as well as being a crucial element of cellular proteins and amino
acids. N is ubiquitous in the environment, although algae cannot use it
effectively. Ammonia and nitrate are the two main nitrogen compounds
that all algae may use. The most in-demand nutrient in natural ecosys­
tems is phosphorus. Commonly, the biomass of microalgae contains 1
percentage phosphorous by volume. The next batch of microalgae must
be grown using the recycled phosphorous content from the leftover
algae after the oil harvesting or transformation procedure (Gatamaneni
et al., 2018). Again, for the second batch of microalgae, the nutritionally
rich effluent can sometimes be employed as a growing medium.
4.1.3. Light energy, temperature, agitation speed and pH
Algae is an aqueous organism that lives and grows, they multiply
quickly on warmer, bright days. which have green pigment and use
photosynthesis to grow. To look at it another way, they absorb carbon
dioxide and produce oxygen as in the end reaction. Though algae may
thrive in the sunlight or the dark, the majority of algae strains require
light to flourish. It is good to supply natural light or fluorescent light
(Loftus and Johnson, 2017).
The suitable temperature range for microalgae cultivation is be­
tween 21 and 30 ◦ C. Peak growth is observed at 23 ◦ C, worst growth at
7 ◦ C and photoinhibition occurs above 35 ◦ C resulting in death, owing to
the reduced viscous nature of oils due to higher reaction temperatures,
the overall reaction rate goes up as well as the reaction time is lowered.
Algae flourishes in waters that have an elevated pH between 7.5 and 8.9.
An ideal pH range among most photosynthetic activity is 8.2 to 8.7.
Microalgae growth can be slowed down by a pH level that is balanced or
less. As decreased from 6.6 to 5 is lethal. Reduced-intensity aeration is
likely to have beneficial effects on algal growth (Zieliński et al., 2015). A
mild mixing should be provided by agitation to mix up the algae from
7
Bioresource Technology 363 (2022) 127982
top to bottom, their food should be uniformly spread, and the sunlight
and aeration are obtained by slow mixing.
4.2. Bioconversion of CO2 into biofuel
Each year in the bioconversion process in which nearly 500 tons of
CO2 are sequestered and 300 tons of biomass is produced. Genetically
modified algae would be synthesized into biofuels by isolating lipids
from biomolecules known as lipids. Originally, recovering this lipid
needed draining all or most of the moisture (water) from the microbe,
culminating in a powder form or biomass sludge. This biomass is con­
verted into a solvent after complete dewatering, and extraction of the
crude and high denser lipids is done this yields a crude oil source (Nisar
et al., 2021). This substance is processed and used as biofuel, which
is used as a power source for automotive. Stepwise bioconversion is
dewatering algae, oil extraction, and transesterification.
4.2.1. Dewatering algae and lipid extraction
Dewatering is the process of removing moisture content in the most
desirable ways such as electrocoagulation in which current is applied for
the dewatering it is a cost-effective way. Chemical flocculation uses
organic or inorganic compounds for separation. Filtration, flotation,
centrifugation, and magnetic methods are also used for separation, but
the yield is not highly pure in these methods. Bio flocculation is the
recent and highly recommend, non-toxic method for the removal of
microbes such as algae and yeast. Lipid extraction is done by both
physical and chemical methods which use solvent for high yield that
ranges around 0.05–15 % its about 4 to 5 kg of yield hike (Kandasamy
et al., 2021).
4.2.2. Transesterification
Transesterification is just the reaction of free fatty lipids with alco­
holic compounds to create biofuel. Fig. 2 corresponds that trans­
esterification reaction for the conversion of algae to biofuel. A
biocatalyst is needed to accelerate the amount and output of the process.
Due to the reversibility of the process, extra ethanol is employed to move
the equilibria to the final product part. To shorten reactivity, this pro­
cess is frequently aided by a catalyst. The reaction occurred at earth’s
atmospheric pressure and temperatures ranging from 65 to 70◦ Celsius in
the presence of an overload of methanol, Sulfuric acid, oxides of po­
tassium, and sodium are mostly used as catalysts (Elegbede et al., 2017).
In industrial-scale production, lipids are treated with ethanol (alcohol)
and catalyst in the middle of the reaction glycerine is isolated and again
alcohol is added. Glycerol is removed at end of the reaction where it
contains methyl ester, soap, and other impurities, they are removed by
A. Saravanan et al.
Fig. 2. Transesterification reaction mechanism for the conversion of algae to biofuel.
continuous washing with alcohol and water. The fatty acid present in
glycerol is easily separated and esterification is carried out as pure
biofuel is obtained. This produced biodiesel is more viscous and oxida­
tive in nature (Kumar et al., 2020b).
4.3. Harvesting techniques and oil extraction
Algae harvest is a technique of removing micro blooms from other
mixtures and solvents. Due to the micro size ranging from 0.2 to 2 mm, it
costs about $1,130 per half a ton of extraction which is 25 to 30 % of the
total production rate. Techniques such as sedimentation, bio floccula­
tion, centrifugation, membrane filtrations – micro or ultrafiltration, and
froth flotation can all be used to recover microalgae (Kialashaki et al.,
2019).
Sedimentation is the traditional technique of separation of algae
from the pond and open resources it is a very handy method that utilizes
only gravity after a final agitation the solid biomass is left undisturbed it
is washed and used, the major drawback is unwanted solid waste is also
settled. Centrifugation is the spinning of bulk algae at the desired rpm
for settlement of solids, industries use a continuous bowl centrifuge
which can harvest 100 kg per hour the biomass pellet is collected
continuously while the process is in progress. Membrane filtration uses a
millipore or micro filter membrane size of 0.45 µm the culture is passed
into its microalgae are stuck in the filter and recovered then to speed up
the process extra vacuum is applied in this method purest form of mi­
crobes are harvested and in advanced method, belt compressor is used to
recover low denser cells. Flocculation is a separation process in which
particles are aggregated into clumps like larger particles (Kandasamy
et al., 2021; Zhao et al., 2019). There are two different methods that are
chemical and biological. Chemical flocculation in which alum, calcium,
and ferric chloride are used to form colloids. Bio flocculation utilizes
extracellular biopolymers such as proteins and polysaccharides, chito­
san is commonly used in microbial flocculation. This is a novel and eco-
friendly method. Forth floatation mostly uses air bubbles, and a jet
sprayer to create a bubble in separating algal biomass sometimes pH is
adjusted to obtain the most desired separation. When bubbles are mixed
rapidly into culture algae is obtained from the top of the pond it can be
easily collected. In spite of lots of advantages, continuous centrifugation
is used on an industrial scale which gives 98 % yield, and it is fully
automated (Chen et al., 2018).
8
Bioresource Technology 363 (2022) 127982
Oil extraction is the main fruitful step in overall production recovery.
The expeller method is a historical and easiest method where high
pressure is applied on dried mass and oil is extracted multiple strains of
algae can be extracted the recovery rate is around 75 % but an increase
in pressure can enhance oil. The major drawback is high heat and
pressure generation releases undesired pigments into the oil. The
bead hammering method is the best oil extraction method this is a
physical technique in which biomass is disrupted and rapid spinning of
the cell slurry with tiny beads cause pressure damage and breaks the cell
wall where lipids are released. Manual lever or engine arms are used for
giving additional pressure. In the industrial stage production pressure of
5,000 psi and beads of size, 0.5 mm (beads made with zirconium or
silica) are mixed along with the culture in the reactor vessel, and the
rapid vibration break opens the algal cell wall. This method gives the
best results in Chlorella sp. and Saccharomyces sp where thraustochytrid
cell breakage yields maximized lipid (Bharte and Desai, 2021). Ultra-
sonic because of the repeated compaction processes that happen
throughout the procedure, the vibrations cause sudden and persistent
turbulence (Shi et al., 2019). Irregular oscillations cause transitory
bubbles, which will eventually burst, these thermal blast waves pro­
duced by a bubble implosion destroy the algal biomass cells. Microwave
methods use electric current to create waves that react with biological
components extraction takes place within 15 mins. The osmotic pressure
method is an eco-friendly, solvent-free, and non-mechanical method
that uses the variation in salt concentration in the cell wall that creates
hypo osmotic pressure in the cell and the oil is released. The isotonic
method is a greener method that uses temperature variation and sepa­
rates lipids this uses ionic liquids. Enzyme-assisted methods use bio­
catalysts such as cellulase or trypsin used to degrade biopolymers on
cells which is specific in action at low temperature without any further
delay in yield oil by cell damage (Ranjith Kumar et al., 2015).
4.4. Current trends
When compared to conventional methods, microbiological treat­
ments would reduce the cost of industrial scale producing of microalgae-
based biofuels with the help of CO2 capture by 15–25 %. Microorgan­
isms have already been used as a digester to generate bioproducts such
as medical products, health supplements, skincare, colorants, and other
precious additives, relevant add products, microalgae established
A. Saravanan et al.
biomedical, nutrients for fish, and much more. Furthermore, numerous
efforts are being made to make microalgae productive in the production
of bioenergy and biofuels. Recently, new bio flocculation technologies
have been practised in harvestings which has been researched interest
and its novel method of harvesting without any environmental pollution
and polymer flocculant which has economic benefits have been pro­
duced. An automated continuous bowl centrifuge produces high
concentrated biomass for oil extraction. Few unique advanced methods
in the extraction of oil have been implemented enzyme assisted oil
extraction is an action-specific method where it doesn’t degrade lipid so
highly pure oil is obtained from this (Jagadevan et al., 2018). These
algae lipids are now even being used as eatable oil it’s been substation to
the energy source.
5. Research needs and future perspectives
Hiking carbon release in the atmosphere can be controlled to some
extent by CO2 sequestering there are various methods such as physical
and chemical but due to varied drawbacks, biological methods are
implemented which reduces cost by 20 %. The intensification process is
a chemically derived method that is highly selective and quick absorbent
of CO2 and helps in bio mitigation. Even green synthesized nanotubes,
bio nano catalysts, and metal oxide frameworks are efficient CO2 ab­
sorbents. To investigate multiple possibilities of recycled products as
well as to establish how many cycles reused medium could be used for
effective biofuel synthesis with a given input of materials and technol­
ogy, life span and quality checking should be accomplished (Yew et al.,
2019).
Presently available information belonging from microbiological and
environmental journals, which have been analysed below, catalyse
designing future research and conducting financial assessments for
microalgae production from municipal waste. Genome editing ap­
proaches can be used to boost the germination and development of
chosen microalgae species in effluent or garbage. To cut off the price of
biofuel production, an easy and less energy-consuming method of lipid
extraction should be carried out. Collection of specific used chemical/
solvents and these should be recycled this process should be commer­
cialized, as little more than a result, investigations should concentrate
mostly on improving market share or sequential extraction of multiple
products from algal biomass.
6. Conclusion
The paper examines the evolution of composite CO2 uptake and
microalgae transformation technologies. Critical challenges such as
management and electricity expenditure, insufficient carbon dioxide
absorption, and slow conversion could be solved by gene-engineered
microalgae and production rate and fixing procedures show amazing
results. Harvesting cost is challenging but due to bio-flocculation, it has
been cut off to a minimal range. The recycled medium can be used after
treatment with activated carbon. Ultimately, biosorption of carbon
dioxide and biofuel synthesis by lipid extraction could be a promising
future solution for a combination of carbon sequestration and crude
source extraction for biofuels.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
A. Saravanan: Conceptualization, Writing – review & editing,
Formal analysis, Data curation. V.C. Deivayanai: Conceptualization,
Writing – review & editing, Formal analysis, Data curation. P. Senthil
Kumar: Conceptualization, Validation, Supervision. Gayathri Ran­
gasamy: Validation, Formal analysis, Data curation. Sunita Varjani:
Validation, Formal analysis, Data curation.
9
Bioresource Technology 363 (2022) 127982
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
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