FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

OF THERMODYNAMICS

1
LECTURE 1-1
INTRODUCTION

What is Thermodynamics?
 The word “Thermodynamlcs” is made up from two words:

Thermo - from a Greek word meaning hot, or heat, and,

Dynamics - the study of matter in motion - again from a Greek

word meaning power, or Powerful.

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INTRODUCTION
 Thus, the word “Thermodynamics”
means the study of heat related to
matter in motion.
Aircraft Engines
 Much of the study of engineering
(or applied) thermodynamics is
concerned with work producing or
work utilising machines such as
engines, turbines and compressors
together with the working
substances used in such machines.
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Automobile Engines 3
INTRODUCTION

 Engineering (Applied) Thermodynamics is the science of the relationship

between heat, work, and the properties of systems.

 It is concerned with the means necessary to convert heat energy from

available sources such as fossil fuels into mechanical work.

 A Heat Engine is the name given to a system which by operating in a cyclic

manner produces net work from a supply of heat.

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INTRODUCTION
 The Laws of Thermodynamics are natural hypotheses based on observation
of the world in which we live
 It is observed that heat and work are two mutually convertible forms of
energy. This forms the basis for the First Law of Thermodynamics.
 It is also observed that heat never flows unaided from an object at low to
one at high temperature, in the same way that a river never flows unaided
uphill. This observation is the basis for the Second Law of
Thermodynamics.
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INTRODUCTION

 The Second Law of Thermodynamics can be used to show that a Heat

Engine cannot convert all the energy supplied to it into mechanical
work, but must always reject some heat at a lower temperature.

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INTRODUCTION: ENERGY
 All living things depend on energy for survival, and modern civilizations will
continue to thrive only if existing sources of energy can be developed to
meet the growing demands.
 Energy exists in many forms:
From the energy locked in the atoms of matter itself to the intense radiant
energy emitted by the sun.

 Many sources of energy exists; many are known, with a possibility of others
being unknown.

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INTRODUCTION: ENERGY
 However, for any existing energy source, means are required to transform the
energy into a form convenient to our purpose.

 For Example:

1. The chemical energy of combustion in fossil fuels (oil, coal, gas), and
waste (agricultural, industrial, domestic), is used to produce heat
which I turn is use to provide mechanical energy in Turbines or
Reciprocating Engines.

2. When Uranium atoms are bombarded asunder, the nuclear energy

released is used as heat.
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INTRODUCTION: ENERGY

3. The kinetic energy of the wind is harnessed by windmills

to produce electricity.

4. The potential energy of large masses of water is converted

into electrical energy as it passes through water

turbines on its way from the mountains to the sea.

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INTRODUCTION: ENERGY
4. The energy of the waves of the sea is converted into
electrical power in floating turbines.

5. The tides produced by the rotation of the moon produce

electrical energy by flowing through turbines in large river
estuaries.

6. Hot rocks and trapped liquids in the depths of the earth

are made to release their energy to be converted to
electricity.
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INTRODUCTION: ENERGY

7. The immense radiant energy of the sun is tapped to heat

water or by suitable device is converted directly into
electricity.

 Fig 1.1 shows the various energy sources and the possible conversion
paths with the more important transfers shown as bold lines.

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INTRODUCTION: ENERGY

Fig. 1.1 Energy Conversion Diagram

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FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS
WORKING SUBSTANCE

 All thermodynamic systems require some working substance in order that the
various operations required of each system can be carried out.

 The working substances are, in general, fluids which are capable of deformation,
in that they can readily be expanded and compressed.

 The working substance also takes part in energy transfer. For example it can
receive or reject heat energy or it can be the means by which work is done.
Common examples of working substances used in thermodynamic systems are air
and steam.
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FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS
PURE SUBSTANCE

 A pure substance is a single substance or mixture of substances which has the same
consistent composition throughout. In other words, it is a homogeneous substance and
its molecular structure does not vary. For example; steam and water, or a mixture of
steam and water can be considered as pure substances. Each has the same molecular or
chemical structure through its mass.

 Air in its gaseous and liquid form is a pure substance. However, during the liquefaction
process of air, which is a mixture of gases, mainly oxygen and nitrogen, the oxygen and
nitrogen liquefy at different temperatures.
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FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS
 Until all the air becomes liquid, the relative concentrations of oxygen and nitrogen
(and other gases) in the liquid that has formed will therefore be different from
those of the original air. The relative concentrations will also differ between the
condensing vapour and the original air. Thus the air in these circumstances ceases
to be a pure substance.

 The importance of the concept of a pure substance in this work is that the
condition, or state, of a pure substance can be completely defined by any two
independent properties of the substance. For example, if the pressure and volume
of a fixed mass of oxygen is known, then its temperature and such other properties
are also completely known.
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FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS
MACROSCOPIC AND MICROSCOPIC ANALYSIS

 If the properties of a particular mass of a substance, such as its pressure, volume and
temperature, are analysed, then the analysis is said to be macroscopic. This is the
method of analysis usually used by the engineer and is the type of analysis used
therefore in the study of heat engines and engineering thermodynamics.

 If, however, an analysis is made in which the behaviour of the individual atoms and
molecules of a substance are under investigation, then the analysis is said to be
microscopic. Some studies in nuclear physics would be of a microscopic nature, such as
the atomic structure of a fissionable material like uranium.
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FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS
PROPERTIES AND STATE

 In the macroscopic analysis of a substance any characteristic of the substance which can be
observed or measured is called a property of the substance. Examples of properties are pressure,
volume and temperature. This type of property which is dependent upon the physical and
chemical structure of the substance is called an internal or thermostatic property.

 If a value can be assigned to a property then it is said to be a point function because its value can
be plotted on a graph.

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FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS
 Properties which are independent of mass, such as temperature and pressure,
are said to be intensive properties. Properties which are dependent upon mass,
such as volume and energy in its various forms, are called extensive properties.

 If a property can be varied at will, quite independently of other properties, then

the property is said to be an independent property. The temperature and
pressure of a gas, for example, can be varied quite independently of each other
and thus, in this case, temperature and pressure are independent properties.

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FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS

 However, during the formation of a vapour, the temperature at which

a liquid boils depends upon the pressure at which the formation of
the vapour is occurring. In this case, if the pressure is fixed then the
temperature becomes dependent upon the pressure. Hence the
pressure is an independent property but the temperature is a
dependent property.

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FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS

 A property which includes a function of time, used to define a rate at

which some interaction can occur, such as the transfer of mass,
momentum or energy, is referred to as a transport property.

Examples of transport properties are thermal conductivity and

viscosity.

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FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS

SPECIFIC QUANTITY

 Properties which were associated with the mass of a substance are called
extensive properties.

 However, for convenience purposes at times, it is useful to discuss the

properties of unit mass of a substance. To indicate that this is the case, the
word specific is used to prefix the property. Thus, the specific volume of a
substance, at some particular state, is the volume occupied by unit mass of
the substance at that particular state.
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FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS
TEMPERATURE

 Temperature describes the degree of hotness or coldness of a body. The subject

of temperature investigation is called thermometry.

 There are generally two accepted temperature scales, Fahrenheit and Celsius. The
Fahrenheit scale is named after its German inventor, Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit
(1686-1736) of Danzig (now Gdansk, Poland). The Celsius scale (often referred to
as the centigrade scale) is named after Anders Celsius (1701-1744), a Swedish
astronomer born at Uppsala.
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FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS
 The Celsius scale is the temperature scale which is most commonly used
worldwide. The Fahrenheit scale is generally becoming progressively phased out.

 The customary temperature scale adopted for use with the SI system of units is
the Celsius scale. For customary use, the lower fixed point is the temperature of
the melting of pure ice, commonly referred to as the freezing point. This point is
designated 0°C. The upper fixed point is the temperature at which pure water
boils and this is designated 100°C.

 on the Fahrenheit scale, the freezing and boiling points of pure water are
designated 32°F and 212°F, respectively.
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