ROMANESQUE & Renaissance

ROMANESQUE
INTRODUCTION
The first international style since Antiquity --

The term "Romanesque," meaning in the manner of the Romans, was first coined in the early nineteenth century.
Today it is used to refer to the period of European art from the second half of the eleventh century throughout the
twelfth (with the exception of the region around Paris where the Gothic style emerged in the mid-12th century). In
certain regions, such as central Italy, the Romanesque continued to survive into the thirteenth century. The
Romanesque is the first international style in Western Europe since antiquity—extending across the Mediterranean
and as far north as Scandinavia. It reached its height between 1075 and 1125 in France, Italy, Britain, and the
German lands. In Southern France, Spain, and Italy, there was architectural continuity with the Late Antique period,
but the Romanesque style was the first style to spread across the whole of Catholic Europe and thus the first pan-
European style since Imperial Roman Architecture. Romanesque art was also influenced by Byzantine art, especially
in painting, and by the anti-classical energy of the decoration of the Insular art of the British Isles. From these
elements was forged a highly innovative and coherent style.

The painted crypt of San Isidoro at León, Spain Maria Laach Abbey, Germany

Portal, Church of Santa Maria, Viu de The "Morgan Leaf", detached from the Winchester
Llevata, Catalonia, Spain Bible of 1160−75. Scenes from the life of David.
 HISTORY
The Source of Inspiration
Romanesque was the first distinctive style to spread across Europe after the collapse of the Roman Empire. Despite
the misconception of 19th century art historians that Romanesque architecture was a direct continuation of Roman
styles, Roman brick and stone building techniques were lost in most parts of Europe. In the northern countries
Roman style and methods were only adopted for official buildings, and in Scandinavia they were unknown. The
exception was several great Constantinian basilicas that continued to stand in Rome as an inspiration to later
builders. However, these did not inspire the Emperor Charlemagne’s Palatine Chapel in Aachen, Germany, built
around the year AD 800. Instead, the greatest building of the Dark Ages in Europe was the artistic child of the
octagonal Byzantine Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna, built in the sixth century.

A New European Empire

Charlemagne was crowned by the Pope in St. Peter’s Basilica on Christmas Day in 800 CE, with an aim of re-
establishing the old Roman Empire. Charlemagne’s political successors continued to rule much of Europe, leading
to the gradual emergence of the separate political states that were eventually welded into nations by allegiance or
defeat. In the process, the Kingdom of Germany gave rise to the Holy Roman Empire. The invasion of England by
William Duke of Normandy, in 1066 saw the building of castles and churches that reinforced the Norman presence.
Several significant churches built at this time were founded by rulers as seats of temporal and religious power or as
places of coronation and burial. These include the Abbaye-Saint-Denis and Westminster Abbey (where little of the
Norman church now remains).

The remaining architectural structures of the Roman Empire were falling into decay and much of its technology was
lost. At the same time, however, the building of masonry domes and carving of decorative architectural details
continued unabated, though the style had greatly evolved since the fall of Rome in the enduring Byzantine Empire.
The domed churches of Constantinople and Eastern Europe had a substantial influence on the architecture of
certain towns, particularly through trade and the Crusades. The most notable example is St Mark’s Basilica, Venice,
but there are many lesser-known examples such as the church of Saint Front, Périgueux and Angoulême Cathedral.

Church of Saint Front, Perigueux, France: Domed church, an example of the Eastern European influence.
Feudalism and Warfare
Much of Europe was affected by feudalism, in which peasants held tenure from local rulers over the land they
farmed in exchange for military service. As a result, they could be called on for local spats as well as to follow their
lord across Europe to the Crusades.

The Crusades (1095–1270) brought about substantial migration and resultant spread of ideas and trade skills,
particularly the building of fortifications and the metalworking for the provision of arms, which was also applied to
the fitting and decoration of buildings. The continual movement of people, rulers, nobles, bishops, abbots,
craftsmen, and peasants was an important factor in creating homogeneous building methods and a recognizable
Romanesque style, despite regional differences.

San Gimignano, Italy: Image of San Gimignano, famous for its

Map of Europe, 1142: Europe, 1142, Age
medieval architecture, unique in the preservation of about a
of the Crusades.
dozen of its tall, narrow tower houses.

Life became less secure after the Carolingian period, resulting in castles built at strategic points. Many were
constructed as strongholds of the Normans, descendants of the Vikings who invaded northern France in 911.
Political struggles also resulted in the fortification of towns by rebuilding and strengthening walls that remained
from the Roman period. One of the most notable surviving fortifications is that of the city of Carcassonne. The
enclosure of towns resulted in a style of tall, narrow townhouse with limited living space. These often surrounded
communal courtyards, as at San Gimignano in Tuscany.

Growing Prosperity
As Europe grew steadily more prosperous during this period, art of the highest quality was no longer confined to
the royal court and a small circle of monasteries as in the Carolingian and Ottonian periods. Monasteries remained
important, especially those of the new Cistercian, Cluniac, and Carthusian orders that spread across Europe. City
churches, including those on pilgrimage routes and many in small towns and villages, were elaborately decorated.
Indeed, these have often survived when cathedrals and city churches have been rebuilt, while Romanesque royal
palaces have not. The lay artist, Nicholas of Verdun, became a valued figure known across the continent. Most
masons and goldsmiths were now lay professionals rather than monastic clergy, and lay painters like Master Hugo
were the majority by the end of the period. The iconography of their church work was likely determined in
consultation with clerical advisers.
 RELIGION
Across Europe, the late 11th and 12th centuries saw an unprecedented growth in the number of churches. In
France, the famous abbeys of Aux Dames and Les Hommes at Caen and Mont Saint-Michel date from this period,
as well as the abbeys of the pilgrimage route to Santiago de Compostela. Many cathedrals owe their foundation to
this date, with others beginning as abbey churches, and later becoming cathedrals. In England, of the cathedrals of
ancient foundation, most were begun in this period. In Spain, the most famous church of the period is Santiago de
Compostela. In Germany, the Rhine and its tributaries were the location of many Romanesque abbeys,
notably Mainz, Worms, Speyer and Bamberg. In Cologne, then the largest city north of the Alps, a very
important group of large city churches survives largely intact. As monasticism spread across Europe, Romanesque
churches sprang up in Scotland, Scandinavia, Poland, Hungary, Sicily, Serbia and Tunisia. Several important
Romanesque churches were built in the Crusader kingdoms.

Monasticism
The system of monasticism in which the religious become members of an order, with common ties and a common
rule, living in a mutually dependent community. The Benedictine monasteries spread from Italy throughout Europe,
being always by far the most numerous in England. They were followed by the Cluniac order, the Cistercians,
Carthusians and Augustinian Canons.

The monasteries sometimes also functioned as cathedrals and had bodies of secular clergy often living in
community, a major source of power in Europe. In France, Burgundy was the centre of monasticism.

The enormous and powerful monastery at Cluny was to have lasting effect on the layout of other monasteries and
the design of their churches. Unfortunately, very little of the abbey church at Cluny remains; the "Cluny II"
rebuilding of 963 onwards has completely vanished, but "Cluny III" remained the largest building in Europe until
the Renaissance. However, the church of St. Sernin at Toulouse, 1080–1120, has remained intact and demonstrates
the regularity of Romanesque design with its modular form, its massive appearance and the repetition of the simple
arched window motif.

The Romanesque Sénanque Abbey church and Many cathedrals such as Trier Cathedral,
surrounding monastic buildings: Germany, date from this period, with many
Gordes, Provence, France later additions
 Pilgrimage and Crusade
One of the effects of the Crusades, which were intended to wrest the Holy Places of the Levant from Islamic control,
was to excite a great deal of religious fervour, which in turn inspired great building programs. The Nobility of Europe,
upon safe return, thanked God by the building of a new church or the enhancement of an old one. Likewise, those
who did not return from the Crusades could be suitably commemorated by their family in a work of stone and
mortar.

The Crusades resulted in the transfer of, among other things, a great number of Holy Relics of saints and apostles.
On each of the routes, abbeys such as those at Moissac, Toulouse, Roncesvalles, Conques, Limoges and Burgos
catered for the flow of people and grew wealthy from the passing trade. Saint-Benoît-du-Sault, in the Berry
province, is typical of the churches that were founded on the pilgrim route.

Like many castles built by crusader knights, the inner The tympanum of Vézelay Abbey, Burgundy, France,
fortress of Krak des Chevaliers, Syria, was mainly 1130s, has much decorative spiral detail in the
constructed in this period, with the outer walls being later. draperies.

The basilica of Saint-Sernin in Toulouse is the archetype of large Stained glass, the Prophet Daniel
pilgrimage churches, where pilgrims could walk around the from Augsburg Cathedral, late 11th century.
church via the transept and the choir chapels.
 ARCHITECTURE
The general impression given by Romanesque architecture, in both ecclesiastical and secular buildings, is one of
massive solidity and strength. Combining features of Roman and Byzantine buildings along with other local
traditions, Romanesque architecture is distinguished by massive quality, thick walls, round arches, sturdy piers,
groin vaults, large towers, and decorative arcades. Each building has clearly defined forms and a symmetrical plan,
resulting in a much simpler appearance than the Gothic buildings that follow. The style can be identified across
Europe, despite regional characteristics and materials. Romanesque architecture is divided into two periods-- "First
Romanesque" style and the "Romanesque" style. The difference is chiefly a matter of the expertise with which the
buildings were constructed. The First Romanesque employed rubble walls, smaller windows and unvaulted roofs.
A greater refinement marks the Second Romanesque, along with increased use of the vault and dressed stone.

The facade of Notre Dame du Puy, France, Capital of Corinthian form with Durham Cathedral, England, has decorated
has a complex arrangement of diversified anthropomorphised details, Pisa masonry columns alternating with piers of
arches: Doors of varying widths, blind Campanile, Italy clustered shafts supporting the earliest
arcading, windows and open arcades. pointed high ribs.

The aisles at Peterborough
Cathedral have quadripartite
ribbed vaults.
Church of San Zeno, Verona, Italy, The facade
is neatly divided vertically and horizontally;
central wheel window and small porch with
columns resting on crouching lions is typical
of Italy.
San Miniato al Monte, Florence (1013-
1090) has basilical form, open timber
roof and decoration of polychrome
marble and mosaic.
 SCULPTURES
Sculpture also exhibited a vigorous style, evident in the carved capitals of columns, which often depicted complete
scenes consisting of several figures. Figurative sculpture was based on two sources in particular, manuscript
illumination and small-scale sculpture in ivory and metal. A feature of the figures in manuscript illumination is that
they often occupy confined spaces and are contorted to fit. One of the most significant motifs of Romanesque
design, occurring in both figurative and non-figurative sculpture is the spiral. It is in an adaptation of this form that
the spiral occurs in the draperies of both sculpture and stained glass windows. Of all the many examples that occur
on Romanesque portals, one of the most outstanding is that of the central figure of Christ at La Madeleine, Vezelay.

Most Romanesque sculpture is pictorial and biblical in subject. A great variety of themes are found on capitals and
include scenes of Creation and the Fall of Man, episodes from the life of Christ and those Old Testament scenes
which prefigure his Death and Resurrection. Often the sculpture is alarming in form and subject matter. The Seven
Deadly Sins including lust, gluttony and avarice are frequently represented. Demons fighting over the soul of a
wrongdoer such as a miser is another popular subject.

In a significant innovation, the tympanums of important church portals were carved with monumental schemes,
again depicting Christ in Majesty or the Last Judgement but treated with more freedom than in painted versions.
These portal sculptures were meant to both intimidate and educate the viewer.

The central figure of Christ at La Tímpano del Cordero shows Judas Iscariot hangs himself, assisted
Madeleine, Vezelay Jesus’ life by devils, Autun Cathedral

Around the upper wall of the chancel at Doorway/tympanum to the This capital of Christ washing the
the Abbaye d'Arthous, France, are small church of Saint Trophime, Arles, feet of his Apostles has strong
figures depicting lust, intemperance and a France shows Jesus surrounded narrative qualities in the interaction
Barbary ape, symbol of human depravity. by four Evangelists of the figures.
 PAINTINGS
Manuscript illumination
The typical foci of Romanesque illumination were the Bible, where each book could be prefaced by a
large historiated initial, and the Psalter, where major initials were similarly illuminated. In both cases more lavish
examples had cycles of scenes in fully illuminated pages, sometimes with several scenes per page, in compartments.
The Bibles in particular often had a, and might be bound into more than one volume. Examples include the St.
Albans Psalter, Hunterian Psalter, Winchester Bible (the "Morgan Leaf" shown above), Fécamp Bible, Stavelot
Bible, and Parc Abbey Bible. By the end of the period lay commercial workshops of artists and scribes were
becoming significant, and illumination, and books generally, became more widely available to both laity and clergy.

The "Morgan Leaf", detached from The Three Magi from the St. Christ in majesty; a page from the
the Winchester Bible of 1160−75. Albans Psalter, English, 12th Stavelot Bible which is a Romanesque
Scenes from the life of David. century. illuminated manuscript Bible

Wall painting
The large wall surfaces and plain, curving vaults of the Romanesque period lent themselves to mural decoration. As
has been suggested by the Romanesque art scholar Duprat, medieval painting in France can be conveniently divided
into four groups, which differ essentially in manner: (1) the fresco paintings of the west, with subdued colour on a
light background; (2) the bright paintings on blue background found chiefly in Bugundy and in the south-east; (3)
the paintings of Auvergne, with their dark background; and (4) the Catalan paintings of the Eastern Pyrenees. Of
course, this division is valid only in its broad lines. In any case, many works cannot be attached to any particular
school or group.

A classic scheme for the full painted decoration of a church, derived from earlier examples often in mosaic, had, as
its focal point in the semi-dome of the apse, Christ in Majesty or Christ the Redeemer enthroned within
a mandorla and framed by the four Evangelists, comparing directly with examples from the illuminations of Gospel
Books of the period. One of the most intact schemes to exist is that at Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe in France. The long
barrel vault of the nave provides an excellent surface for fresco, and is decorated with scenes of the Old Testament,
showing the Creation, the Fall of Man and other stories including a lively depiction of Noah's Ark. The now-
dispersed paintings from Arlanza in the Province of Burgos, Spain, though from a monastery, are secular in subject-
matter, showing huge and vigorous mythical beasts above a frieze in black and white with other creatures. They
give a rare idea of what decorated Romanesque palaces would have contained.

*(Frescos discussed elaborately in further portion.)

 12th century Romanesque mural (God speaks The Arlanza gryphon, fresco transferred to canvas,
to Noah), Saint-Savin-sur-Gartempe, France 189.5 × 322 cm, c. 1210, MNAC, Barcelona

Other visual arts

Embroidery
Romanesque embroidery is best known from the Bayeux Tapestry, but many more closely worked pieces of Opus
Anglicanum ("English work" – considered the finest in the West) and other styles have survived, mostly as
church vestments.

A scene from the Bayeux Tapestry Opus Anglicanum - Embroidered

depicting the Battle of Hastings in 1066 bookbinding for the Felbrigge Psalter

Stained glass
he earliest intact figures are five prophet windows at Augsburg, dating from the late 11th century. The figures,
though stiff and formalised, demonstrate considerable proficiency in design, both pictorially and in the functional
use of the glass, indicating that their maker was well accustomed to the medium. At Le Mans, Canterbury and
Chartres Cathedrals, and Saint-Denis, a number of panels of the 12th century have survived. Glass craftsmen were
slower than architects to change their style, and much glass from at least the first part of the 13th century can be
considered as essentially Romanesque. Especially fine are large figures of 1200 from Strasbourg Cathedral.
 Oldest The creation of Adam and Eve
(Narthex) (1280–1345), Strasbourg
Cathedral

Oldest stained-glass window depicting

the Virgin and apostles during the
Ascension of the Christ, Le Mans

RENAISSANCE
INTRODUCTION

The term 'Renaissance', which means 'rebirth' in French, was coined in 1855 by Jules Michelet. The Italian
Renaissance was a 'rebirth' of Classical values in art, literature and philosophy. It was a period of artistic
development in Western Art that stretched from the revival of naturalism in the art of Giotto at the end of the 13th
century to the expressive forms of Mannerism in the art of Michelangelo at the start of the 16th century. Its
influence spread across Europe and gave rise to the cultural and scientific ideas that shaped artistic thought for the
next five hundred years.

During the 14th century many Italians believed that the barbarous cultures of the Dark and Early Middle Ages had
discarded the high artistic standards set by the ancient Romans and Greeks. Therefore, in order to restore these
lost ideals, it was necessary for art to retrace its steps to find a new path to progress. This quest led to a revival of
certain artistic principles from the classical era which were merged with contemporary ideas to form the key
elements of art during the Italian Renaissance. Among the most important of these were:

Naturalism
A search for the perfection of form that was inspired by the naturalism of Classical sculpture.

Humanism
The influence of the philosophy of Classical humanism which is revealed in the gradual shift from religious to secular
subject matter in art.

Perspective Drawing
The development of perspective drawing as the standard means of organizing the spatial depth of a picture.
New Media and Techniques
The development of new media and techniques which were essential to achieve a greater naturalism in art.

Expulsion from the garden of Eden by Masaccio The Creation of Adam by Michelangelo

EARLY RENAISSANCE

The Early Renaissance time period was during the 1400s (15th Century CE), taking place from 1400 to 1495 CE. It
originated in Florence, Italy.

Early Renaissance art introduces a greater degree of naturalism by placing an emphasis on the observational
drawing of the human figure. It also establishes a more precise spatial organization of the figures, buildings and
landscapes through the invention of perspective drawing.

Early Renaissance artists began to create work intensified by knowledge of architecture, philosophy, theology,
mathematics, science, and design.

Humanistic subject matter, based on the study of Classical mythology, along with portraiture and landscape marks
a shift from the exclusive position held by religious art.

This particular time was the first in history in which artists were known to spend hours observing the surroundings
and the people around to be able to create paintings that looked as real as possible.

The focal point of creation of art which was earlier done under the patronage of church shifted to rich merchants
of Italy. One such family stood out and became the father of Renaissance movement-MEDICI.

Architecture
Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446) was the most influential designer of Renaissance architecture in Florence during
the first half of the 15th century. His design, Dome of Cattedrale di Santa Maria del Fiore (Florence Cathedral) (1420-
1436)-Commissioned by the Medici family, with its red stone, emblematic of the Florentine love of stonework and
Medici red and consisting of over four million bricks, remains the largest masonry dome in the world.
Brunelleschi's cupola design was considered one of the finest engineering feats since Roman times. He is also
credited with the revival of the classical columnar system, which he studied and mastered in Rome. He was an
accomplished sculptor and was also famous for his pioneering work into mathematical or linear perspective.

Other leading architects of the Early Renaissance were Michelozzo and Alberti. Michelozzo’s most famous work is
the Palazzo Medici Riccardi followed by the Villa Medici at Fiesole and the library at the Convent of San Marco,
Florence. Alberti put emphasis on nature and human form. He did not see himself as a builder in a practical sense
but a designer. His greatest works include the Basilica of Sant'Andrea in Mantua, Palazzo Rucellai and at Santa
Maria Novella, Florence.

The dome of Florence Cathedral (the Basilica di The church of San Lorenzo by Brunelleschi
Santa Maria del Fiore) by Brunelleschi

Sculptures
In their quest for greater realism, Early Renaissance sculptors took inspiration directly from Classical Roman
and Greek sculpture. But they were not slavish imitators. They imbued their free-standing figures with a range of
emotions and filled them with energy and thought. Symbolism was often added to give extra meaning, in line with
the new idea that sculptors (like painters) were the new creative intellectuals.

Donatello was considered to be the greatest sculptor of the Early Renaissance, in part due to his range of subject
matter and his capacity for individualistic expression of each. This can be seen in his innovatively eroticized statue
of David which he created by reviving and refining the classical technique of wax casting, or his powerfully
expressive later work Penitent Magdalene (1453-1455), made of poplar wood with polychrome and gold, radical in
its expressionistic technique and effect.

Another noted sculptor of the period was Ghiberti, and later in the period, Andrea del Verrocchio. Ghiberti
perfected his use of perspective and figurative modelling to create works that were admired both for their classical
beauty and their emotive individuality. Example is the two sets of doors that he designed for the Baptistery in
Florence. Michelangelo dubbed them "The Gates of Paradise," the name by which the doors, 17 feet tall and gilded
in gold, have been called since.
David (1430-1440), by Donatello Penitent Magdalene (1453-1455), The Gates of Paradise, by Ghiberti
by Donatello

Paintings
Many of the great works of the Early Renaissance were religious frescos, beginning with Masaccio's Brancacci
Chapel frescoes, which were studied by subsequent Renaissance masters.
*(Frescos discussed elaborately in further portion.)

Oil painting was also introduced, as seen in Antonello da Messina's Sibiu Crucifixion (1454-1455). Other artists like
Pierro della Francesca in his Flagellation of Christ, (c. 1455) experimentally combined oil with tempera on panels.
Some artists brought an innovative emphasis on color and texture to tempera painting, as seen in the pastel pink
and green palette of Domenico Veneziano's St. Lucy Altarpiece (1445-1447), influenced by the Venetian School.

New subject matter was also introduced. Andrea del Castagno's commissioned fresco Cycle of Famous Men and
Women (c.1449-51) depicted portraits of three Tuscan poets, three famous women from antiquity, and three
military commanders from Florence. His treatment was also novel, as he painted them within architectural niches
to create the illusion of sculpture. Portraits of noble families were much in demand, as seen in Piero della
Francesca's Portraits of the Duke and Duchess of Urbino (1465-1472), while Domenico Ghirlandaio pioneered the
portrait focusing on deeply individualized but ordinary people as seen in his Portrait of an Old Man with His
Grandson (1490).

The painter Paolo Uccello pioneered battle painting with his renowned Battle of Romano (1435-1460) depicting the
1432 battle between Florence and Siena. Uccello was a noted mathematician who created an idiosyncratic style
that combined a pioneering use of perspective with elements of the Late Gothic style. His Funerary
Monument (or Equestrian Monument) to Sir John Hawkwood (1436), like many other works, was a fresco that
appeared almost sculptural.
 Masaccio's Brancacci Chapel frescoes Pierro della Francesca in his Flagellation of Christ

Antonello da Messina's Sibiu Paolo Uccello Battle of Romano Domenico Veneziano's St. Lucy
Crucifixion Altarpiece

HIGH RENAISSANCE

The High Renaissance period ranged from 1490 to 1527. As the Renaissance movement continued throughout the
15th century, high renaissance was the thirty-year period exemplified by the ground breaking, iconic works of art.

The High Renaissance relocated to Rome which became the cultural capital of the movement under the generous
patronage of successive popes. Giorgio Vasari writes about this period (which he calls the 'third manner') as the
highest peak of artistic achievement in which Renaissance art reached an unsurpassed level of grandeur.

A rejuvenation of classical art combined with a deep investigation into the humanities along with a keen knowledge
of science, anatomy, and architecture helped create extreme depth, highly accurate and scientifically correct
depictions of human anatomy, the foreshortening of figures and subjects within elevated paintings and sculptures
to provide an authentic viewing experience.

The general character of this art was classical and intellectual in its concept, focusing on ideas relating to the
structure, form, proportion and the arrangement of figures within a formally balanced composition. The period is
noted for infusing ideals of beauty back into art.

The path to realism in art reached its peak in the sixteenth century with Leonardo, Michelangelo and Raphael.
Considering philosophies concerning universal man and his place in the world, they showed departure from the
medieval era's idealized religious iconography resulting in fresh depictions of divine subjects infused with a more
resonant and human emotionality and expression.

Although these three great masters have come to personify the art of the High Renaissance, each offers a unique
character in their art that reflects their individual personality:

• The intense observation, invention and psychological insights of Leonardo.

• The graceful proportions, harmony and atmosphere in the paintings of Raphael.
• The heroic power and form of the human figure in Michelangelo.

Architecture
In the late 15th century and early 16th century, architects such as Bramante, Antonio da Sangallo the Younger and
others showed a mastery of the revived style and ability to apply it to buildings such as churches and city palazzo
which were quite different from the structures of ancient times. The style became more decorated and ornamental,
statuary, domes and cupolas becoming very evident.

Bramante’s finest architectural achievement in Milan is his addition of crossing and choir to the abbey church
of Santa Maria delle Grazie (Milan). This is a brick structure, the form similar to the Northern Italian tradition of
square domed baptisteries. In Rome Bramante created what has been described as "a perfect architectural
gem", the Tempietto in the Cloister of San Pietro in Montorio.

Antonio da Sangallo submitted a plan for St Peter’s and became the chief architect after the death of Raphael, to
be succeeded himself by Michelangelo. His fame rests upon his building of the Farnese Palace, “the grandest palace
of this period”.

Raphael (1483–1520), born in Urbino, trained under Perugino in Perugia before moving to Florence, was for a time
the chief architect for St. Peter’s, working in conjunction with Antonio Sangallo. He also designed a number of
buildings. His single most influential work is the Palazzo Pandolfini in Florence with its two stories of strongly
articulated windows of a "tabernacle" type, each set around with ordered pilasters, cornice and alternate arched
and triangular pediments.

Michelangelo Buonarroti’s architectural fame lies chiefly in two buildings: the interiors of the Laurentian Library and
its lobby at the monastery of San Lorenzo in Florence, and St Peter's Basilica in Rome. St. Peter's was "the greatest
creation of the Renaissance", and a great number of architects contributed their skills to it. But at its completion,
there was more of Michelangelo’s design than of any other architect, before or after him.

Mannerism in architecture was marked by widely diverging tendencies in the work of Michelangelo, Giulio
Romano, Baldassare Peruzzi and Andrea Palladio, that eventually led to a shift to the Baroque style.
Tempietto in the Cloister Farnese Palace, Rome Palazzo Pandolfini, Florence
of San Pietro, Montorio

Laurentian Library, Florence St Peter's Basilica in Rome

Sculpture
The undoubted master of sculpture during this period was Michelangelo whose Pietà, (1498-1499), finished when
he was only twenty-four. He chose to depict an unusually youthful Virgin Mary holding the dead Christ in her lap.
The work's pyramidal composition and naturalistic figurative treatment created a powerfully classical effect. Yet, it
also showed innovative variations. The scale of the Virgin in comparison to Christ lent a highly emotional maternal
aspect to the piece and became a signature method for the artist in his work, this manipulation of high contrast.

David is Michelangelo’s another masterpiece. David is a 5.17-metre (17.0ft) marble statue of the Biblical figure
David, a favoured subject in the art of Florence. This work was the first time since the classical era that the male
nude had been carved in a work of marble. While the work has a classical effect, there are attributes that highlight
distinct techniques of High Renaissance. Even though Michelangelo was a master of precise anatomical correctness
in his figures, in this work the proportions deviate as the right hand is larger than the left, and David's eyes have an
exodeviation, looking in two slightly different directions.
 Pietà by Michelangelo David by Michelangelo

Paintings
While High Renaissance painting continued the tradition of fresco painting in connection with religious scenes, the
practice of masters like Raphael, Leonardo, and Michelangelo was informed by innovations of the medium.

At the same time, many masterworks of the High Renaissance were, for the first time, being painted in oil, typically
on wood panels but sometimes on canvas. Because oils provided more possibilities in subtle tonal and color
gradations, the resulting works were more life-like. As a result, a new body of compelling portraiture of ordinary
people emerged. Leonardo's Mona Lisa is undoubtedly the most famous example. Leonardo's practice of oil
painting led him to develop a new technique called Sfumato, meaning "vanished gradually like smoke." It involved
using translucent glazes worked by brush to create gradual transitions between tones of light and shadow.

Quadratura was the term used for the burgeoning ceiling paintings genre of the time, remarkable for the way they
unified with the surrounding architecture, and known for their employment of trompe l'oeil. These works not only
included the seamless integration between painting and location, but also oftentimes required the creation of
fictive architectural features to visually reconfigure the site. The use of quadratura was used often in Catholic
churches to produce an awe-inspiring effect. Quadratura required visual-spatial skill and a masterful employment
of linear perspective that had first been pioneered by Andrea Mantegna in his Camera degli Sposi (1465-1474)
ceiling in the Ducal Palace of Mantua.

School of Athens – Fresco by Leonardo’s Mona Lisa Camera degli Sposi – Quadratura
Rafael by Andrea Mantegna
 FRESCO PAINTINGS

Fresco Painting is a technique that we associate with large scale murals. Water is used as the vehicle for the dry-
powder pigment to merge with the plaster, and with the setting of the plaster, the painting becomes an integral
part of the wall. The word fresco is derived from the Italian adjective affresco meaning "fresh". For the most part
these were magnificent religious paintings that covered the walls of churches, inspiring the congregation by
bringing scenes from the bible to life and creating a breath taking atmosphere for spiritual devotion.

Buon Fresco
Italian for 'good fresco', Buon Fresco is the most permanent method of fresco painting. In this fresco painting, the
artist has to apply color pigment mixed with water onto a thin layer of wet plaster called the Intonaco (Italian for
'plaster'). As it dries the pigment bonds chemically with the plaster to create a durable image that lasts for centuries.
Each day, an area of intonaco called a Giornata (Italian for 'a day's work') is applied to a section of the wall, which
the artist must paint before it dries. There is no room for error and incomplete sections have to be cut back, re-
plastered and painted again. Buon frescoes are difficult to create because of the deadline associated with the drying
plaster. An indispensable component of this process is the carbonatation of the lime, which fixes the colour in the
plaster ensuring durability of the fresco for future generations.
A technique used in the popular frescoes of Michelangelo and Raphael was to scrape indentations into certain areas
of the plaster while still wet to increase the illusion of depth and to accent certain areas over others. The eyes of
the people in the School of Athens are sunken-in using this technique, causing the eyes to seem deeper and pensive.
Michelangelo used this technique as part of his trademark 'outlining' of his central figures within his frescoes.

Fresco Secco
Italian for 'dry fresco', Secco fresco is a less permanent method of fresco painting where pigments are mixed with
a tempera type binder, glue or oil and applied directly onto dry plaster to attach the pigment to the wall. This
technique has the short-term advantage of producing more brilliant colors than buon fresco but has a less durable
finish as the paint eventually flakes off the plaster, often within the artist's lifetime. Secco work done on top of buon
fresco was standard from the Middle Ages onwards.
The additional secco work would be done to make changes, and sometimes to add small details, but also because
not all colours can be achieved in true fresco, because only some pigments work chemically in the
very alkaline environment of fresh lime-based plaster. Blue was a particular problem, and skies and blue robes were
often added secco, because neither azurite blue nor lapis lazuli, the only two blue pigments then available, works
well in wet fresco. For wholly a secco work, the intonaco is laid with a rougher finish, allowed to dry completely and
then usually given a key by rubbing with sand. The painter then proceeds as he would on a canvas or wood panel.

Mezzo Fresco
A third type called a mezzo-fresco is painted on nearly dry intonaco—firm enough not to take a thumb-print, says
the sixteenth-century author Ignazio Pozzo—so that the pigment only penetrates slightly into the plaster. By the
end of the sixteenth century this had largely displaced buon fresco, and was used by painters such as Gianbattista
Tiepolo or Michelangelo. This technique had, in reduced form, the advantages of a secco work.

Frescos were majorly created during the Romanesque and the Renaissance period. Examples are, the Stoning of
Saint Stephen, frescoes of the Apse of Sant Climent, Taüll, fresco of the Apse of St. Mary, Taüll, frescoes of St. Eulalia
of Estaon, fresco of the south apse of St. Quirico of Pedret, fresco of the central apse of St. Peter of Burga etc, from
the Romanesque period and The Annunciation by Fra Angelico, Expulsion from the garden of Eden by Masaccio,
The Last Supper by Vinci, School of Athens by Raphael, frescos of the Sistine Chapel Ceiling by Michelangelo etc
from the Renaissance.
 SOME ROMANESQUE AND RENAISSANCE FRESCOS

The Stoning of Saint Stephen,

Romanesque fresco from the church
of St. John of Bohí

The Annunciation (1450) by Fra

Angelico, a Renaissance fresco

Fresco of the Apse of St. Mary,

Taüll, Romanesque

The Last Supper (1490) by Leonardo

Da Vinci, Renaissance fresco
 FRESCOS

The Apse of Sant Climent de Taüll (Romanesque)

and
The Last Judgement (Renaissance)

The Apse of Sant Climent de Taüll is a

Romanesque fresco, currently in the
National Art Museum of Catalonia,
Barcelona. This is one of the masterpieces
of the European Romanesque believed to
be created by the unknown Master of
Taüll. Painted in the early 12th century, it
was in the church of Sant Climent de Taüll
at the Vall de Boí, Alta Ribagorça in the
Catalan Pyrenees until removed in 1919-
1923, along with other parts of the fresco
decoration, in an attempt to preserve the
paintings by placing them in a stable,
secure museum setting.

It combines elements from different

Biblical visions (Revelation, Isaiah and
Ezekiel) to present the Christ of the Day of
Judgement.

Christ appears from the background

The Apse of Sant Climent de Taüll (Romanesque)
causing a movement outwards from the
centre of the composition, which is
presided by the ornamental sense of the
outlines and the skilful use of colour to
create volume.

The round surface beneath Christ’s feet represents the earth and the halo on his head represents divinity. Christ’s
right hand symbolizes blessing, and in his left hand he holds a book with the words EGO SUM LUX MUNDI, which
translates in English to “I am the light of the world”.

The symbols of Alpha and Omega hanging like lamps on either side of Christ, symbolize the beginning and end. The
fourfold images represent four evangelists.

To the right, an angel is seen beside the lion holding one of its hind legs, which is a symbol of St. Mark. To the left,
an angel holding the tail of the bull is a symbol of St. Luke. The other two evangelists fit into the triangular space on
either side of the mandorla. Angel holding the Gospel Book represents St. Matthew, and the other angel is St. John
holding an eagle in his arms.

Below the mural painting of Christ in the mandorla is St Thomas, St Bartholomew, Mother of God, St. John the
Evangelist, St. James and San Felipe. The Mother of God holds a bowl where red rays emerge from it, which
symbolize the blood of Christ.

One scene that stands out is of Lazarus the beggar at the door of the rich man Epulon’s house, on the intrados of
the arch, and at the top, the hand of God and the Agnus Dei (the Lamb of God), symbolising the death and
resurrection of Christ.
 Twenty four years after the completion
of the Sistine Chapel ceiling, Pope
Clement VII commissioned
Michelangelo to paint its 45ft. x 39ft.
altar wall. Michelangelo revealed his
fresco of the 'Last Judgement' on
Christmas Day 1541. It was a terrifying
image of damnation and resurrection
depicting the Second Coming of Christ
and the final and eternal judgment by
God of all humanity. The dead rise and
descend to their fates, as judged by
Christ surrounded by prominent saints.

Altogether there are over 300 figures,

with nearly all the males and angels
originally shown as nudes; many were
later partly covered up by painted
draperies.

In the lower part of the fresco,

Michelangelo followed tradition in
showing the saved ascending at the left
and the damned descending at the right.

In the upper part, the inhabitants of

Heaven are joined by the newly saved.
The Last Judgement by Michelangelo (Renaissance)

At the centre of the work is Christ, shown as the individual verdicts of the Last Judgment are pronounced; he looks
down towards the damned.

To the left of Christ is his mother, Virgin Mary, who turns her head to look down towards the Saved, though her pose
also suggests resignation. It appears that the moment has passed for her to exercise her traditional role of pleading
on behalf of the dead.

In the centre above Charon is a group of angels on clouds, seven blowing trumpets (as in the Book of Revelation),
others holding books that record the names of the Saved and Damned.

A boat rowed by an aggressive Charon, who ferried souls to the Underworld in classical mythology (and Dante), brings
them to land beside the entrance to Hell; his threatening them with his oar is a direct borrowing from Dante. Satan,
the traditional Christian devil, is not shown but another classical figure, Minos, supervises the admission of the
Damned into Hell.

This managed to surpass the ceiling in its awesome virtuosity and the dramatic power of its narrative.

Where traditional compositions generally contrast an ordered, harmonious heavenly world above with the
tumultuous events taking place in the earthly zone below, in Michelangelo's conception the arrangement and posing
of the figures across the entire painting give an impression of agitation and even in the upper parts there is "a profound
disturbance, tension and commotion" in the figures.

The Last Judgement became controversial as soon as it was seen, with disputes between critics in the
Catholic Counter-Reformation and supporters of the artist and the style of the painting. Michelangelo was accused of
being insensitive to proper decorum, in respect of nudity and other aspects of the work, and of pursuing artistic effect
over following the scriptural description of the event.
Details

In the company of the Christ

Elected souls enroute heaven Mary and Christ

The condemned
 “Both the paintings are similar in various aspects, yet, at the same time,
involve multiple contrasting elements”

Similarities
• Both the paintings were created with the aim to decorate the Church walls; the former for the church of
Sant Climent de Taüll at Alta Ribagorça and latter for the Sistine Chapel in Vatican City. In Romanesque and
Renaissance frescos were mainly created in relation to biblical concepts with exceptions of a few.

• Both the paintings depict the Christ of the Day of Judgement, combining elements from different biblical
visions. The central theme is Theophany or, the vision of God.

• In the paintings, the Christ appears in the centre of the composition suggesting that he is the central figure
of both the compositions and the rest of the figures, be it angels, or saints, or men, around him.

• The former depicts the four evangelists surrounding the Christ and the latter also depicts angels, up on top,
blowing trumpets and holding books.

• In the former painting, at the top, the hand of God and the Agnus Dei (the Lamb of God), symbolises death
and resurrection and the latter painting is entirely a direct depiction of damnation and resurrection on the
Second Coming of Christ.

• Both the paintings were made by first creating a rough arriccio (coarser layer of plaster applied prior to the
final intonaco) as a base to the fresco followed by use of various pigments, namely aerinite for blue color.

Differences
• The major difference is in the painting style and way of depiction of the same theme.

• In the former painting, the Christ is seen with a beard and formally dressed. On the other hand, the latter
fresco depicts him beardless and covered on a drapery.

• Also, all the figures present in the first painting are wholly dressed while in the second painting, almost all
of over 300 figures, were originally shown as nudes; many were later partly covered up by painted draperies
during restoration.

• In the former painting, the style combines the geometricisation of forms and the general symmetry of the
composition with the decorativism in the details. The latter has a more fluid, natural and human depiction
of form and figure.

• The first painting has bright tones of red, yellow and blue used contrasting with the flat tones of the
background and harsh black outlines around elements, with no shading, making it look flat and two-
dimensional.

• On the contrary, Michelangelo’s general depiction of figures and rendering of space and movement, the
distinctive depiction of anatomy, the nudity and use of colour and shading makes the fresco look much
more real and refined.

• Former is a less complicated, simpler depiction of the theme. With clearly outlined figures, it looks harsh
to the eyes. With more than 300 figures involved, the latter is a more detailed and advanced composition.
With the use of lighter blue in the background and softer outlines of the figures, it is personally more
pleasing to look at.
 CONCLUSION
The Romanesque and Renaissance periods ranged across Europe in different time periods. Both the periods took
inspiration from the Roman and the Greek for their art and architecture, none of the two were slavish imitators.
Romanesque being the more primitive one, although characterised with grand architecture and greatly refined art,
could in no way compete with the grandeur of Renaissance, which was the peak of artistic achievement, with
ground breaking, iconic works of art. Similarities and differences could be found in architecture, and sculptures and
paintings. The major similarity was the depiction of religious, biblical concepts through art and construction of
religion related buildings such as Churches, Basilicas and Cathedrals. However, with Renaissance we saw a shift
towards naturalism, realism and more humanistic subjects. There were advancements in the field of philosophy,
science, mathematics and technology. There was more attention to detail.

Frescos formed a major part of both Romanesque and Renaissance art. They were made in large variety and in
various themes. The basic technique of preparation of the base, plastering and superimposing pigments remained
the same. However, there was stark contrast in the styles of the artists of both the periods.

With use geometric and symmetrical forms and figures, bright colors, backgrounds in flat tones, no shading and
harsh black outlines, the frescos of Romanesque were less detailed and looked flat and 2D.

The Renaissance artists with their detailed compositions, depiction of figures and space, almost correct anatomic
display of human form, use of contrasting colors and shading and softer outlines, created masterpieces. With
Renaissance, ideals of beauty were infused back into art.

Thank You.