COMMUNICATION STANDARDS and PROTOCOLS

UNIT - 3

WIRED COMMUNICATION PROTOCOLS

 Ethernet (Types, Socket, MAC, IP, ARP, ICMP, TCP, UDP, DHCP)
 CAN
 Mod-Bus(RTU, ACSII)
 UART (RS485,RS232)
 OFC and Advantages
 Disadvantages and its Applications
 Introduction to Dial up Modems
 Leased Line Modems.

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 ETHERNET

Ethernet is primarily a standard communication protocol used to create local area networks.
This technology was invented by Bob Metcalfe and D.R. Boggs in the year 1970. It was
standardized in IEEE 802.3 in 1980. It transmits and receives data through cables. This
facilitates network communication between two or more different types of network cables
such as from copper to fiber optic and vice versa.

Ethernet network is used to create local area network and connect multiple computers or
other devices such as printers, scanners, and so on. In a wired network, this is done with the
help of fiber optic cables, while in a wireless network, it is done through wireless network
technology. An Ethernet network uses various topologies such as star, bus, ring, and more.

Types of Ethernet Networks

Here are some types of Ethernet networks:

Fast Ethernet: As the term suggests, this is quite a high-speed internet, and can transmit or
receive data at about 100 Mbps. This type of network is usually supported by a twisted pair or
CAT5 cable. If a laptop, camera, or any other device is connected to a network, they operate
at 10/100Base Ethernet and 100Base on the fiber side of the link.

Gigabit Ethernet: This type of network transfers data at an even higher speed of about 1000
Mbps or 1Gbps. Gigabit speed is an upgrade from Fast Ethernet which is slowly being phased
out. In this type of network, all the four pairs in the twisted pair cable contribute to the data
transfer speed. This network type finds a large application in video calling systems which use
CAT5e or other advanced cables. For extended networks, the distance of up to 500m,
1000Base SX fiber cables may be used for multimode, as well as 1000Base LX for single
mode systems. VERSITRON manufactures Gigabit Ethernet Media Converters that can
handle 10/100/1000Base speeds on the Ethernet side and 1000Base Gigabit speed on the fiber
side by using Fiber SFP modules.

10-Gigabit Ethernet: This is an even more advanced and high speed network type with a
data transfer rate of 10 Gigabit/second. It is supported by CAT6a or CAT7 twisted pair
cables, as well as fiber optic cables. By using a fiber optic cable, this network area can be
extended up to around 10,000 meters.

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Ethernet Frame Structure

The fields are as follows:

• The preamble consists of seven bytes all of the form10101010 and is used by the receiver to
allow it to establish bit synchronization.

• The start frame delimiter (SFD) is a single byte, 10101011, which is a special data structure
that indicates the start of a frame.

• The destination MAC address (DA) is 48 bits long and is the MAC address of the
destination device.

• The source MAC address (SA) is also 48 bits long and is the MAC address of the source
device that is generating the frame.p

• The length/type field (L/T) is used to distinguish between an IEEE 802.3 frame and an
Ethernet frame. IEEE 802.3 is the international standard, while Ethernet is the original
network that was developed at the Xerox Lab. This field is fundamentally the only place
where the two differ. L is used in 802.3 frame to indicate the number of octets of data in the
frame’s payload, while T is used in the Ethernet to indicate the type of payload carried in the
frame.

While today’s payload is mainly IP, the Ethernet was designed at a time when there were
other types of payload, such as DECnet and IPX.

The MAC client data is the payload or user data that is being transmitted.

• The frame check sequence (FCS, or Checksum) field is a 4-byte field that uses a CRC-32
polynomial code.

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The minimum length of the MAC client data field is 46 bytes and maximum is 1500 bytes. If
it is less than 46 bytes, it is padded up to 46 bytes using the Pad field. Similarly, the
maximum frame length was originally set to 1518 bytes. However, with the introduction of
the virtual local area network (VLAN) that has a VLAN header of 4 bytes, the current
maximum length is 1522 bytes.

ACCESS CONTROL METHODOLOGIES:

For two or more devices to share the same transmission medium, a means of controlling
access is necessary.

Network access methodologies include:

(i) Medium access method (MAM)

(ii) Medium access control (MAC)

MAM describes the means that device use to gain access to the transmission medium whereas
MAC describes how devices access the communications channel in a LAN without allowing
two or more stations to transmit at a the same time.

Medium Access Control (MAC)

There are two broad categories of medium access:

(i) Random access

(ii) Controlled access

Random access:

With random access all the devices have equal access to the transmission medium and there
is no central control. That is every device has the right to access the medium without being
controlled by any other device.

Random access method is classified as

1. ALOHA

2. CSMA

3. CSMA/CD

4. CSMA/CA

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ALOHA was the first random access method used. In ALOHA method

(i) Any device can send a message whenever it has a message to send.

(ii) Before sending a message, a station doesn't listen to the transmission medium to see
whether it is idle.

(iii) After transmitting a message, a station doesn't listen the medium to see if a collision has
occurred.

(iv) After transmitting a message, the sending device waits for an acknowledgement. If it
does not receive one after a predetermined time, which is approximately equal to the round
trip propagation delay, the station assumes that the message was lost, so it retransmits the
message.

CSMA (Carrier sense multiple access) is an access method used primarily with LANs
configured in a bus topology. With CSMA, any device can send message to any other device
as long as transmission medium is free (idle). If two devices transmit as the same time,
collision may occur. To avoid collisions, devices monitor (sense) the transmission medium to
determine if the line is busy.

CSMA/CD (Carrier sense multiple access with collision detection) is same as CSMA,
except CSMA/CD includes procedures to detect collisions and deal with them when they
occur. CSMA/CD requires full duplex capabilities, as device must be able to transmit and
receive at the same time. Consequently, if two devices transmit at the same time and a
collision occurs, both the devices detect gabled data resulting from the collision and impose
recovery procedures. When two devices sends the signal at the same time and a collision
occurs, the first device sensing the collision sends a jamming signal onto the transmission
medium. The device that sends the jamming signal is the device closest to where the collision
occurred and may not be either of the devices involved in the collision. Devices involved in
the collision cease transmitting (backoff) and wait for a random period of time before
attempting retransmission.

CSMA/CA (Carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance) is similar to

CSMA/CD except it implements steps to prevent collisions from occurring. Therefore, with
CSMA/CA there theoretically no collisions. CSMA/CA was designed to be used with
wireless LANs. The procedure for transmitting a message with CSMA/CA is as follows:

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1. If the device has a message to send , it listens to the transmission medium. If it detects an
idle line, it waits a predetermined length of time called Inter frame gap (IFG).

2. The device waits for another random amount of time and then transmits its frame.

3. The device waits for a predetermined length of time for an acknowledgement .

4. If the device receives an acknowledge within a predetermined time it assumes that the
transmission was successful.

5. If the device doesn't receive an acknowledge within a prescribed time , something must be
wrong.

6. If it is determined transmission was unsuccessful, the device increments its backoff

exponent, senses the line again and then repeats above steps.

SOCKET

A socket is one endpoint of a two-way communication link between two programs running
on the network. The application creates a socket. Socket is an interface between application
layer and transport layer.

It is an interface (a “door”) into which an application process can both send and receive
message to/from another application process (remote/local application process). Socket is
also referred as the application programmer’s interface (API) between the application and the
network.

Need of Socket

When we desire a communication between two applications possibly running on different

machines, we need sockets. Requirement of socket is to build any Network Application i.e.,
Web browsers, FTP etc…

How Socket Works?

There are two different programs running on two different machines in network. Client
program wants to communicate with server program. Client select any free port from client
machine and send data to server process. Server select port which is bind with particular
server process. That port is called agreed or specific port. After that logical connection is

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created between client and server. Server received client process at agreed/specific port. Then
communication is started between server and client.

What is Socket address?

Socket is combination of IP address and Port number. IP address is used for host-to-host
communication in network. IP address is assigned by network layer. Port number is used for
process-to-process communication in network. Port number is assigned by transport layers
protocol.

How process can identify using socket?

Let’s take one example, there is one Server host and Client host in above diagram. There are
two different servers are configured on server host. Client send a request message to server.
Request message is received from port number 80. At server-side Web server is bind with

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port number 80. So, Sever OS forward that request message to Web server. Process is
identify based on port address. Port address is already assigned in unique socket address.

On which layer socket is execute in TCP/IP Model?

Socket is executed at transport layer in TCP/IP as well as in OSI model. Socket address is
combination of IP address and port number. Port number is assigned by transport layer
protocol either TCP or UDP. Port address is used for process-to-process communication in
network.

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IP Address

IP stands for Internet Protocol. Every node in the computer network is identified with the
help of IP address. IP address is available in two variants - IPV4 and IPV6. IP address is a
logical address because we can change it based on the location of the device. IP address can
be assigned manually or dynamically. IPV4 address is represented in decimal and it has 4
octets.(x.x.x.x)

Ex: 0.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255 (32 bits)

Classful addressing:

The concept of classes was used to designate the different types of addresses. This addressing
structure is called classful addressing. With classful addressing the full range of 232 IP
addresses is divided into five classes: A,B,C,D and E.

Percentage of IP Addresses:

Class A : 50% - 0.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255

Class B : 25% - 128.0.0.0. to 191.255.255.255

Class C : 12.5% - 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255

Class D : 6.25% - 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.255

Class E : 6.25% - 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255

PORT Addressing:

Port address is also called as Port number. In a node many processes will be running. Data
which are sent/received must reach the right process. Every process in a node is uniquely
identified using port number.

Port = communication end point.

There are two types of port numbers

(i) Fixed port number (ii) Dynamic port number

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NOTE: Before sending data, any node must

* attach source IP address and destination IP address.

*attach source MAC address and destination MAC address.
*attach source port number and destination port number.

Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

In a network if any device need to send data to other device it needs source and destination IP
address as well as source MAC address and destination MAC address. The IP address of the
receiver can be known but the MAC address cannot be identified easily. It can be known
using ARP.

When a device want to know MAC address it broad cast the request to all other devices in a
network. Any device which knows the MAC address of the destination will respond to the
request of the sender and sends (unicast) the MAC address to it. This entire process is done
through ARP.

Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)

In IPV4 there is no error reporting or error correcting mechanisms. ICMP has error reporting
mechanism. Another important task of ICMP is network diagnostics (Trace route and Ping).
Trace tells the routing path between two devices. Ping is used to test the speed of the
connection between two devices. ICMP protocol works along with IP.

Header ICMP Data

IP

User Datagram Protocol(UDP)

UDP is a very simple protocol. Like IP, it is an unreliable, connectionless protocol. It does
not provide any guarantees to processes using it. For the processes using UDP there is no
need to establish a connection with a host before exchanging data. There is no mechanism for
congestion control and there is no assurance that data sent are received. UDP does not
maintain any connection state at the hosts.

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 Source port Destination port
Length Checksum
Data
Format for UDP

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

TCP is a connection oriented transport layer protocol of the internet ans guarantees reliable
and ordered delivery of the segments. TCP is a full duplex protocol. Hence, if there is a TCP
connection between process A on one host and process B on the other host, then application
layer data can flow in both direction simultaneously. The TCP runs on end machines only and
does not run for any connection on intermediate machines or nodes or routers.

Features:

 Provides connection oriented service.

 Provides full duplex connection
 Provides reliability and integrity to applications/network by using adaptive
retransmission strategy.
 Collects bytes from application process to create segment for its peer.
 Provides multiplexing/demultiplexing allowing multiple application processes to
carry on conversation over a single connection.

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)

Every device on a TCP/IP-based network must have a unique unicast IP address to access the
network and its resources. Without DHCP, IP addresses for new computers or computers that
are moved from one subnet to another must be configured manually; IP addresses for
computers that are removed from the network must be manually reclaimed.

With DHCP, this entire process is automated and managed centrally. The DHCP server
maintains a pool of IP addresses and leases an address to any DHCP-enabled client when it
starts up on the network. Because the IP addresses are dynamic (leased) rather than static
(permanently assigned), addresses no longer in use are automatically returned to the pool for
reallocation.

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The network administrator establishes DHCP servers that maintain TCP/IP configuration
information and provide address configuration to DHCP-enabled clients in the form of a lease
offer. The DHCP server stores the configuration information in a database that includes:

 Valid TCP/IP configuration parameters for all clients on the network.

 Valid IP addresses, maintained in a pool for assignment to clients, as well as excluded
addresses.
 Reserved IP addresses associated with particular DHCP clients. This allows consistent
assignment of a single IP address to a single DHCP client.
 The lease duration, or the length of time for which the IP address can be used before a
lease renewal is required.

A DHCP-enabled client, upon accepting a lease offer, receives:

 A valid IP address for the subnet to which it is connecting.

 Requested DHCP options, which are additional parameters that a DHCP server is
configured to assign to clients. Some examples of DHCP options are Router (default
gateway), DNS Servers, and DNS Domain Name.

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CAN (Controller Area Network) protocol

CAN stands for Controller Area Network protocol. It is a protocol that was developed by
Robert Bosch in around 1986. The CAN protocol is a standard designed to allow the
microcontroller and other devices to communicate with each other without any host
computer. The feature that makes the CAN protocol unique among other communication
protocols is the broadcast type of bus. Here, broadcast means that the information is
transmitted to all the nodes. The node can be a sensor, microcontroller, or a gateway that
allows the computer to communicate over the network through the USB cable or ethernet
port. The CAN is a message-based protocol, which means that message carries the message
identifier, and based on the identifier, priority is decided. There is no need for node
identification in the CAN network, so it becomes very easy to insert or delete it from the
network. It is a serial half-duplex and asynchronous type of communication protocol. The
CAN is a two-wired communication protocol as the CAN network is connected through the
two-wired bus. The wires are twisted pair having 120Ω characteristics impedance connected
at each end. Initially, it was mainly designed for communication within the vehicles, but it is
now used in many other contexts. Like UDS, and KWP 2000, CAN also be used for the on-
board diagnostics.

Why CAN?

The need for a centralized standard communication protocol came because of the increase in
the number of electronic devices. For example, there can be more than 7 TCU for various
subsystems such as dashboard, transmission control, engine control unit, and many more in a
modern vehicle. If all the nodes are connected one-to-one, then the speed of the
communication would be very high, but the complexity and cost of the wires would be very
high. In the above example, a single dashboard requires 8 connectors, so to overcome this
issue, CAN was introduced as a centralized solution that requires two wires, i.e., CAN high
and CAN low. The solution of using CAN protocol is quite efficient due to its message
prioritization, and flexible as a node can be inserted or removed without affecting the
network.

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Applications of CAN protocol

Initially, CAN protocol was designed to target the communication issue that occurs within the
vehicles. But later on, due to the features it offers, it is used in various other fields. The
following are the applications of CAN protocol:

Automotive (passenger vehicles, trucks, buses)

Electronic equipment for aviation and navigation

Industrial automation and mechanical control

Elevator and escalators

Building automation

Medical instruments and equipment

Marine, medical, industrial, medical

CAN layered architecture

As we know that the OSI model partitions the communication system into 7 different layers.
But the CAN layered architecture consists of two layers, i.e., data-link layer and physical
layer.

Let's understand both the layers.

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  Data-link layer: This layer is responsible for node to node data transfer. It allows you
to establish and terminate the connection. It is also responsible for detecting and
correcting the errors that may occur at the physical layer. Data-link layer is
subdivided into two sub-layers:
1. MAC: MAC stands for Media Access Control. It defines how devices in a
network gain access to the medium. It provides Encapsulation and
Decapsulation of data, Error detection, and signaling.
2. LLC: LLC stands for Logical link control. It is responsible for frame
acceptance filtering, overload notification, and recovery management.
 Physical layer: The physical layer is responsible for the transmission of raw data. It
defines the specifications for the parameters such as voltage level, timing, data rates,
and connector.

CAN specifications define CAN protocol and CAN physical layer, which are defined in the
CAN standard ISO

11898. ISO 11898 has three parts:

 ISO 11898-1: This part contains the specification of the Data-link layer and physical
signal link.
 ISO 11898-2: This part comes under CAN physical layer for high speed CAN. The
high- speed CAN allows data rate upto 1 Mbps used in the power train and the
charges area of the vehicle.
 ISO 11898-3: This part also comes under CAN physical layer for low-speed CAN. It
allows data rate upto 125 kbps, and the low speed CAN is used where the speed of
communication is not a critical factor.

CiA DS-102: The full form of CiA is CAN in Automation, which defines the specifications
for the CAN connector.

As far as the implementation is concerned, the CAN controller and CAN transceiver are
implemented in the software with the help of the application, operating system, and network
management functions.

CAN Framing

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Let's understand the structure of the CAN frame.

 SOF: SOF stands for the start of frame, which indicates that the new frame is entered
in a network. It is of 1 bit.
 Identifier: A standard data format defined under the CAN 2.0 A specification uses an
11-bit message identifier for arbitration. Basically, this message identifier sets the
priority of the data frame.
 RTR: RTR stands for Remote Transmission Request, which defines the frame type,
whether it is a data frame or a remote frame. It is of 1-bit.
 Control field: It has user-defined functions.
1. IDE: An IDE bit in a control field stands for identifier extension. A dominant
IDE bit defines the 11-bit standard identifier, whereas recessive IDE bit
defines the 29-bit extended identifier.
2. DLC: DLC stands for Data Length Code, which defines the data length in a
data field. It is of 4 bits.
3. Data field: The data field can contain upto 8 bytes.
 CRC field: The data frame also contains a cyclic redundancy check field of 15 bit,
which is used to detect the corruption if it occurs during the transmission time. The
sender will compute the CRC before sending the data frame, and the receiver also
computes the CRC and then compares the computed CRC with the CRC received
from the sender. If the CRC does not match, then the receiver will generate the error.
 ACK field: This is the receiver's acknowledgment. In other protocols, a separate
packet for an acknowledgment is sent after receiving all the packets, but in case of
CAN protocol, no separate packet is sent for an acknowledgment.
 EOF: EOF stands for end of frame. It contains 7 consecutive recessive bits known
End of frame.

Now we will see how data is transmitted through the CAN network.

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A CAN network consists of multiple of CAN nodes. In the above case, we have considered
three CAN nodes, and named them as node A, node B, and node C. CAN node consists of
three elements which are given below:

 Host
A host is a microcontroller or microprocessor which is running some application to do
a specific job. A host decides what the received message means and what message it
should send next.
 CANController
CAN controller deals with the communication functions described by the CAN
protocol. It also triggers the transmission, or the reception of the CAN messages.
 CANTransceiver
CAN transceiver is responsible for the transmission or the reception of the data on the
CAN bus. It converts the data signal into the stream of data collected from the CAN
bus that the CAN controller can understand.

In the above diagram, unshielded twisted pair cable is used to transmit or receive the data. It
is also known as CAN bus, and CAN bus consists of two lines, i.e., CAN low line and CAN
high line, which are also known as CANH and CANL, respectively. The transmission occurs
due to the differential voltage applied to these lines. The CAN uses twisted pair cable and
differential voltage because of its environment. For example, in a car, motor, ignition system,
and many other devices can cause data loss and data corruption due to noise. The twisting of

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the two lines also reduces the magnetic field. The bus is terminated with 120Ω resistance at
each end.

With the help of differential voltage, we will determine how 0 and 1 are transmitted through
the CAN bus. The above figure is the voltage graph that shows the voltage level of CAN low
and CAN high. In CAN terminology, logic 1 is said to be recessive while logic 0 is dominant.
When CAN high line and CAN low line are applied with 2.5 volts, then the actual differential
voltage would be zero volt. A zero volt on CAN bus is read by the CAN transceiver as a
recessive or logic 1. A zero volt on CAN bus is an ideal state of the bus. When CAN high line
is pulled up to 3.5 volt and the CAN low line is pulled down to 1.5 volt, then the bus's actual
differential voltage would be 2 volts. It is treated as a dominant bit or logic 0 by the CAN
transceiver. If the bus state is reached to dominant or logic 0 then it would become
impossible to move to the recessive state by any other node.

Key points learnt from the CAN characteristics

 Logic 1 is a recessive state. To transmit 1 on CAN bus, both CAN high and CAN low
should be applied with 2.5V.
 Logic 0 is a dominant state. To transmit 0 on CAN bus, CAN high should be applied
at 3.5V and CAN low should be applied at 1.5V.
 The ideal state of the bus is recessive.
 If the node reaches the dominant state, it cannot move back to the recessive state by
any other node.

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CAN bus logic

From the above scenario, we get to know that the dominant state overwrites the recessive
state. When the node sends the dominant and the recessive bit simultaneously, then the bus
remains dominant. The recessive level occurs only when all the nodes send the recessive bit.
Such logic is known as AND logic, and physically it is implemented as an open collector
circuit.

CAN Communication Principle

As we know that the message is sent based on the priority set in the arbitration field. For the
standard frame, the message identifier is 11 bit, while for the extended frame, the message
identifier is 29 bit. It allows the system designer to design the message identifier at the design
itself. The smaller the message identifier, the higher, would be the message priority.

Let's understand how arbitration works through a flow chart.

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The sender wants to send the message and waiting for the CAN bus to become idle. If the
CAN bus is idle, then the sender sends the SOF or the dominant bit for the bus access. Then,
it sends the message identifier bit in the most significant bit. If the node detects the dominant
bit on the bus while it has transmitted the recessive bit, it means that the node has lost the
arbitration and stops transmitting further bits. The sender will wait and resend the message
once the bus is free.

MODBUS

Modbus is a communication protocol developed by Modicon systems. In simple terms, it is a

method used for transmitting information over serial lines between electronic devices. The
device requesting the information is called the Modbus Master and the devices supplying
information are Modbus Slaves. In a standard Modbus network, there is one Master and up to
247 Slaves, each with a unique Slave Address from 1 to 247. The Master can also write
information to the Slaves.

Modbus is an open protocol, meaning that it's free for manufacturers to build into their
equipment without having to pay royalties. It has become a very common protocol used
widely by many manufacturers throughout many industries. Modbus is typically used to
transmit signals from instrumentation and control devices back to a main controller or data
gathering system.

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Modbus is transmitted over serial lines between devices. The simplest setup would be a
single serial cable connecting the serial ports on two devices, a Master and a Slave.

The data is sent as series of ones and zeroes called bits. Each bit is sent as a voltage. Zeroes
are sent as positive voltages and a ones as negative. The bits are sent very quickly. A typical
transmission speed is 9600 baud (bits per second).

Each slave in a network is assigned a unique unit address from 1 to 247. When the master
requests data, the first byte it sends is the Slave address. This way each slave knows after the
first byte whether or not to ignore the message.

DIAL UP INTERNET ACCESS

The Internet has evolved from basic dial-up access using traditional telephone lines to the
current state of high-speed broadband access. Several years back, people were accessing the
Internet using a dialup modem at a speed of about 9.6 kilo bits per second (kbps). Please note
that KBPS is normally used to denote Kilo Bytes per second, which is usually 10 times that
of kbps. That is, a speed of a bout 0.96KBPS. At this rate, a video clip of size of 1MB
download is going to take several minutes! The article begins with traditional dialup access
and moves on to most recent technologies like VDSL, WiMAX, and 4G.

Dialup Internet access is a service provided by ISPs (Internet Service Providers) that allows
connectivity to the Internet through a standard telephone line using copper twisted pair (TP).
The following diagram shows the typical connection to the customer premises equipment
(modem) from the local exchange office.

Here one end of the telephone line is connected to the modem, which can be an external or
internal to your computer, and the other end is inserted into the phone jack. You need to
configure the computer for dialup access and need to load the system with appropriate driver
for connecting to the modem. The modems are usually belongs to the customer, and

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manufactured to comply with international standards for modem protocols. At the other end,
the ISP will also have matching modem rack that contains several such modems, one for each
customer. Some times, several modems are clubbed in to one physical hardware rack, and
known as modem rack.

Dial up Internet service is provided through several ISPs and usually requires the permission
from the government to operate. The protocol that is used to connect a modem to its peer at
the other end (located at the local exchange) is called PPP (Point to Point Protocol). There are
different types of modems, and most of them are inexpensive to purchase. You can have an
internal modem installed in a free slot of your computer, or you can have an external modem
that's hooked up to the computer through cables. A telephone line is linked to the modem.

Any computer Operating System like Microsoft Windows has Network Connection utility,
which allows you to connect to the Internet. In the Network Connection utility you have to
set up ISP profile so that the modem knows what phone number to dial, and other connection
parameters so that you can connect to the Internet. When the modem dials the phone number
your ISP gives you, a connection is made, and then information is transferred between the
modem and the remote server. A remote authentication server is the computer and related
software that is established to handle users who want to access a network remotely. The
username and password are required to access gateway to the Internet. The gateway to the
Internet is a network that allows entry into the Internet.

The modems that are utilized in todays senario have maximum speeds upto 56 kbits/s. With
some multiplexing, it may be possible to increase the speeds a little further, but not enough to
meet the existing demands. For example, contents such as 'streaming media' may not be
viable using traditional dialup access. Further, services like video conferencing and online
gaming, does not work properly with a dial up internet connection.

Limitations of Dial Up Internet Access

 Slow access
 Limited bandwidth
 Cannot use phone and web at same time

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Leased Line Modems

A Leased Line modem is a high-speed modem designed for use in a private communications
channel leased from a common carrier. Most digital lines require four wires (two pairs) for
full-duplex transmission. It may have built-in lower speeds for alternate use in dial-up lines. 

A leased line is a fixed, dedicated, digital, point to point line for data transfer. The term
"leased line" is a general description of a point to point circuit from a data carrier supplier.
These circuits can be supplied at various speeds and be presented at your site with various
interfaces. A leased line is not connected to a telephone exchange and does not provide DC
power, dial tone, busy tone or ring signal.

Transmission speeds of leased lines vary from 64kbps up to several megabytes, but the costs
increase dramatically beyond 128kbps. For most small companies or home users, ISDN is
quite suitable, as it is capable of speeds of up to 128kbps. Unlike ISDN, there is no usage
charge for a leased line, only fixed annual costs, which is at a higher rate than ISDN. Due to
usage charges, it is generally recommended that if you are using the ISDN line for more than
four hours a day (total on-line time), then it may be more cost effective to move to a fixed
circuit.

An added complication to working out the cost effectiveness of a leased line, is that the
majority of circuit suppliers work out the annual cost, based on the distance between the two
sites to be connected.

Leased Line Modem

Leased line modems are also called Baseband modems or short-range modems. A leased line
modem is a digital modem that may be used to inter-connect computers, terminals,
controllers and similar digital equipment over distances of up to 16 kms (10 miles) for LAN
interconnection, campus networking, or high-speed leased line internet links, over a single,
unshielded twisted copper pair (two wires).

These devices overcome distance limitations and noise problems by using special modulation
and line equalization techniques and allow error-free communication over longer distances, at
much higher data rates than conventional analog dial-up modems. Leased line modems are a
cost effective and efficient solution for dedicated data-network access and in the "last mile"
network access applications.

VLITS ECE Dr.B.Harish

Factors To Be Considered While Buying A Leased Line Modem

While buying a leased line modem, the following factors need to be considered.

Half Duplex/Full Duplex Operations Support

When a leased line modem operates in half duplex, it transmits or receives a signal in both
directions but only one at a time, whereas in full duplex, it can transmit as well as receive
simultaneously. Full duplex operation is normally achieved using an adaptive echo
cancellation technique.

Synchronous/Asynchronous Mode

A leased line modem can support synchronous or asynchronous mode or both. While
operating in the asynchronous mode, it transmits units of data, one character preceded by start
bit and followed by stop bit at a time, whereas in synchronous mode, it transmits data bit at a
fixed rate with the transmitter and receiver synchronized.

Modem Ranges For 2 Wire/4 Wire Or Fiber Modem

Ranges for 2 wire/4 wire copper modems are measured over line simulators at 24AWG.
Ranges for fiber optic modems are measured using 1550 mm laser diode interface.

Selectable Bit Rates

Normally leased line modems can operate to select data rates ranging from low speed (9.6
Kbps) to high speed T1 (1 Mbps) or E1 (2.048 Mbps). The higher the speed you select, the
lower is the distance range over the twisted pair unconditional 24 AWG telephone line.

Interface
Digital interface includes V.24/RS -232, V.35, V.36, RS-530, built-in Ethernet bridge and
G.703 (64 Kbps), whereas on analog line connector is RJ-45 and terminal block.

Modulation Technique

Conditional diphase modulation and 2BIQ are the most common modulation types, which
provide immunity to background noise, eliminate nominal line distortion and enable efficient
transmission over twisted pair.

Diagnostic Capabilities

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It features diagnostic capabilities complying with the V.54 standard to perform local and
remote loopbacks. A built-in Bit Error Rate Tester (BERT) activated and monitored from
front panel complies with V.52 standards to enable complete testing of both modems and
lines.

Protection Circuit

Isolation transformers and a protection circuitry offer line protection. They protect leased line
modems as well as the attached DTE from line hazards such as AC or DC overvoltages.

Intelligent Modem

Some of the leased line modems are also available with a certain degree of intelligence. An
intelligent modem comes with a remote control and a management channel that enables the
user at a central site to configure the unit at the customer's premises by remote control,
activate, diagnose and receive real-time alerts on system status.

Diagnostic LED

LEDs on the front panel are TD, RD, RTS, DCD, Test, Error and Power, which are useful for
visual diagnostics.

UART

UART, or universal asynchronous receiver-transmitter, is one of the most used device-to-

device communication protocols. When properly configured, UART can work with many
different types of serial protocols that involve transmitting and receiving serial data. In serial
communication, data is transferred bit by bit using a single line or wire. In two-way
communication, we use two wires for successful serial data transfer. Depending on the
application and system requirements, serial communications needs less circuitry and wires,
which reduces the cost of implementation.

UART is a hardware communication protocol that uses asynchronous serial communication

with configurable speed. Asynchronous means there is no clock signal to synchronize the
output bits from the transmitting device going to the receiving end.

VLITS ECE Dr.B.Harish

The two signals of each UART device are named:

Transmitter (Tx)

Receiver (Rx)

The main purpose of a transmitter and receiver line for each device is to transmit and receive
serial data intended for serial communication.

The transmitting UART is connected to a controlling data bus that sends data in a parallel
form. From this, the data will now be transmitted on the transmission line (wire) serially, bit
by bit, to the receiving UART. This, in turn, will convert the serial data into parallel for the
receiving device.

The UART lines serve as the communication medium to transmit and receive one data to
another. Take note that a UART device has a transmit and receive pin dedicated for either
transmitting or receiving.

For UART and most serial communications, the baud rate needs to be set the same on both
the transmitting and receiving device. The baud rate is the rate at which information is
transferred to a communication channel. In the serial port context, the set baud rate will serve
as the maximum number of bits per second to be transferred.

VLITS ECE Dr.B.Harish

OFC and Advantages

Fiber optic communication is a method of transmitting information from one place to

another by sending pulses of light through an optical fiber.

The light forms a electromagnetic carrier wave that is modulated to carry information.

Optical fiber consists of three regions

1. Core (n1)

2. Cladding (n2)

3. Sheath

• Refractive index of cladding is always lower than core.

• Thus cladding keeps the light waves within the core.

• Sheath protects the cladding and core from contaminations and moisture.

Advantages

• Information BW is more.
• Optical fibers are small in size and light weighted
• They are immune to noise, EM interference.
• Cross talk is eliminated.

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 • There is no risk of short circuit .
• They can be used at wide range of temperatures.
• Low transmission loss

Disadvantages

• Complex circuitry is required at Tx and Rx.

• Coupling of optical fibers is difficult.
• Difficult in maintenance.
• Separate power supply is required for electronic repeater at different stages.

VLITS ECE Dr.B.Harish