1

ABSTRACT

Soilless cultivation is intensively used in protected agriculture to improve control over the growing
environment and to avoid uncertainties in the water and nutrient status of the soil. Aeroponics is the soilless
cultivation and it is a process of growing crops suspended in the air or in a mist without using soil. The roots of
the crops are sprayed with nutrients at regular intervals. It is a type of high-technology farming. The word
“aeroponic” is derived from the Greek meanings of aero-(air) and ponos- (labour).Aeroponic culture differs from
both conventional hydroponics and in-vitro (plant tissue culture) growing. Unlike hydroponics, which uses water
as a growing medium and essential mineral to sustain plant growth, aeroponics is conducted without a growing
medium. Because water is used in aeroponics to transmit nutrients, it is sometimes considered a type of
hydroponics.

The principles of Aeroponics are based on the possibility of cultivating vegetables whose roots are not
inserted in a substratum (the case with hydroponics) or soil, but in containers filled with flowing plant nutrition.
In these containers roots can find the best condition regarding oxygenation and moisture. These conditions allow
for better plant nutrition assimilation in a more balanced way, with consequential faster development of the
cultivated plants.

The aeroponic system is more user-friendly as the plants are all separated, they are all suspended in the
air and the roots of the plants are not in anything like soil or water. Also, the harvesting of crops is simple. When
compared to hydroponics, aeroponics offers lower water and energy inputs per square meter of growing area.
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INTRODUCTION

By the year 2050, the population of Earth is expected to rise by 3 billion people. Approximately 109
hectares of additional traditional farmland will be needed to feed them. It is estimated that 80% of the arable land
on Earth suitable for farming is presently in use. Roughly 15% of this land has been rendered unusable for
farming due to poor management and climate change has claimed even more. More locally, the produce industry
of the US is inefficient and insufficient. Populations in the northeast buy produce for at least 6 months out of the
year from farms over 3,000 miles away, according to multiple produce vendors in the area. This produce has been
engineered to survive the long trip and extend shelf life in local stores. Better quality and tasting locally grown
produce is only available for a few months out of the year, and in a relatively limited quantity. Jobs associated
with farming are often seasonal, low paying, and with no benefits. Even in the East, these jobs are often occupied
by migrant workers. Another issue is that crop yields are highly dependent on weather. A single poor growing
season can cause thousands to starve in many areas of the world. In the US, this at minimum causes a significant
rise in imported produce resulting in higher prices and dollars leaving the local economy.

The proposed solution is an integration of currently available technologies in a Controlled Environment

High-Rise Farm (CEHRF). The system is based on an aeroponic growing system, chosen for its 90% reduction
in water use, 60% reduction in nutrient use, stimulated crop growth, and higher density capabilities as compared
to traditional farming. This system is then enclosed in a high-rise building with a transmissive wall, made of a
corrugated polymer with a light transmission to R-value ratio that is roughly 3 times that of glass. This building
is used in conjunction with a high efficiency HVAC system to provide stable, year round growing temperatures
and humidity in a series of separate environments specific to each crop type being grown. The supplemental
artificial lighting system is based around Luxim’s LIFI technology, a highly efficient (120 lum/W) full spectrum
capable bulb. The growing regimen is designed to provide a year-round continual harvest by offsetting planting
times, so that a steady and reliable crop yield can be achieved while providing full-time year round employment
in a safe environment with benefits. These farms can be placed near the populations they are intended to serve,
keeping money in local economies. These farms are designed to be co-located with sources of waste heat and/or
green energy to maximize benefits. Placement near co-gen plants, or wind farms that the grid can’t fully support
is ideal, and these locations are more abundant than one might think.
Aeroponic literally means “growing in air.” An aeroponic system is medium-less in that the roots of the
plant are free hanging inside an open root-zone atmosphere. The vegetation zone is separated by the supports used
to hold the plants in the top of the unit. Nutrients are mixed in with water in a reservoir basin; this is then filtered
and pumped into a pressurized holding tank that is intermittently misted onto the root system. The water droplet
size must be big enough to carry the nutrients to the roots in sufficient quantity, but small enough to not
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immediately precipitate out of the root mass. Unused solution drips down into the base of the unit and is strained,
filtered, and pumped back into the reservoir.
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AEROPONICS

Aeroponics or air culture uses the application of nutrient dissolved mist over exposed plant roots which
enable growth without soil. Aeroponics usually regarded as a type of hydroponics since water is used as a nutrient
dissolution medium. The suspended plant roots are enclosed in a sealed chamber and the plant canopy is exposed
to outside. For small plants sheath of cell foam is compressed and wrapped around the bottom stem and inserted
in to the aeroponic setup. For large fruit bearing plants trellising is used. Trellising is fixation of wooden or
metallic supporting frames with the plant body. The plant grow vigorously in an aeroponic system due to the
sterile environment and abundant oxygen present in the chamber. The droplet size of a nutrient mist is a crucial
element in aeroponics. An oversized droplet may reduce the oxygen supply. An undersized droplet may stimulate
root hair growth which prevents lateral root growth which influences the efficiency of an aeroponic system.
Aeroponic systems are more water resource efficient than hydroponic system. Another remarkable advantage of
the aeroponics is the minimal contact between the support structure and plant, due to which the unconstrained
growth of the plant is possible. The aeroponics system are widely used for NASA space research programs.

The hydro-atomized mist also significantly contribute to the effective oxygenation of the roots. For
example, NFT has a nutrient throughput of 1 liter/min compared to aeroponics throughput of 1.5ml/min. The
reduced volume of nutrient throughput results in reduced amounts of nutrient required for plant development.
Another benefit of the reduced throughput, of major significance for space-based use, is the reduction in water
volume used. This reduction in water volume throughput corresponds with a reduced buffer volume. Both of
which significantly lighten the weight needed to maintain plant growth. In addition the volume of effluent from
the plants is also reduced with aeroponics, reducing the amount of water that needs to be treated before reuse. The
relatively low solution volumes used in aeroponics, coupled with the minimal amount of time that the roots are
exposed to the hydro-atomized mist, minimizes root-to-root contact and spread of pathogens between plants
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THE AERPONICS GROWING SYSTEM

The principles of aeroponics are based on the possibility of cultivating vegetables whose roots are not
inserted in a substratum (the case with hydroponics) or soil, but in a containers filled with flowing plant nutrition.
In these containers root can be find the best condition regarding the best oxygenation and moisture. These
conditions allow for the better plant nutrition assimilation in a more balanced way, with consequential faster
development of the cultivated plant.

Plant containers can be mounted on top of one another and because they are light and handy, they can
be easily moved according to agricultural needs. Numerous plants are mounted in vertical columns within a
greenhouse or shade house space. Nutrients are allowed to trickle down through the growth columns.

Most agricultural plants need a direct exposure to the sun during the first vegetative development.
Afterwards this direct exposure is no longer relevant. Based on this observation, plant containers are periodically
displaced. Young plants are placed at the highest level of the growth column. Afterwards they are progressively
lowered utilizing a rotational mechanical system. With the rotation periodically repeated, this permits constant
production without any interruption. The Aeroponic system is agriculture with a non-stop production cycle.

Plant nutrition is supplied into a closed circuit. Consumption is consequently limited to only the
quantities absorbed by the plants, allowing for substantial water savings. For example: to produce a kilogram of
tomatoes using traditional land cultivation requires 200 to 400 liters of water, hydroponics requires about 70 liters,
aeroponics utilizes only about 20 liters.

Because the aeroponic system is a continuous-cycle in an enclosed space it reduces the agricultural labor
into a series of mechanical routine operational tasks which are carried out daily and throughout the year. This
enables workers to acquire considerable skill within a short period of time a few months. In traditional agriculture
commercial production is obtained only with skilled workers qualified by many years of experience.

The aeroponic equipment is sheltered within greenhouses or anti hail-storm coverings according to the
latitude. Climate controls within the greenhouse ensure optimal growing conditions, assuring high yields.
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NUTRIENTS USED IN AEROPONICS SYSTEM

An indoor aeroponics system uses less water and nutrients because the plant roots are sprayed in
intervals using a precise drop size that can be utilized most efficiently by osmosis to nourish the plant. Little
excess nutrient solution is lost to evaporation or runoff. Plant disease is minimized because the roots are left open
to air, avoiding soaking is a stagnant moist medium. Carbon, oxygen and hydrogen are present in air and water.
Water may contain a variety of elements according to your local treatment plant additions and should be factored
into your final factor, or primary nutrients are nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and are used by plants in different
amounts according to the growth stage. Secondary nutrients are calcium, magnesium, and sulphur, micro-nutrients
are iron, zinc molybdenum, manganese, boron, copper, cobalt and chlorine. Complicating the formula more, roots
use nutrients as ions in water positively charged cations, or negatively charged anions. An example of a cation is
ammonium, NH4+, and an anion nitrate, NO3−, both important nitrogen sources for plants. As plants use the ions,
the pH of the solution can change, meaning it can lean too far positive or too far negative. The optimal pH for
plant growth is between5.8 and 6.3. In aeroponic system where water and nutrients are recycled.it is important to
measure the acid/base or pH measurement to allow plants to absorb nutrients. Aeroponic using spray to nourish
roots use much less liquid resulting in easier management of nutrient concentration with greater pH stability.

THE MAIN NUTRIENTS USED IN AEROPONICS ARE

 Phosphorus
 Potassium
 Calcium
 Magnesium
 Iron
 Manganese
 Boron
 Copper
 Zinc
 Molybdenum
These are the main nutrients used in aeroponic cultivation. The concentration of the above mentioned nutrients is
different for different crops.
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TYPES OF AEROPONIC SYSTEMS

 Low-pressure units
 High-pressure device
 Commercial systems

Low-pressure units

In most low-pressure aeroponic gardens, the plant roots are suspended above a reservoir of nutrient
solution or inside a channel connected to a reservoir. A low-pressure pump delivers nutrient solution via jets or
by ultrasonic transducers, which then drips or drains back into the reservoir. As plants grow to maturity in these
units they tend to suffer from dry sections of the root systems, which prevent adequate nutrient uptake. These unit
because of cost, lack features to purify the nutrient solution, and adequately remove in continuities, debris and
unwanted pathogens. Such units are usually suitable for bench top growing and demonstrating the principles of
aeroponics.

High-pressure device

High-pressure aeroponic techniques, where the mist is generated by high-pressure pump(s), are
typically used in the cultivation of high value crops and plant specimens that can offset the high setup costs
associated with this method of horticulture. High-pressure aeroponic systems include technologies for air and
water purification, nutrient sterilization, low-mass polymers and pressurized nutrient delivery systems.
Commercial systems
Commercial aeroponic systems comprise high-pressure device hardware and biological systems. The
biological systems matrix includes enhancements for extended plant life and crop maturation.
Biological subsystems and hardware components include effluent control systems, disease prevention,
pathogen resistance features, precision timing and nutrient solution pressurization, heating and cooling sensors,
thermal control of solutions, efficient photon-flux light arrays, and spectrum filtration spanning, fail-safe sensors
and protection, reduced maintenance & labour saving features, and ergonomics and long-term reliability features.
Commercial aeroponic systems, like the high-pressure devices, are used for the cultivation of high value
crops where multiple crop rotations are achieved on an ongoing commercial basis. Advanced commercial system
include data gathering, monitoring and analytical feedback and internet connections to various subsystems.

ADVANTAGES
 Germinating, rooting cuttings, and growing times are cut in half
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 Grow your plants from seeds or cuttings

 Grow your plants to full term or transplant in soil
 Plants are stronger, larger, and of the highest quality and flavor
 Re-circulates the nutrients until the plants use it up
 Research has proven that aeroponics is better than Hydroponics
 Initial investment is a little high but the savings to operate go on forever:

1. No more growing medium to buy and discard in the land fills

2. Less and less nutrients to buy
3. Less energy cost because our system does not run continuously
4. Cleaning and water changes are done in fifteen minutes or less by putting
5. A bucket below the chamber and opening the and rinse with about a half-gallon of fresh water, let
this drain, close drain valve and
6. Refill with fresh water and nutrients
 Crops are grown close together, so more crops can grow.
 Plants are not exposed to soil disease or bacteria.
 The crops mature faster, which means there will be more harvests.
 Use of technology speeds up works and can solve labour shortage problems
 If a plant is affected with bacteria, removing it will not affect nearby crops.
 Aeroponics allows more control of the crop roots.
 Plants are all separated; the harvesting of crops is simple.
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DISADVANTAGES
 The system is vulnerable to a power outage. Exposed roots will rapidly dry out and kill the plant.

 Mister spray heads may also have a tendency to clog and not produce mist when needed.

 Once a plant grows it will require some complex support mechanism because there is no growth medium
to counterbalance and anchor the plant.

 A lot of money is needed to set-up an aeroponics farm.

 Many consumers believe that aeroponically grown plants are not as nutritious as other grown plants.

 Maintenance of an aeroponics farm is very expensive.

 Even though technology has replaced most of the work, workers are still needed to produce, prepare and
package the crops.

 The machinery used to mass produce the crops are very elaborate. The machinery also tends to
malfunction. Aeroponics requires precise regulation and control of water and nutrients, and if the
machinery has a slight malfunction, the plants may be much damaged in a short time.
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ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT

 Aeroponic growing is safe and ecologically friendly and also produces natural, organic and healthy crops.
 Aeroponics is ecologically friendly because of the conservation of water and energy.
 When compared to hydroponics, aeroponics requires less water and uses less energy inputs/sqm of
growing area.
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CHALANGES FACED IN AEROPONICS

 The profit made by farms all depend on how much crop is produced, so if machinery malfunctions, and a
large crop is destroyed, there is a chance the farm will face a loss.

 Machinery must be carefully inspected every day to make sure the machinery works properly.
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AEROPONICS IN SPACE
 In 1999, R. Stoner (developer of aeroponics), funded by NASA, developed an inflatable low-mass
aeroponic system (AIS) for space and earth for high performance food production.

 The inflatable nature of the innovation makes it lightweight, and can be deflated to take up less space for
easy transportation and storage.

 There was also another aeroponic system for use in space, but it was hard to transport and store it, thus
making it very problematic.
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AEROPONICS ON EARTH

 Aeroponics is mainly used in countries where water and land are scarce. The countries are also usually
rich.

 Examples of such countries are Japan and Singapore.

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CASE STUDIES

CASE STUDY 1: AEROPONIC CULTIVATION OF GINGER

STUDY AREA

The study was done in University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA

OBJECTIVE

To study Aeroponic cultivation of ginger to provide high-quality rhizomes that are free from pesticides and
nematodes which are produced in mild-winter greenhouses.

MATEREALS AND METHODS

Initial planting stock was obtained from three different sources. Sixteen rhizome pieces where obtained from
greenhouse-grown stock from S.P McLaughlin at the south west center for natural Product research and
commercialization at the University of Arizona. Since these was a very limited amount of material. An additional
26 pieces were obtained from local grocery stores in Tucson, Arizona. It is unknown if any post-harvest storage
treatments. Other than chilling, were applied to the ginger purchased from their tail stores. All rhizomes pieces
were prepared for planting by cleaning with soap and water to remove any soil particles, rinsing well in fresh tap
water, followed by soaking in a 10% solution of “Ultra bleach” (final concentration 0.6% sodium hypochlorite)
for five minutes. The pieces were then rinsed in distilled water and soaked in warm water (50 0c) for 10 minutes
to reduce nematodes (Trujillo, 1963). All rhizomes pieces were transplanted into the aeroponic growing system
between March 20 and April 20, 2002. Six identical aeroponic units were constructed using slotted angle iron and
2.5cm expanded polystyrene insulation board for structural support. The units were 1.8 m tall, each with a 0.6 by
0.6 m footprint. A plastic-lined reservoir at the bottom held approximately 100 Liters of hydroponic nutrient
solution. The solution was recirculated by an external timer-controlled pump, which sprayed the roots for 1 minute
with 3 minutes off at a rate of approximately 0.03 L/s. No spray was applied during the night. The solution was
replaced weekly. Above the spray chamber, a “rhizome compartment” (RC) was constructed. The bottom of the
compartment was supported by PVC-coated hex (poultry netting) wire secured to the steel frame, with a 2.5 cm
layer of porous material above the wire to protect the rhizomes from direct contact with the fertilizer salts while
permitting the roots to penetrate the material and grow into the spray chamber below. The porous material used
was a latex-coated hog air furnace filter purchased from a local building supply store. The sides of the RC were
constructed using the expanded polystyrene solution material. Two treatments were imposed on the experiment:
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(1) type of growing medium used in the RC, and (2) heat v/s no of heat in the reservoir below the spray chamber.
The growing medium in the RC consist of either (1) perlite, (2) sphagnum moss, (3) noaggregate medium (NAM).
The perlite was pre rinsed to remove all fine material. The sphagnum moss was a loose. Uncut moss from a local
garden center which was not penetrated in anyway before using. The NAM treatment utilized slotted white-on-
black coextruded polyethylene film suspended above the rhizomes to protect them from direct sun and increase
the humidity in the RC environment. Each growing medium treatment was tested in two units. One half of the
aeroponic unit contain heated nutrient solution using 100 watt glass aquarium heated with an internal thermostat
set at 250c. This provide bottom heat under the plants, heating the root in the spray chamber. Reservoir without
heat contained nutrient solution that remained at approximately the same temperature as the ambient air.
Greenhouse environmental conditions were maintained at photo period/dark period of 230c and 170c respectively.
Rhizomes were harvested on November 2002 (seven to eight months after planting) and fresh weights were
determined. This pilot experiment was designed with four to seven rhizome pieces in each aeroponic unit. Due to
the limited number of rhizomes available from each source, and the limited number of aeroponic units available.
All rhizomes in each treatment were grouped together for statistical analysis regardless of the original source of
the material means and standard errors were calculated using Quattro pro software.

DISCUSSION

Growing media treatments

Due to a disease problem in one of the sphagnum moss units, which was likely due to contaminated
planting stock and not attributable to the medium, both moss treatments (heated and unheated) were removed
from the study. Of the two remaining treatments, perlite appeared to provide the superior growing conditions over
the NAM. In both the heated and unheated units, average net yields were higher in the perlite medium than in the
units without aggregate growing medium.

Heated and unheated nutrient solution treatments

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Those plants growing in units with heated nutrient solution in the reservoir below the roots matured faster and
produced slightly higher fresh rhizome yields than plants in the same medium without bottom heat. The plants in
the aeroponic unit with bottom heat and perlite in the RC produced the highest average net yield compared to any
other treatment, and the plants matured noticeably faster. Producing far greater number off flower stalks than any
other treatment. The only other unit that matured to produce any flowers at all was the NAM with bottom heat.
Although flowering is not critical for rhizome growth, and may even reduce yields, it is an indicator of maturity
and rate of growth.

It is common practice in greenhouse culture to supply bottom heat to vegetativly propagated crops
however heat is normally discontinued after plants are established. Particularly in warm-climate regions during
the summer months. Ambient air temperatures in the greenhouse averaged 22±30C, with the temperatures in the
unheated reservoirs averaging 23±20C and the temperature in the heated reservoirs averaging 28±20C. The
rhizome temperatures were dependent on the type of medium in the rhizome compartments. Those growing in
perlite experienced a greater insulating factor than rhizomes growing without any aggregate medium around them.
Consequently, the plants in the aeroponic unit containing perlite around the rhizomes, and bottom heat warming
the roots, responded with high yields and fastest maturation rate. Further study is needed to determine if this
temperature difference between the rhizomes and the roots are directly responsible for the increased growth. The
loss of plants in disease in one of the sphagnum moss treatments is troubling from a grower’s perspective, and
preliminary work was done to develop an aeroponic system appropriate for acclimating young tissue cultured
ginger planters that could be guaranteed to be free from disease and nematodes. The tissue culture method utilizing
excised rhizome buds were based on Sharma and Singh (1997). The rooted plant lets were transferred to cover
tubes containing autoclaved perlite and watered with sterilized hydroponic nutrient solution. Using full strength
hydroponic solution eliminate the transplant shock seen in plant lets transferred to tubes containing perlite and
half strength Murashige Skoog culture solution. The plants were kept in a growth chamber for two weeks, and
then moved to a shaded area in the greenhouse four week safer transplanting into the perlite, many of the plant
lets may develop small rhizomes. They were then transplanted into an aeroponic unit at a very high planting
density and irrigated from below continuously with a heated nutrient solution spray. Roots quickly developed and
grew downward into the spray chamber. This may be an acceptable method for mass producing disease free
planting stock for hydroponic rhizome crop.

Results
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 Ginger rhizomes were successfully grown in a modified aeroponic system.

 Plants grown in a unit with heated nutrient solution matured earlier and provided more yield.
 The benefits of an aeroponic nutrient delivery system were demonstrated.
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CASE STUDY 2: AEROPONIC SYSTEM IN THE PRODUCTION OF QUALITY POTATO

STUDY AREA
Bunda collage of agriculture, university of Malawi

OBJECTIVE

Study on potential of aeroponics system in the production of quality potato.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The growing of potato plants in aeroponic system is considered as safe and ecologically friendly for producing
natural healthy plants and crops. Multiplication of seed potatoes using aeroponic has advantages over the other
systems or technics including convectional potato production, hydroponics and plant tissue culture techniques.
Reports show that the system is ten times more successful than convectional techniques. Tissue culture and
hydroponics which takes longer and are also more labour intensive. The system has the ability to conserve water
and energy. Aeroponic system uses nutrient solution recirculation and hence a limited amount of water is used. It
comparatively offers lower water and energy inputs per unit growing area. Using aeroponics for cloning improves
root growth, survival rate, and growth rate and maturation time. Studies are shown that, the mean tuber yield
under aeroponic is better than when the same materials left to produce tuber under conventional means. Such
results clearly show that aeroponic system can be effectively used for potato propagation. The aeroponic system
optimizes root aeration. This is true because the plant is totally suspended in air, giving the plant stem and root
systems access to 100% of the available oxygen in the air which promotes root growth. Such environment also
gives plant 100% access to the CO2 concentrations ranging from 450 to 750 ppm for photo synthesis hence plants
in the aeroponic environment grow faster and absorb more nutrients than regular hydroponic plants. This is in
line with sun who reported that, the aeroponic system increase stomatal conductance of leaf, intercellular CO2
concentration, net photo synthetic rate and photochemical efficiency of leaf. Aeroponic method of propagation is
one of the most rapid method of seed multiplication. An individual potato plant can produce over 100 mini tubers
in a single row. As opposed to conventional method that creates approximately 8 daughter tubers only in the
course of a year while only 5 to 6 tubers per plant are produced using soil in the greenhouse in 90 days. Another
advantage of aeroponic system is that of easy monitoring of nutrients and pH. Aeroponic system provides precise
nutrient requirements for the crop.

Potential challenges of aeroponic system

The worst inconvenience relies on water droplet size. Large droplets leads to less oxygen available to the root
system, while fine droplets produce excessive root hair without developing a lateral root system for sustained
growth. The system also requires constant power supply throughout the growing season and any prolonged
interruption of power to water pumps may leads to irreversible damage of plants. The system requires a number
of maintenance operations which may be costly in developing countries. For instant mineralization of the ultra-
sonic transducer requires maintenance and maybe prone to potential component failure. This may also leads to
failure of metal spray jets and misters which may restrict the plant to have an access to the water there by causing
the plant to loss turbidity and wilt. People who are going to conduct seed production must be well trained. The
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technicians managing the aeroponic need to have additional knowledge of crop physiology hence it may be
limiting. In this case the best approach would be to have few farmers engaged in high quality seed production as
a business by applying aeroponic system. However while only a few farmers may be involved in potato seed
production using aeroponic system, many others will be able to access improved quality low cost seed.

Results

Aeroponic system promises a great potential to transform seed potato production in developing countries.
Considering the potential benefits of the system such as rapid production of seed, spacious, good nutrient
monitoring system, improvement of growth and survival rate of plant lets. Constant air circulation and
ecologically friendly, this system has a potential of revolutionizing potato seed production industry in developing
countries. This system has a potential of significantly increasing income and reduce time and cost of production
of quality seed potatoes to make them more accessible to growers in developing countries.
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CASE STUDY 3: AN ALTERNATIVE PRODUCTION SYSTEM FOR HIGH VALUE ROOT CROPS

STUDY AREA

The experiment was conducted at the Campus Agricultural Center of the University of Arizona in Tucson,
Arizona.

OBJECTIVE

Study on an Alternative Production System for High-Value Root Crops.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Burdock seeds were obtained from Horizon Herbs LLC, in Williams, Oregon. As is often the case in the herbal
products industry, certified seed was not available for this genus. There were no voucher specimens available to
verify the seed, therefore six plants were planted in large (100L) containers in AGSM and grown to maturity for
positive identification. Actium spp are facultative biennials that can take several years to flower. The reference
plants flowered in June, 2002 and were identified as A. lappa by staff in the Herbarium at the University of
Arizona. Voucher specimens were deposited at the Herbarium (ARIZ). There is some discussion in the literature
of possible hybridization of Arctium species. Rollo, MacFarlane and Smith (1985) describe two possible hybrids
between A. lappa and A. minus found in Ontario, Canada Gross, Werner and Hawthorn (1980) discuss the
variability observed within the A. minus species in Europe. It is the opinion of the lead author of this paper that
the research plants were quite possibly a natural hybrid of A. lappa and A. minus, based on inflorescence (long
peduncle length) and leaf characteristics (hollow petioles in cross-section).
Seeds for both experimental treatments were germinated in a mist bed in 2.5cm rock wool cubes. Plants
were seeded on September 2, 2000. Nine days after seeding, a random one half of the plants were transplanted
into 5cm pots filled with AGSM for the controls. The remaining plants were transplanted into 7.6cm rock wool
cubes for the aeroponic treatments. The seedlings were again transplanted into the experimental treatments 24
days after seeding.
The experiment was laid out in a single-factor “split-plot” design, with two replicates of aeroponically-grown
plants and two replicates of AGSM-grown plants. Each replicate contained 30 plants, for a total of 120 plants.
The experiment was conducted at the Campus Agricultural Center of the University of Arizona in
Tucson, Arizona. The greenhouse facility included a 6m x 15m climate-controlled polycarbonate covered
greenhouse oriented north-south. The blocking of the experiment attempted to consider both the difference in air
temperatures (the north end, near the cooling pads being cooler than the south end, near the exhaust fans), and the
differences in light (the east side, which is gutter connected to another greenhouse, received less light than the
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west side, which is an end-wall). The greenhouses were cooled by an automated fan and pad system, and heated
by a standard natural gas hot air heater.
The AGSM controls were constructed of 86cm tall sections of 20cm diameter polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
pipe standing on end. These pipes, open on each end, were supported by concrete blocks that held the pipes
securely in place while spacing the plants 41cm on center, for a density of 6.2plants m-2. Each pipe was lined
with a black plastic bag and filled with a typical greenhouse potting mix of Sunshine 1TM (peat moss and perlite
amended with dolomitic lime and a nutrient starter charge) mixed 2:1 with sterilized sand. The volume of AGSM
in each pipe was approximately 30L.
The classic A-frame aeroponic growing chamber historically used for lettuce production (Jensen and Collins,
1985) was redesigned with the addition of a vertical knee wall below the inclined panels of the A frame. Nutrient
solution was recirculated by means of an external reservoir and pump. This design addressed some problems
described by earlier researchers (Repetto, Cadinu and Leoni, 1994) by elevating the plants so all roots were
suspended in the spray zone, rather than permitting some roots to grown horizontally in the recirculating nutrient
solution, which is more like a nutrient film technique system. In addition, a three dimensional placement of the
spray nozzles was included and the number of spray nozzles was increased in order to improve uniformity of the
spray on the roots of all plants.
The aeroponic unit was built using 3.2cm diameter PVC plastic pipe. Its rectangular base dimensions
were 2.4m long, 1.7m wide, and 0.6m tall. This base supported two plant-growing surfaces (inclined planes)
mounted on top of the base, creating an A frame that reached 1.5m at the peak. The entire surface of the A frame
structure was covered with a white-on-black co-extruded polyethylene film to prevent leakage of light into, and
nutrient solution spray out from, the root zone. Planting density in both treatments was similar to that
recommended for the field production of burdock at 41cm on center plant-to-plant (New Zealand Institute for
Crop & Food Research Ltd, 1996). Both the AGSM and aeroponic treatments were irrigated with a basic
hydroponic nutrient solution modified from Resh (1998). This ensured comparable nutrient levels across both
treatments. The pH was adjusted to 5.5-6.2 and the electrical conductivity (EC) was maintained at 2.8mS cm-1.
The plants were harvested from the AGSM controls on Nov 13 and 14, 2000 and from the aeroponic
treatments on Nov 14 and 15, 2000. The aerial parts (leaves and petioles) of each plant from both treatments were
air dried. The roots of the plants from the AGSM were removed from the medium carefully and rinsed well with
tap water. The roots of the plants from the aeroponic units were also rinsed with tap water to remove any fertilizer
salts. Roots from both treatments were then allowed to air dry one hour before being cut into pieces and frozen.
The frozen roots were shipped in coolers with dry ice by overnight air to Eclectic Institute, Inc. in Sandy, Oregon
for lyophilization. The roots were hand cut (while frozen) to 1cm, then dried in a Pinwald Stokes freeze dryer
(model 480) for a minimum of 32 hours. The dried root material was weighed, then ground through a 40 mesh
 22

screen using a Wiley mill. A random sample of one half of the experimental plants was sent to Nutritional
Laboratories, International (NLI) for extraction and analysis. Since certified reference samples of burdock root
were not available, four commercial products of burdock root in powdered form were purchased from a local
health food store in Tucson, Arizona for use as reference materials. All samples were extracted by sonicating
500mg of the dry, ground root in 25mL of 50 percent ethanol for 20 minutes. Longer sonication times were
investigated, but no significant increases in extractive concentrations were observed. After sonication, samples
were centrifuged for 10 minutes, and a 2ml aliquot of the supernatant was filtered with a 45μm PTFE syringe
filter for HPLC. The extracts were run on an Alliance Waters 2690 Separations Module with a Waters 996
Photodiode Array Detector. The column used was a Phenomenex, Luna 5μ C18 (2), 250mm x 4.6mm. The
operating temperature was 35degrees C. The wavelength monitored was 320nm. A flow rate of 1.5mL min-1 was
used to run a gradient program ranging from 100% Solvent A (0.05M NaH2PO4 adjusted to pH 2.9) to 100%
Solvent B (1% 0.1N H3PO4 in Acetonitrile). The total run time was 15 minutes per sample. Chromatographic
analysis was performed using Waters Millennium32 Chromatography Manager Software. Major peaks seen in
the HPLC data for the reference samples had spectral characteristics of cinnamic acid derivatives and their esters.
For this reason, 320nm was used as a wavelength for 2-D chromatograms, since this wavelength coincides with
a maximum in the spectra. The peak with a retention time of approximately 5.8 minutes corresponded to
chlorogenic acid, by retention time and spectral profile. This was confirmed by comparison with a reference
standard of chlorogenic acid purchased from Sigma Chemical Company.
Statistical analysis was performed using Microsoft Excel software. Means and standard deviations were
calculated on biomass and phytochemical yield data, and differences between means were determined by two-
tailed Student’s t-test. If a significant difference between means was found, analysis of variance (ANOVA) was
performed. Differences between the variances for chlorogenic acid concentration were tested using an F-test.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A highly significant difference was found between the biomass yield (measured as dry weight) of the aerial parts
of the aeroponically grown plants compared to the biomass yield (measured as dry weight) of the aerial parts of
the plants grown in AGSM, with the aeroponically grown plants being greater. The average dry weights of aerial
parts were 45.6g and 30.6g per plant in the aeroponic and AGSM treatments, respectively. There were no
significant differences between the replicates within the treatments, indicating that the aerial parts of plants
growing on the west side of the house (which received more light) were not significantly different from those
harvested from the east side of the house (which was partially shaded). These data indicate that aeroponics may
have an increased yield advantage making it a promising production technique for any leaf crops having a market
value high enough to cover the costs associated with the greenhouse and aeroponic equipment. There were no
 23

significant differences in the harvestable root biomass yields between the aeroponic and AGSM-grown plants.
The means of the dry weights of harvestable roots from the two treatments were 20.0g and 20.2g per plant for
aeroponic and AGSM-grown plants, respectively. There were, however, significant differences between the
replicates within the treatments, indicating that the roots of plants growing on the west side of the house, which
received more light, were significantly larger than those growing on the east side of the house, which was partially
shaded 21.7g and 21.7g for aeroponically-grown and control plants, respectively on the west side versus 18.4g
and 18.6g for aeroponically-grown and control plants on the east side]. This is interesting since no significant
differences between replicates were seen for the aerial biomass yields.
The concentrations of chlorogenic acid in the dry roots of plants from both the aeroponic and AGSM treatments
were very low, but measurable. This appeared to have been a factor of the young age of the plants at the time of
harvest (ten weeks from seeding). The mean concentration of chlorogenic acid in all the experimental samples
was 0.032mg g-1 of dry root. The reference samples contained much higher concentrations of chlorogenic acid:
0.32, 0.49, 1.75 and 2.94mg g-1 dry weight for each of the four samples purchased from local stores. This variation
is consistent with results published by Wang, Ayano and Furumoto (2001) for thirteen samples purchased at
markets or cultivated in Japan. Those researchers found chlorogenic acid concentrations to vary between 1.35 and
4.75mg g-1 dry weight.
A subsequent project using the same aeroponic units and seed source was undertaken to determine if a longer
growing period would affect the biomass yields and phytochemical quality of the roots (Pagliarulo and Hayden,
2002). Fifteen A. lappa plants were grown for six months in the aeroponic system and the concentration of
chlorogenic acid averaged 1.61 ±0.61mg g-1 dry weight, which is comparable to the chlorogenic acid
concentrations of burdock root samples purchased from the local market as well as that reported by Wang, Ayano
and Furumoto (2001). No AGSM controls were grown in the second study, so it was not possible to evaluate the
phytochemical variability across treatments. In the original study, there were no significant differences between
the concentrations of chlorogenic acid in the roots of the aeroponically grown plants compared to the roots of
plants grown in AGSM. The mean values were 32.6 ±5.7μg g-1 and 32.7 ±12.5μg g-1 (based on dry weight of
root) in aeroponically grown and AGSM plants, respectively. There were also no significant differences between
the two replicates within each treatment.
It is very interesting that the plant-to-plant variation of the chlorogenic acid concentration was
significantly lower in the roots of aeroponically-grown plants compared to those of the AGSM plants in the
original ten week study. The 95 percent confidence interval for the population variance for aeroponically-grown
plants was 20.9-59.6, whereas the 95 percent confidence interval for the population variance for AGSM-grown
plants is 98.8-282.1. Since the two confidence intervals do not overlap, it may be inferred that the population
 24

variances are significantly different, leading to the conclusion that the concentration of chlorogenic acid in roots
may be more consistent in aeroponically grown plants in this study.
 25

CONCLUTION
Aeroponics growing allows plants and crops to grow without the use of pesticide and thus it will be disease free.
The crops will grow in a natural healthy manner as the aeroponic system is very similar to nature environmental
conditions. Aeroponics is conducted in air combined with micro-droplets of water, almost any plant can grow to
maturity in air with a plentiful supply of carbon dioxide, water and nutrients. Aeroponics helps conserve water,
land and nutrients, so the aeroponics system is the way of the future, making cultivation of crops easier.
Aeroponics appeared to be a highly feasible method for the production of both aerial parts and roots as raw
materials for the herbal dietary supplement and phytopharmaceutical industries.
 26

REFERANCE

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