● SPORADIC DISEASES - a disease that occurs only

USING CHEMICAL AGENTS TO INHIBIT MICROBIAL occasionally within the population of a particular
GROWTH geographic area.

DISINFECTANTS ● ENDEMIC DISEASES - diseases that are always

- Chemical disinfection refers to the use of chemical
agents to inhibit the growth of pathogens, either
temporarily or permanently.
ANTISEPTICS
- Antimicrobial chemical agents that can safely be
applied to skin are called antiseptics. An antiseptic
merely reduces the number of organisms on a surface; it
does not penetrate pores and hair follicles to destroy
- microorganisms residing there.
present within the population of a particular geographic
area.
● EPIDEMIC DISEASES - a greater than usual number
of cases of a disease in a particular region, usually
occurring within a relatively short period of time.
● Pandemic Diseases - a disease that is occuring in
epidemic proportions in many countries simultaneously
— sometimes worldwide.

EPIDEMIOLOGY AND PUBLIC ● Collectively, HIV / AIDS, TB, and malaria cause more
than 300 million illnesses and more than 5 million
HEALTH deaths per year.

Pathology & Epidemiology - defined as the study of disease, but JOHN SNOW - “Father of Epidemiology”
they involve different aspects of disease. HIV / AIDS - Common modes of HIV transmission.

PATHOLOGIST - studies the structural and functional INTERACTIONS AMONG PATHOGENS, HOSTS, AND
manifestations of disease and is involved in diagnosing diseases ENVIRONMENT
in individuals.
1. Factors pertaining to pathogen
EPIDEMIOLOGIST - studies the factors that determine the 2. Factors pertaining to the host ( i.e. the person who may
frequency, distribution, and determinants in human populations become infected)
3. Factors pertaining to the environment
EPIDEMIOLOGY - study of factors that determine the
frequency, distribution, and determinants of diseases in human CHAIN OF INFECTION
populations, and ways to prevent, control, or eradicate diseases ( 6 COMPONENTS)
in populations. ● A pathogen
● A reservoir of infection
COMMUNICABLE AND CONTAGIOUS DISEASES ● A portal of exit
● A mode of transmission
● Infectious Disease - (infection) is a disease that is ● A portal of entry
caused by a pathogen. ● A susceptible host

● Communicable Disease - if the infectious disease is

transmissible from one human to another (i.e. person to
person) STRATEGIES FOR BREAKING THE CHAIN OF INFECTION

● Contagious Disease - a communicable disease that is BROAD GOALS:

easily transmitted from one person to another. (i. E.
Hepatitis A, B, C, COVID-19, Influenza (Flu))
ZOONOTIC DISEASES / ZOONOSES - infectious diseases
that humans acquire from animal sources.
INCIDENCE RATE - number of new cases of that disease in a
defined population during a specific time period.
● Eliminate or contain the reservoirs of pathogens or
curtail the persistence of a pathogen at the source.
● Prevent contact with infectious substances from exit
pathways.
● Eliminate means of transmission
● Block exposure to entry pathways
● Reduce or eliminate the susceptibility of potential
hosts.

MORBIDITY RATE - number of new cases of a particular RESERVOIRS OF INFECTION

disease that occurred during a specified time period.
PREVALENCE
● Period prevalence - of a particular disease is the number
of cases of the disease existing in a given population
during a specific time period
Reservoirs - sources of microbes that cause infectious diseases.
Living Reservoirs - include humans, household pets, farm,
animals, wild animals, certain insects, and certain arachnids
(ticks and mites)

● Point prevalence - of a particular disease is the number Human Carriers - the most important reservoirs of human
of cases of the disease existing in a given population at infectious diseases are other humans — people with infectious
a particular moment in time diseases as well as carriers.

MORTALITY RATE - aka death rate CARRIER

- ratio of the number of people who died of ● Passive Carriers - Convalescent Carriers
a particular disease during a specified period per specified ● Incubatory Carrier - Active Carriers
population.
Animals - Infectious diseases that humans acquire from animal
sources are called zoonotic diseases or zoonoses.
Arthropods - As a group, they are so commonly associated with
human infections.
Nonliving Reservoirs - nonliving or inanimate reservoirs of
infection include air, soil, dust, food, milk, water, and fomites.
FIVE PRINCIPAL MODES
1. Contact
2. Droplet
3. Airborne
4. Vehicular
5. Vector transmission
COMMON ROUTES OF TRANSMISSION OF INFECTIOUS
DISEASES
1. Direct skin-to-skin contact
2. Direct mucous membrane-to-mucous membrane contact
by kissing or sexual intercourse
3. Indirect contact via airborne droplets of respiratory
secretions, usually produced as a result of sneezing or
coughing.
4. Indirect contact via food and water contaminated with
fecal material.
5. Indirect contact via arthropod vectors.
6. Indirect via fomites
7. Indirect contact via transfusion of contaminated blood
products.
BIOTERRORISM AND BIOLOGICAL WARFARE
AGENTS
The use of pathogens as BW agents dates back thousands of
years. Ancient Romans threw carrion (decaying dead bodies) into
wells to contaminate the drinking water of their enemies.
ANTHRAX - is caused by B. anthracis, a spore-forming,
Gram-positive bacillus.
BOTULISM - is a potentially fatal microbial intoxication,
caused by botulinal toxin, a neurotoxin produced by C.
botulinum.
SMALLPOX - is a serious contagious disease caused by variola
virus, a member of the orthopoxvirus family.
PLAGUE - is caused by Y.pestis, a Gram-negative
coccobacillus. Patients develop fever, chills, extreme weakness,
abdominal pain, shock, and possibly bleeding into skin and other
organs. Skin and other tissues may turn black and die, especially
on fingers, toes, and the nose.
SEWAGE TREATMENT
- Raw sewage consists mainly of water, fecal material,
and garbage and bacteria from the drains of houses and
other buildings.
➢ PRIMARY SEWAGE TREATMENT
- Involves sedimentation solid waste within the
water.
- This is done after filtering out larger
contaminants within the water.
- Wastewater is passed through several tanks and
filters that separate water from contaminants.
➢ SECONDARY SEWAGE TREATMENT
- The secondary stage of treatment removes
about 85% of the organic matter in sewage by
making use of bacteria in it
- The principal secondary treatment are the
trickling filter and the activated sludge process
TERTIARY SEWAGE TREATMENT
- The method of wastewater treatment consists of
eliminating non-biodegradable pollutants.
- It follows primary and secondary treatment.
- This technique allows the removal of phosphorus and
nitrogen contained chemical and physical processes.
PATHOGENESIS OF INFECTIOUS
DISEASE
● Path - meaning disease
● Pathogen - a microbe capable of causing disease
● Pathology - the study of structural and functional
manifestations of disease.
● Pathologist - a physician who has specialized in
pathology
● Pathogenicity - the ability to cause disease
● Pathogenesis - the steps or mechanisms involved
in the development of a disease.
4 Periods or Phases in the Curse of an Infectious
Disease
➢ Incubation Period - the time that elapses
between arrival of the pathogen and the onset of
symptoms.
➢ Prodromal period - the time during which the
patient feels “out of sorts” but is not yet
experiencing actual symptoms of the disease.
➢ Period of illness - the time during which the
patient experiences the typical symptoms
associated with that particular disease (e.g. sore
throat, headache, sinus congestion)
➢ Convalescent period - is the time during which
the patient recovers.
LOCALIZED VERSUS SYSTEMIC
INFECTIONS
● Localized Infection - is an infection that affects
only one body part organ. (eg. pimples, boils,
abscesses.
● Systemic Infection - is an infection that is in the
bloodstream affecting the entire body. (e.g bacteria
that causes tuberculosis)
ACUTE, SUBACUTE, AND CHRONIC DISEASES
● Acute Diseases - are medical conditions that
have a sudden onset and a relatively short
duration.
● Subacute Disease - medical condition that falls
between the acute and chronic stages in terms of
its progression and duration
 ● Chronic Diseases -are long-lasting health
conditions that typically progress slowly over time
SYMPTOMS VERSUS SIGNS OF A DISEASE
● A symptom of a disease is defined as some
evidence of a disease that is experienced or
perceived by the patient (SUBJECTIVE)
● A sign of a disease is defined as some type of
objective evidence of a disease .
LAtENT INFECTION
● Latent disease - is a disease that is lying dominant,
not currently manifesting itself.
● Syphilis - is a sexually transmitted infection (STI)
that can cause serious health problems without
treatment.
STAGES OF SYPHILIS
● Primary syphilis - Hardened, painless chancre
develops about 3 weeks after exposure
● Secondary Syphilis: Chancre curls inward and
a rash develops about 4 to 6 weeks after exposure;
rash resolves within weeks to 12 months
● Latent Syphilis: No symptoms; may last for
weeks to years; sometimes continues throughout
life.
● Tertiary Syphilis: CNS, cardiovascular, and
other symptoms (sometimes death) occur 5 to 20
years after exposure
NON-SPECIFIC HOST DEFENSE
MECHANISM
Are general and serve to protect the body against many
harmful substances.
One of the nonspecific host defenses is the innate inborn
resistance observed among some species of animals and
persons who have a natural resistance.
FIRST LINE OF DEFENSE
( or outside defense systems) are the surface barriers that
prevent the entry of pathogens into the body, this includes
the physical and chemical barriers.
➢ SKIN AND MUCOUS MEMBRANES AS
PHYSICAL BARRIERS
The intact, unbroken skin and mucous membranes
serve as non-specific host defense mechanisms by
serving as physical or mechanical barriers to
Pathogen.
➢ CELLULAR AND CHEMICAL FACTORS
The dryness, acidity, and temperature of the skin
inhibit colonization and growth of pathogens;
perspiration flushes them away.
➢ MICROBIAL ANTAGONISM
When indigenous microflora prevent the
establishment of arriving pathogens.
SECOND LINE OF DEFENSE
are the non-specific phagocytes and other internal
mechanisms that comprise innate immunity
Transferrin, fever, interferons, the complement system,
inflammation, and phagocytosis are all part of the second
line of defense
➢ Transferrin - serves as the specific host defense
mechanism by sequestering iron and depriving
pathogens of this essential nutrient.
➢ Fever - can slow down the rate of growth of
certain pathogens and can even kill some especially
fastidious ones.
➢ Interferons - are small, antiviral proteins
produced by virus infected cells. They are called
interferons because they interfere with viral
replication
THE COMPLEMENT SYSTEM
The proteins of the complement system (collectively
referred to as complement components) interact with each
other in a stepwise manner, known as the complement
cascade—a nonspecific host defense mechanism that assists
in the destruction of many different pathogens
ACUTE-PHASE PROTEINS
Plasma levels of molecules collectively referred to a s
acute-phase proteins increase rapidly in response to
infection, inflammation, and tissue injury.
CYTOKINES
- are chemical mediators that are released from
many different types of cells in the human body.
INFLAMMATION
- a nonspecific pathologic process consisting of a
dynamic complex of cytologic and histologic
reactions that occur in response to an injury or
abnormal stimulation by a physical, chemical, or
biologic agent.
3 MAJOR EVENTS IN ACUTE INFLAMMATION
● An increase diameter of capillaries (vasodilation),
which increases blood flow to the site
● Increased permeability of the capillaries, allowing
the escape of plasma and plasma proteins
● Escape of leukocytes from the capillaries and their
accumulation at the site of injury
PRImARY PURPOSES OF INFLAMMATORY
RESPONSE
● Localized an infection
● Neutralize any toxins being produced at the site
● Prevent the spread of microbial invaders
● Aid in the repair of damaged tissue
4 CARDINAL SIGNS & SYMPTOMS OF INFLAMMATION
● Chronic granulomatous disease (CGD) is an
1. Redness often-fatal genetic disorder that is characterized by
2. Heat repeated bacterial infections. The PMNs of
3. Swelling individuals with CGD can ingest bacteria but
4. Pain cannot kill certain species.

PHAGOCYTOSIS - the process by which phagocytes

surround and engulf (ingest) foreign material.

MACROPHAGES - a large phagocytic leukocyte that

arises from a monocyte.

WANDERING MACROPHAGES - leave the

bloodstream and migrate to infected areas.

FIXED MACROPHAGES - remain within tissues and

organs and serve to trap foreign debris.

FOUR STEPS IN PHAGOCYTOSIS

CHEMOTAXIS - phagocytes are attracted by chemotactic

agents to the site where they are needed.

ATTACHMENT - next is attachment of the phagocyte to

the object to be ingested. Phagocytes acn only object to
which they can attach.

INGESTION - pseudopodia surround the object, and are

taken into the cell.

DIGESTION - the object is broken down and dissolved

by digestive enzymes and other mechanisms.

DISORDERS AND CONDITIONS THAT

ADVERSELY AFFECT PHAGOCYTIC AND
INFLAMMATORY PROCESSES

Leukopenia - a condition when a patient has an

abnormally low number of circulating leukocytes

Leukocytosis - a condition when a patient has an

abnormally high number of circulating leukocytes

Leukemia - a type of cancer in which there is a

proliferation
of abnormal leukocytes in the blood. (Acute and Chronic)

Neutropenia - an abnormally low number of circulating

neutrophils

DISORDER AND CONDITION AFFECTING

LEUKOCYTE MOTILITY AND CHEMOTAXIS

● The inability of leukocytes to migrate in response

to chemotactic agents may be related to a defect in
the production of actin, a structural protein
associated with motility.

● Decreased neutrophil chemotaxis also occurs in the

inherited childhood disease known as
Chediak-Higashi syndrome

DISORDER AND CONDITION AFFECTING

INTRACELLULAR KILLING BY PHAGOCYTE

● The phagocytes of some individuals are capable of

ingesting bacteria, but are incapable of killing certain
species.This is usually the result of deficiencies in
myeloperoxidase.