METALS

Types of Metals Aluminum, Iron, Steel, Copper, Tin, Zinc, Brass, Bronze, Chromium, Nickel, Lead
1. Aluminum ▪ soft, nonmagnetic silvery metal
▪ light weight(1/3 that of iron, brass or copper)
▪ low melting point
▪ high thermal and electrical conductivity
▪ high coefficient of expansion
▪ combines with oxygen to form aluminum oxide
▪ attacked by alkalis, hydrochloric acid
▪ subject to galvanic action
▪ hot or cold rolled, extruded, forged, pressed, drawn, molded, stamped, bent and shaped, riveted, bolted,
welded, brazed and soldered.
▪ Used as rod, bar, extrusion, casting, sheet, strip
Extrusion ▪ Process of shaping material by forcing it to flow through a shaped opening in a die
▪ Products are fabricated with iron, silicon, copper, manganese, magnesium, zinc, chromium, nickel
Alclad ▪ term applied to certain aluminum products
▪ protective coating (cladding- improves the appearance of the alloy consists of pure aluminum, magnesium
silicide, zinc alloys, with or without manganese) applied for corrosion assistance

Types of Aluminum ▪ Aluminum Sheet and Strip – roofing, flashing, gutter

▪ Aluminum Foil- rolled to a thickness of 0.005; serve as a surface finish material
▪ Corrugated Aluminum- rigidized sheet fabricated of special aluminum alloys; consists of alloy core of one
type clad with another, highly corrosion-resistant aluminum roofing and siding
▪ Structural Aluminum- Aluminum can be extruded; Very corrosion resistant aluminum alloys are available
▪ Aluminum Doors and Windows- generally fabricated from extrusions and rolled shapes.
▪ Aluminum Panels and Sandwich Panels- prefabricated units; manufactured using dimensions of modular
and non-modular window-width for building exterior and in 600mm, 900mm, and 1200mm widths for interior
partitions and dividers; consists of an aluminum exterior facing which may be an aluminum casting and an
extrusion or sheet material which has been pressed, stamped or formed into specially design shapes. A
sandwich panel comprises a system of construction called skin construction
▪ Ornamental Aluminum- rods, bars, pipes, railings, fittings, and special shapes
▪ Aluminum Mesh and Wire Cloth- used for fencing
Types of Aluminum ▪ Mechanical Finishes- grinding, polishing, scratching, sandblasting, embossing
Finishes ▪ Chemical Finishes- based on chemical reactions; etching, cleaning, or polishing; oxidizing the surface with
aluminum or other metallic oxides
▪ Electrolytic Finishes- anodized finishes, based on the specific ability of aluminum to develop a protective
coating of oxide on its surface; transparent or opaque; architectural gold
▪ Electroplating- aluminum can be covered with a protective or decorative film or another metal, usually by
electrodeposition.
▪ Porcelain or Vitreous Enamel- finish forms a hard, resistant surface; available in a broad color range.
▪ Paint- paint, lacquer and enamel can be applied as finishes to aluminum surfaces

2. Iron ▪ Tough, malleable silvery-white, soft and ductile, easily magnetized, oxidizes rapidly in air, hardened by
heating and sudden cooling, more pliable or more workable by heating and slow cooling, very brittle, red
heat it is soft, white heat can be welded
▪ The key to the various types of iron and steel is the carbon-iron relationship.

Cast Iron ▪ iron-carbon alloy that contains more than 1.7% carbon
▪ poured while molten into forms
▪ can be easily cast into any shape
▪ used in architectural field
▪ generally used are gray cast iron and malleable cast iron
Wrought Iron ▪ is almost pure iron with less than 0.1% carbon, usually not more than 0.05%
▪ contains 2.5%, of slag (iron silicate) in purely physical association, not alloyed
▪ soft, malleable, tough, fatigue-resistant, and resistant to progressive corrosion
▪ has good machinability and can be forged, bent, rolled, drawn, and spun
▪ can be welded and available in the form of pipes, plates, sheets, special shapes, and bars

3. Steel ▪ Plain carbon steels defined as alloys of iron and carbon

▪ In the plain or straight carbon steels the iron is always more than 95%
▪ phosphorus, sulfur, oxygen and nitrogen are present, the last three as impurities
▪ Manganese, silicon, aluminum, copper and nickel may also be present either as residual impurities
▪ Carbon steel can be wrought, rolled, cast, and welded, but not extruded.

Wrought Carbon Steels ▪ Structural Steel- a medium carbon steel with its carbon content controlled to give both the strength and
ductility necessary; available in angles, channels, I-beams, H columns, T shapes, Z shapes, plates, round
pipe columns, sheet piling, open web joists, and light steel framing shapes
▪ Reinforcement of concrete- deformed bars of varying grades and diameter
▪ Sheet and Strip- steel sheet is made from low carbon steels containing 0.15% carbon and not exceeding
0.25% carbon; Strip is a sheet material that is 12” wide.
▪ Corrugated Steel- rigidized sheet fabricated from low-carbon cold or hot-rolled steel sheets; If galvanized,
corrugated steel is silvery in color and has a glittering frosted surface; generally available in 18, 20-, 22-,
24-, and 26-gauge sheet and strip
▪ Steel Mesh and Wire Cloth- used for concrete reinforcement, lath for plaster, stucco, and cement, fencing,
insect screens.
▪ Steel Windows and Doors
▪ Hardware- nails, screws, rivets
Alloy Steels ▪ steels to which manganese, silicon, aluminum, titanium, and molybdenum have been added
▪ strength, hardness, ease and depth of hardenability, performance at high or low temperatures,
electromagnetic properties, wear resistance, electrical conductivity, or resistivity
▪ High-strength low-alloy steels are a group of trade name steels with improved mechanical properties and
resistance to atmospheric corrosion
▪ Stainless steels generally used in architecture are highly alloyed steels that contain more than 10%
chromium.

4. Copper ▪ is ductile, malleable, non magnetic metal with a characteristic bright, reddish brown color
▪ highest electrical and thermal conductivity of any substances except silver
▪ enough strength for minor structural work
▪ easily worked
▪ attacked by alkalis and many of the common acids
▪ highly resistant to corrosion by air and salt water
▪ can be cast, drawn, extruded, hot and cold worked, spun, hammered, punched, welded, brazed, and
soldered; it will corrode
▪ one of the best electrical conductors
Patina- insoluble green salt which retards further corrosion

5. Tin ▪ soft, ductile, malleable, bluish-white metal.

▪ Resists corrosion by air, moisture, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide
▪ Highly reflective polish
▪ Alloys for protective coatings on stronger metals
▪ Include bronzes, brasses, terneplate, mirrors, gilding, solders, hardware and fusible alloys

6. Zinc ▪ medium hard, bluish-white metal

▪ brittleness and low strength
▪ readily attacked by acids and alkalis
▪ resistant to corrosion by water
▪ served as protective coatings (galvanizing) on iron and steel, as die-casting metal, and as an alloying
element in brasses.
▪ Galvanizing is the process whereby a protective coat of zinc is applied to steel and iron to protect them
against corrosion
▪ The most common galvanized material used in architecture is galvanized iron (steel) sheet and strip
7. Brass ▪ alloy of copper and zinc
▪ The copper-zinc proportions may vary from 95% copper and 5% zinc to 55% copper and 45% zinc
▪ less hard and strong than steels
▪ superior in workability and resistance to corrosion
▪ brasses react with other metals
▪ used for doors, windows, door and window frames, and for ornamental metalwork such as railings, trims,
grilles, etc.
8. Bronze ▪ alloy of copper and tin
▪ a rich golden-brown metal, originally worked by forging and particularly suited for casting
▪ architectural uses of bronze are confined to statuary, plaques, medallions and other ornamentation, and
miscellaneous rough and finish hardware
9. Chromium ▪ steel-white metal which takes a brilliant polish and is harder than cobalt or nickel
▪ nonmagnetic at ordinary temperatures but becomes magnetic at 13 degrees F
▪ does not tarnish in air, resists oxidizing agents, is soluble in acids and strong alkalis
▪ alloying ingredient in ferrous and nonferrous metallurgy.
▪ Chromium plating is one of the most encountered usage of this material in architecture.
10. Nickel ▪ an inert silvery metal
▪ resistant to strong alkalis and to most acids.
▪ resembles iron in strength and toughness and copper in its resistance to oxidation and corrosion
▪ takes a high polish and can be hot and cold rolled forged, bent, extruded, spun, punched and drawn
▪ The major use of nickel therefore is in alloys
▪ protective or decorative coating for other metals; can be applied to the following base metals and their
alloys: aluminum, brass, copper, iron, magnesium, steel, tin, and zinc
11. Lead ▪ a blue-gray, soft, very heavy metal (the heaviest of the common metals)
▪ extremely workable, has good corrosion resistance, is easily recovered from scrap materials, and is
relatively impenetrable to radiation
▪ extruded in the forms of pipe, rod, wire, ribbon, etc.
▪ rolled into sheet, foil, strip, and cast
▪ expansion shields for securing bolts, screws, and other accessories in masonry, washers, lead-headed
nails,etc.
Methods of Joining Metals Soldering, Brazing, Welding, Rivets
1. Soldering ▪ is a method to join metals, to make electrical connections, to seal joints hermetically with another lower
melting metal or alloy called the solder
▪ Soldered joints have very little tensile, shear or impact strength
▪ Tin-lead solder of the 50% tin, 50% lead variety is the most commonly used general purpose of solder

a. Metal Bath Dip- metal-joining process where the work pieces to be joined are immersed in a pot of molten
solder. A flux or metal cleaner is used to prepare the work piece for bonding with the solder.
b. Soldering Iron – the iron piece is pre heated and applied to the joint along with the solder and the flux
c. Torch- The parts to be soldered are heated by the torch flame and then the solder and flux are applied.
This method is limited to metals which can be heated without altering their character
d. Sweat Method- The heating of the metals to be joined causes the solder to run into the joint. This is the
method used for joining copper tubing and fittings. Stearic acid is a typical neutral flux.
2. Brazing ▪ the operating temperatures are higher (but lower than in welding) and in which stronger and higher-melting
alloys are used to fill the joints, which consequently are stronger than ordinary soldered joints.
▪ used where the shape and position of the joint or the composition of the metal or metals are not adaptable
to welding
▪ the type of metal to be joined, the brazing material, and their color are equally important because galvanic
action, strength of the joint, matching of colors play a significant part in the finished product
▪ Brazing materials fall into six major types: aluminum-silicon, copper-phosphorous, silver, copper, and
copper-zinc, magnesium, and heat-resistant alloys
3. Welding ▪ process by which two metals are so joined that there is an actual union of the interatomic bonds
▪ close contact, heating, pressure, adding molten metal, or combinations of these methods
▪ resulting joints are as strong or stronger than the metals joined

4. Rivets
Metals for Concrete Steel bars, Wire Fabric, Expanded Mesh, Laths
Reinforcement
1. Steel Bars
2. Wire Fabric -Made of cold-drawn steel wire is widely used for the reinforcement of concretes lab sand floors, as well as for
stuccoed work
3. Expanded Mesh
4. Laths
Storage & Care for Metal
Reinforcement
Wood
Classification of Trees
Classification of
Exogenous Trees
Timber
Good Lumbering Practice
Methods of Drying Timber
Characteristics of Good
Timber
Defects in Wood
▪ pressure welding in which pressure and heat make the weld
▪ and fusion welding, in which the heat and added metal make the weld
▪ Devices used to join or fasten the metals
▪ Metal cylinder or rod which has a headstone end
▪ Inserted through holes in the materials being joined
▪ May be plain or deformed
▪ Called billet-steel bars or rail-steel bars
▪ Billet-steel bars are made by the open hearth furnace by the acid Bessemer furnace and meet fixed
chemical compositions
▪ Welded Wire Fabric- Welded-wire mesh, also called welded-wire fabric, used to reinforce concrete slabs
used in light construction; consists of a series wires welded together to form a grid pattern
▪ Triangle-Mesh Wire Fabric- is built up of either single or stranded longitudinal wires with cross wires or
bond-wires running diagonally across the fabric
▪ Manufactured from solid steel sheets
▪ Expanded mesh is free from mechanical and welded joints
▪ Furnished either in flat or segmental sheets, pressed into a series of solid ribs
▪ Furnished painted or galvanized, and in open-hearth mild steel or in special copper-bearing or alloy steels
▪ Shall be stored in racks above the ground and away from moisture and vegetation
▪ Deep scaling should be considered a sufficient reason for condemning the use of reinforce unless it is first
cleaned of mill and rust scale and used as the equivalent of a smaller size
▪ All reinforcement should be kept free from oil which will tend to reduce the bond between concrete and steel
WOOD PRODUCTS
▪ natural organic material that has been used for many centuries for the construction of buildings, bridges
and a variety of other structures
▪ the most common materials for small to medium-scale project in other countries
▪ In the Phils, wood was widely used during the Spanish period and until 1960’s
▪ Traditional building material
▪ Easy to work with
▪ Durable
▪ Beautiful
▪ Lightweight
▪ Rust and corrosion free
▪ Has varied uses
▪ hard, fibrous material that makes up the tree under the bark
▪ Endogenous- Trees grow end wards (bamboo & palm)
▪ Exogeneous- Trees grow outwards
▪ Softwoods- Generally needle-leaved coniferous trees that bear their seed in cones
Properties:
✓ Contract with heat & moisture
✓ Have lower density than hardwoods (good for acoustic & thermal insulation
✓ Good for interior finishes & for furniture
✓ Solid but soft
✓ Flexible & Strong
✓ Not water resistant
✓ Low Cost
▪ Hardwoods- Generally broad-leaved deciduous trees
Properties:
✓ Contract with heat & moisture
✓ Stronger, denser, & homogenous than hardwoods (good for framing system)
✓ Good for interior finishes & for furniture
✓ Resist fire better than soft wood
✓ Nearly impervious to water
✓ High Cost
▪ wood which retains its natural physical structure and chemical composition and is suitable for various
construction works
▪ Lumbering- term applied to the operations performed in preparing wood for commercial purposes
▪ Logging
▪ Felling- Timber felled during summer is more readily susceptible to mold; Coniferous trees is ideal to be
felled during full moon because the resins were well drawn out of the roots & into the trunk
▪ Storing- Timber stored in water after felling reduces the risks of molds & insect damage
▪ Splitting/Sawing- should take place while the trees is still very damp
▪ Drying- 70-90% of the original moisture must be removed from the timber before this could be used for
construction.....a reason why routine drying is important
▪ Natural : Air Drying
▪ Artificial:
✓ Forced air drying –used of fans to booster the circulation of air
✓ Kiln-drying –drying in a large airtight structure, heated by steam pipes
✓ C –using radio frequency dielectric heat
▪ Narrow annual rings, closer the rings greater is the strength
▪ Compact medullary rays
▪ Dark Color
▪ Uniform Texture
▪ Sweet smell and a shining fresh cut surface
▪ When struck sonorous sound is produced
▪ Free from defects
▪ Heavy
▪ No woolliness
▪ Caused by Abnormal Growth
✓ Heart shake-radial cracks originating at the heart of the trees
✓ Wind/Cup Shake-cracks/breaks across annual rings of timber
✓ Star Shake-series of heart shakes thus forming a star-like manner
✓ Knots-occur at the branch of the wood
▪ Due to Deterioration
✓ Dry Rot –the presence of moisture caused by fungi in seasoned wood
✓ Wet Dry –takes place sometimes in the growth of the tree caused by water saturation
Causes of Decay ▪ Alternate moisture & dryness
▪ Fungi & molds
▪ Insects & worms
▪ Heat & confined air
Methods of Preservation ▪ External –application of preservative coating
▪ Internal –lumber is subjected to pressure & injected with chemical such as zinc chloride solution/salt
Application: Philippine ▪ Flooring (Narra, Molave, Pine Benguet, Toog)
Timber ▪ Doors and Windows (Narra, Tanguile, Apitong)
▪ Outdoor Deck (Yacal, Molave, Guijo)
▪ Ceiling Panel & Joists (Molave, Pine Benguet
▪ Railing & Balustrade (Narra, Molave, Pine Benguet)
▪ Exposed Structural Member (Molave, Pine Benguet, Yacal, Lauan)
▪ Paneling (Narra, Pine Benguet, Almaciga, Dao)
▪ Furniture & Cabinets (Narra, Pine Benguet, Molave, Almaciga, Kamagong)
▪ Structural Members and Framing (Molave, Yacal, Guijo, Pine Benguet)
Examples of Philippine First Group
Timber ▪ Narra –most expensive, for floors, doors, furniture, panelings, veneers
▪ Molave –for posts & girders, trusses, framings, floors, jambs, furniture, & other purpose esp. those exposed to
weather
▪ Yacal & Guijo –for posts & girders, jambs, wooden decks & railings exposed to weather
▪ Pine Benguet –for flooring, paneling, sidings & furniture. Also for framings, trusses
▪ Tanguile & Apitong –the most common lumber in tthe market. Used for framings, joists, trusses, nailers, etc.
▪ Lauan (white & red) –for framings, furnitures
▪ Kamagong –for furnitures
▪ Dao –for panelings & veneers
▪ Almaciga –for panelings & veneers
▪ Mahogany
▪ Ipil
▪ Kalantas
▪ Kalamansanai
MANUFACTURED BOARDS
Manufacture Boards ▪ Man made woods or manufactured boards have become important as a substitute for solid wood over the
past number of years.
Advantages:
✓ Help conserve tropical forests
✓ They are economic alternative
✓ They come in large sizes with uniform thickness
✓ They are stable
Making boards and sheets from wood or wood products
✓ Veneers
✓ Sawdust
✓ Wood fibres
✓ Wood strips
✓ Wood flakes
Plywood ▪ Thin strips of wood glued together like a sandwich
▪ Glue is positioned between each layer
▪ In plywood each layer is positioned at 90º
▪ There are always an uneven number of sheets used
Advantages:
✓ Very strong
✓ Stable does not warp or shrink
✓ Does not split easily when nailed
✓ Smooth uniform finish
Disadvantages:
✓ Unattractive edge must be covered with a veneer, moulding or a slip of wood
Types:
✓ WBP
–Water and Boil Proof
–Exterior grade
✓ Marine plywood
–Boat building
–Exposed situations, roofs
Blockboard ▪ Strips of softwood glued together and faced with veneers
▪ Does not split easily
▪ Can screw into the edge
▪ Wide sheets (8’ X 4’)
Advantage
✓ –Very strong due to different directions of veneer
✓ –Resistance to attack from water, heat, chemical, fungi and insect attack
✓ –Comes in large sizes
✓ –Blockboard comes in large thickness
Disadvantages
✓ –Edges need to be covered
✓ –Surface can be easily damaged
Pineboard/lamwood ▪ Made from thin softwood strips, glued together
▪ Makes a wide board in softwood
▪ Uniform thickness (12 –25mm)
▪ Boards tend to cup
▪ Useful for projects
▪ Hardwood examples can be obtained
Oriented Strand board - ▪ similar to chipboard but has similar characteristics to plywood
OSB ▪ Wooden strands or flakes from tree log are bonded together under heat and pressure by glue
Chipboard ▪ Made by mixing wood chips and glue
▪ This mixture is then pressed and pressed to form a sheet
▪ Plastic or veneer is then placed over it
▪ CUsed in furniture construction
Chipboard & OSB Advantages:
✓ Can be veneered
✓ Cheap
 ✓ Uniform thickness
✓ Makes use of waste wood
Disadvantages:
✓ Rough surface if not finished with a veneer
✓ Chipboard is weak
✓ Water and moisture make the sheets swell
MDF (Medium density ▪ Very popular board material
fibreboard) ▪ Often faced with veneer or plastic laminate
▪ Made with fine wood fibres in three layers
▪ Need to drill into face before nail or screws are inserted
▪ Fine dust is harmful
Hardboard ▪ Hardboard is made up from wood pulp
▪ Water is added to the pulp
▪ The mixture is then pressed under high temperatures and the water is removed
▪ Sheets are smooth on one side and textured on the other
▪ 3-9mm thick