Metal Forming

Prevention of Internal Cracks in Forward Extrusion by Means of Counter Pressure:

A Numerical Treatise

C. Soyarslan1),2) and A. E. Tekkaya3)

1)
Atılım University, Department of Manufacturing Engineering, 06836, Ankara, Turkey
2)
Middle East Technical University, Department of Civil Engineering, 06531, Ankara, Turkey
3)
University of Dortmund, Institute of Forming Technology and Lightweight Construction, 44227, Dortmund, Germany

In the context of forward bulk extrusion, where product defects are frequently observed, the effect of counter pressure on damage
accumulation materializing a Continuum Damage Mechanics (CDM) approach is presented. A Lemaitre variant damage model accounting
for unilateral damage evolution coupled with a multiplicative finite plasticity is utilized for this purpose. After a presentation of the crack
governing mechanism, it is demonstrated that application of counter pressure introduces a marked decrease in the central damage
accumulation, which in turn increases the formability of the material through keeping the tensile triaxiality in tolerable limits. It is also shown
that, for a crack involving process, through systematic increase of the counter pressure, the crack sizes diminish; and at a certain level of
counter pressure chevron cracks can be completely avoided.

Keywords: forward extrusion; counter pressure; chevron cracks; ductile damage; finite elements.

DOI: 10.2374/SRI08SP170; submitted on 12 November 2008, accepted on 5 March 2009

Introduction

Cold forward extrusion, as designated in Figure 1, is a

bulk metal forming process where a workpiece is forced
through a die with the aid of a punch in order to obtain an
area reduction. Besides its considerable cost efficiency,
extrusion is advantageous due to gained hardness, fatigue
resistance, accuracy, net shape and surface qualities of the
product. With reference to Figure 1, the governing process
parameters consist of reduction in area, [1 - (d1/d0)2], die
semi-cone angle, α, friction at the die-workpiece interface,
working temperature, material ductility and micro-
structure. The workability of the metal, which stands for
the extent of deformation that can be achieved without
cracking, strongly depends on the choice of these
parameters where improper combinations may result in
defected extrusion products. These defects emerge in the
form of surface cracks (also called snake-skin, or fir-tree) Figure 1. Forward extrusion process geometry.
or internal cracks (also called chevron cracks or central
bursts). have been introduced in the analytical studies of Avitzur
Central bursts are internal arrow shaped cracks normal [2] for perfect plasticity and by Zimerman and Avitzur [3]
to the central axis of the workpiece. Their formation for hardening plasticity. Although such curves serve a very
results in a drastic decrease in the load carrying capacity of practical purpose of selecting process geometries, their
the product. Standard surface investigation methods fall generalization to different material ductilities and internal
short in detection of these defects due to their insidious structures in addition to different frictional and thermal
nature. Hence, elimination of possibly defected products conditions is questionable. Numerical analysis which
necessitates a proper investigation by nondestructive materializes finite elements emerges at this level as a
ultrasonic testing. This burden has attracted many suitable tool where problems involving complicated
researchers to examine the governing mechanism of crack geometries and boundary conditions can be solved for
formation in forward extrusion for more than seven many thermo-mechanical material models, based on
decades through experimental, analytical and numerical micro-mechanical or phenomenological assumptions,
methods. frictional conditions, which are readily accessible through
Jennison’s [1] experimental works go back to the early certain mathematical models. With this motivation, there
1930s. For conical dies, using the upper bound theorem, have been numerous numerical studies on damage
percent reduction versus die semi-cone angle diagrams accumulation in forward extrusion which materialize

4 steel research int. 80 (2009) No. 9


Micro-based Damage Mechanics (MDM), Fracture
Mechanics (FM) and CDM. Attempts to simulate discrete
crack formations are also made, utilizing several methods
such as Element Deletion (ED), Node Separation (NS) and
Stiffness Degradation (SD). Among those, the simplest
and most frequently utilized one seems to be the ED
method where the Gauss points with accumulated damage
values violating the critical damage threshold are
eliminated from the computational stack. A chronological
summary of the numerical studies that investigates damage
formation in cold forward extrusion is listed in Table 1.
These studies prove that central crack formation in
extrusion is due to the local positive triaxial stress state at
the area reduction zone where plastic flow occurs. This
positive triaxiality when met with plastic flow promotes
the nucleation, growth and coalescence of micro-voids to
produce macro-cracks. Besides, it is shown that low area
reductions combined with high semi-cone angles enhance
central damage accumulation whereas friction motivates
surface damage accumulation rather then central damage.
Accordingly, for a crack including simulation, the increase
of friction in turn decreases the frequency of internal
cracks. In the extremes surface defects may emerge. It is
notable that in most of these studies rate hardening and the
thermal softening effects are assumed to cancel each other.
Since, in avoiding cracks, the main motivation is to
obtain a hydrostatic compression at the forming zone, at
fixed die geometry and process parameters one could
supply additional central compression by means of
employing counter pressure at the extruded nose part of
the workpiece. The experimental studies of Wagener et al.
[17], Wagener and Wolf [18], Wagener and Haats [19]
show that the application of counter pressure promotes
material formability in extrusion so that it becomes
possible to extrude even relatively brittle materials, like
MMC of aluminium alloy matrix with SiC particles,
similar to low carbon steels, where the cracks are
suppressed. Moreover, it is demonstrated in these studies
that counter pressure application results in decreased die
exit residual tensile stresses and more homogeneous
plastic deformation distributions at the extrudate where
strain gradients are lowered. Besides its advantages,
counter pressure increases the punch force demand of the
Table 1. Numerical investigation of damage formation in cold forward extrusion.
ID Reference Model Temperature Friction Macro-Crack Method
1 Aravas [4] MDM − −
− −
2 Liu and Chung [5] FM + which introduces an intermediate
3 Giardini et al. [6] FM − +
4 Ceretti et al. [7] FM − +
5 Lim and Dunne [8] MDM − −
6 Lee and Hahm [9] MDM − +
7 Gelin [10] MDM − −
8 Choi et al. [11] FM − −
9 Ko and Kim [12] FM − +
10 Hambli and Badie-Levet [13] CDM − +
11 Saanouni et al. [14] CDM − +
12 McVeigh and Liu [15] MDM + +
13 Soyarslan et al. [16] CDM − +
steel research int. 80 (2009) No. 9
Materials Technology
process and thus has certain limits governed by the
allowable punch and die stresses. Counter pressure
application is also employed as a precision extrusion
method where the under-filling defects are eliminated,
Osakada et al. [20]. However, this type of utilization falls
out of the context of this study.
To the authors’ knowledge, there exist no numerical
studies on the use of counter pressure to give account for
defect-free extrusion. Accordingly, in this follow up work
of Soyarslan et al. [16], the aim is to investigate what
finite element suggests on the role of counter pressure in
suppressing crack formations in axi-symmetric forward
extrusion. For this purpose, utilizing the thermodynamics
of internal variables, a Lemaitre variant damage model
which relies on the effective stress concept of Kachanov
[21] and Rabotnov [22] and the strain equivalence
principle of Lemaitre [23] is coupled with a finite
multiplicative plasticity. To this end, the derived
framework is implemented as VUMAT user defined
material subroutine for ABAQUS/Explicit and used in an
extensive set of simulations in which damage
accumulation and crack growth are monitored. It is shown
that proper application of counter pressure suppresses
central crack formation completely, by keeping the
forming zone hydrostatic stress levels in tolerable limits.
The deviations of crack morphologies and sizes with
counter pressure application are also examined.
Modelling Damage
Construction of the constitutive model follows along the
same lines with Soyarslan et al. [16] to which the reader is
referred for a detailed treatment. Assuming a, b and c as
summation convention on repeated indices, c = a • b
three second order tensors, together with the Einstein's
represents the product with [c]ik = [a]ij [b]ik. d = a : b
represents the inner product with d = [a]ij [b]ij where d is a
scalar. [◦]t and [◦]-1 denote the transpose and the inverse of
Let F ≡ GRAD[ϕ] represent the gradient of the non-
[◦] respectively.
linear deformation map ϕt(X) from the reference config-
uration, B0, to the current one, B, at time t, with J = det[F]
neighbourhood of every X ∈ B, a
being its Jacobian. Within the
F = Fe • Fp, into an elastic part, Fe,
local multiplicative factorization,
− − and a plastic part, Fp, is postulated,
−
configuration, Lee [24]. be = Fe • Fe,t
− −
+ ED is defined as the elastic left Cauchy-
− − Green deformation tensor relative to
− − the current configuration.
− −
Following the internal state
− −
it is assumed that α and D ∈ [0,1]
variable theory of thermo-dynamics
− −
− −
− ED
denote the strain like internal
+ ED
variables responsible for isotropic
+ ED
hardening and damage, respectively.
5
Metal Forming

q = − Kα − (τ ∞ − τ 0 ) (1 − exp[− δα ]) (3)

with K, τ0, τ∞ and δ, respectively, denoting linear

hardening coefficient, initial yield stress, saturation stress
and the hardening exponent. For a Lemaitre type damage
conjugate variable, Y, which is in the form of elastic
energy release rate, one has

Y=
1
2
H tr ε e [ ] 2
[ ]
+ G dev ε e : dev ε e [ ] (4)

conventional normality rules. Accordingly, with γ&

Figure 2. Effective stress concept.
These stand for the phenomenological counterparts of
The definitions of the evolution equations follow
representing the plastic multiplier, using a J2 type yield
potential and a Lemaitre variant damage dissipation
potential at its simplest form, one may propose the
following rate equations,

γ&
micro-mechanical entities which are dislocation pile ups
b e = −2 N • be
(1 − D )
for α and density of micro-voids and micro-cracks for D. o
(5)
A simple 1D observation is helpful to gain a geometrical
insight into the problem. With reference to Figure 2, two

α& = γ&
process spaces are constructed, one of which is the
2 (6)
physical space and the other is the so-called effective
space. The physical space refers to the actual space where 3

γ&
D& = −a
the effects of micro-voids persist and at the plane of

(1 − D )
interest nominal material cross sectional area, A, is due. Y (7)
The effective space stands for the fictitious one which is
carried out by removing existing micro-voids and micro- o

N = dev[~ ] / dev[~ ] is associated with the direction of the

e
cracks from the material matrix, where at the plane of in- in which the objective Oldroyd rate of be is denoted b .

effective area, A . Accordingly, D is defined as D ≡ AD / A,

terest the defect-free cross section-al area is named as the
~
~ plastic flow, where o is the Euclidean norm of [◦]. a
where AD = A - A represents the damaged area.
The effective stress concept stems from this designation,
which in the current context differentiates the Cauchy
stress acting on the effective area formed of the
undamaged material matrix, i.e. effective Cauchy stress,
~ , from its homogenized counterpart acting on the
nominal area including micro-voids and micro-cracks, i.e.
nominal Cauchy stress, . The relation between effective
and homogenized stress is mathematically given with the
following expression,
stands for the damage parameter.
Micro-mechanical observations reveal that tensile
triaxial fields significantly decrease the formability of
metallic materials. This is not the case for the compressive
hydrostatic stress states. At this stage, an enhanced
definition of the damage conjugate variable, Y+, can be
supplied which distinguishes between damage growth
under tensile and compressive stress states. A basic yet
effective approach is reiterating the definition of the

~ = / (1 − D )
damage conjugate variable in the principal effective stress
(1) space where contributions of tensile and compressive
principal stresses are separated. Accordingly, one may

variable h ∈ [0,1], which provides a quasi-unilateral

Utilizing the strain equivalence principle, which states scale the contribution of the compressive stress states by a
that the relation between stress like variables and strain
damage evolutionary form, and ends up with the

[ ]− 29νE ~p
like variables will preserve their structure as far as the
stress is used in terms of effective measures, assuming following,

a Kirchhoff stress definition, τ = J , linear in elastic 1 +ν ~

state coupling between elasticity and damage and selecting
Y+ = τ1 + τ~2 + τ~3

[ + − τ~ ]−
logarithmic strains, εe, one has,
2 2 2 2

h(1 + ν )
[ ] [ ]
2E
9 hν
(8)
~ = H tr ε e 1 + 2G dev ε e + − τ~1 + − τ~2 −~
2 2 2 2
(2) 3 p
2E 2E

o stands for the Macauley bracket with o = 1 2[ [o] + o ].

where H and G are associated with the bulk and shear
modulus, respectively. A plastic isotropic hardening of
combined linear and exponential form will yield the
following designation of the isotropic hardening stress like
variable, q,
It is not hard to guess that for h = 0, only tensile stress
states contribute to the damage evolution whereas the
conventional Lemaitre model is recovered for h = 1.

6 steel research int. 80 (2009) No. 9

 Materials Technology

Chevron Crack Simulations

The presented damage model is implemented into

VUMAT user defined material subroutines. The problem
of damage accumulation to account for chevron crack
formation in single pass forward extrusion of 100Cr6 is
modelled utilizing ABAQUS/Explicit. Thus, the effect of
counter pressure level and friction on force demand
curves, damage and equivalent plastic strain accumulation,
crack occurrence, morphology and periodicities are invest- Figure 3. Boundary conditions for the axi-symmetric problem.
igated. With reference to Figure 1, the dimensions chosen
in the simulations are listed in Table 2.
A finite element mesh, which consists of 0.2 mm,
CAX4R, 4-node bilinear axi-symmetric quadrilateral
elements with reduced integration and hourglass control, is
utilized in the analyses. Figure 3 shows the employed axi-
symmetric model boundary conditions. For simulations
with counter pressure, a rather simplistic approach is
pursued where a compressive normal traction is applied at
the workpiece tip with in the direction opposed to the
punch movement. Such an application of the counter
pressure in the form of normal compressive surface
pressure deviates from the actual practice where a counter
punch is used. However, various trials of the authors show
that simulations involving a counter pressure applied
through a counter deformable body increases the
computational time considerably due to additional contact
iterations. Although the tip deformation pattern may depart
at high pressure levels between the two methods, these
differences diminish at distances sufficiently far away Figure 4. Flow curves for 100Cr6.
from the nose due to Saint Venant’s principle.
Damage coupled and damage uncoupled flow curves of
100Cr6 are given in Figure 4. The material parameters Table 2. Geometrical properties used for the simulations.
regarding elastic, plastic and damage behaviour are listed
Parameter Unit Magnitude
in Table 3.
Die semi-cone angle, α ° 45
To mimic the central discrete macro-crack growth, the
Initial diameter, d0 mm 19.1
ED method is utilized, where the critical damage
Reduced diameter, d1 mm 15.0
threshold, DCr, is assumed to have a value of DCr = 0.25.
Reduction ratio, d0 / d1 mm/mm 1.27
In all of the simulations h = 0 is selected, which postulates
a perfectly unilateral damage evolutionary form, where
mere tensile principal stress contributions to the elastic Table 3. Material properties for 100Cr6.
energy release rate are taken into account. Accordingly,
damage growth under compressive principal stress states is Parameter Unit Magnitude
completely suppressed. The analyses are run for frictional Bulk modulus, H GPa 175.0
and frictionless conditions where the friction coefficient is Shear modulus, G GPa 80.8
denoted by µ. Linear hardening, K MPa 115.1
Starting with, the workpiece-die interface is assumed to Yield stress, τ0 MPa 987.9
be frictionless for a clear demonstration of the central Saturation stress, τ∞ MPa 752.0
damage accumulation mechanism. Without any counter Hardening exponent, δ - 14.3
pressure, with the aid of positive triaxial stress state which Damage parameter, a - 0.3
meets with plastic flow at the forming zone, a localized
damage growth is observed at the central zone, as
demonstrated in Figure 5. This figure represents the dis- Successful completion of this analysis furnishes the
tribution of certain mechanical fields one step before the crack patterns provided in Figure 6b. Figure 6c and 6d
first element deletion, i.e. emanation of the first crack. At respectively show the simulation results for frictional
the die exit, there exists a small amount of surface simulations with µ = 0.04 and µ =0.08. It can be observed
deterioration due to residual tensile stresses. It is not hard that friction has a marked effect on the periodicity of the
to guess that, when the accumulated central damage value cracks where increased interface friction decreases the
exceeds the critical threshold, together with coalescence of number of chevron cracks produced. It is also notable that
micro-voids, macro-crack formations in the form of for µ =0.04 the crack periodicity is in agreement with the
chevrons take place. experimental output given in Figure 6a.

steel research int. 80 (2009) No. 9 7

Metal Forming

conditions. A marked decrease is

observed in both the intensity and
area extent of the central positive
hydrostatic stresses. This amounts to
a noticeable decrease in the damage
rates, as seen in Figure 7.e, where the
effectiveness of the counter pressure
application is clearly observed.
For the same time step, hydrostatic
stress and damage growth distribu-
tion for a certain path defined at the
axis of symmetry on the forming
zone are given in Figure 8a and 8b,
for different counter pressure values.
Figure 8a shows that, for a counter
Figure 5. Contours for the case of no counter pressure applied: tensile portions of a) max, pressure of 400 MPa, the triaxial
b) mid, c) min principal stresses, d) equivalent plastic strain rate, e) damage rate, μ = 0.
stress distribution over the path is
kept compressive due to the anti-
cipated stress increase in the central
zone in the compressive direction by
counter pressure employment. The
resulting damage rates, given in
Figure 8b, although showing a con-
siderable decrease with increasing
counter pressure, do not boil down to
zero for 400 MPa counter pressure.
This is due to the fact that, in the
selected mathematical damage model,
damage evolution depends on the
sign of each principal stress com-
ponent but not merely on the sign of
the pressure. Thus, the centrally
located tensile maximum principal
stress given in Figure 7a is respon-
sible for central damage evolution.
In order to further evaluate the
Figure 6. Experimental output and comparison of crack patterns for different friction effectiveness of intensity of the
levels, no counter pressure applied. counter pressure, analyses for differ-
ent counter pressure magnitudes,
ranging from 0 to 200 MPa, were
conducted for frictionless and fric-
tional conditions. As given for
frictionless conditions in Figure 9, it
is seen that a counter pressure of 200
MPa suffices to suppress crack
formation. This finding is analogous
to the experimental findings of
Wagener which show the efficiency
of the counter pressure in promotion
of the material formability in cold
extrusion. It should be noted that
damage accumulation at the centre is
not completely bypassed, however
decreased to below the crack
threshold where the material integrity
Figure 7. Contours for the case of counter pressure of 400 MPa: tensile portions of a) max, at the macro-scale is preserved. The
b) mid, c) min principal stresses, d) equivalent plastic strain rate, e) damage rate, μ = 0. experience of the authors shows that,
for the selected damage model, the
Figure 7 presents the distribution of certain mechanical counter pressure values that should
fields for an analysis at the same time step as Figure 5 but completely withdraw the central damage accumulation are
a counter pressure of 400 MPa is applied with frictionless considerable and in turn require unreasonably high punch

8 steel research int. 80 (2009) No. 9


Figure 8. Central line a) hydrostatic stress, b) damage rate values, for different counter pressure levels, μ = 0.
Figure 9. Mean crack dimensions and crack patterns for various
counter pressure levels, μ = 0.
forces and thus become impractical. In addition, die and
punch stress limitations act as the main obstacles against
excessive amplification of counter pressures. Figure 9 also
illustrates the effect of the counter pressure intensity on
crack morphologies. Accordingly, the outputs suggest that
the crack opening and the crack half width, measured as
the mean of the first three cracks, show a monotonic
decrease with increased counter pressure, which is
physically reasonable, thus expected. It is notable that,
unlike friction, counter pressure does not seem to have an
effect on the periodicity of the cracks.
For frictionless simulations, the curves of punch force
versus normalized process time are given in Figure 10 for
the analyses without counter pressure and with counter
pressure of 100 and 200 MPa. Crack involving simulations
experience an oscillatory behaviour. In contrast, in the
simulation without any cracks, no oscillations are observed
and a steady trend is captured in the absence of friction.
Moreover, the extent of the oscillations is strictly
dependent on the internal crack size. In the simulations
with larger cracks, oscillations become more dominant
steel research int. 80 (2009) No. 9
Materials Technology
Figure 10. Punch force demand curves for different counter
pressure levels, μ = 0.
compared to those with smaller cracks. The expected
increase in the punch force demand with increasing
counter pressure values reminds one that in the actual
applications reasonable counter pressure values should be
selected for feasibility.
Once a friction of µ = 0.04 is applied at the die-
workpiece interface, crack patterns for different counter
pressure values take the form demonstrated in Figure 11.
A remarkable point is that, in the presence of friction, the
counter pressure required for the crack-free simulations
decreases considerably from 200 MPa to 125 MPa. This is
due to the fact that both friction and counter pressure act
analogically similar, as a counter force which works in
opposite direction with respect to the applied external
pressure by the punch. Another point, as will be shown
later, is that with friction the damage accumulation zones
are carried over to the surface rather than the centre. Thus
under frictional conditions, cracks can be healed with
employment of a reduced counter pressure. The change of
the crack sizes as a function of the applied counter pres-
sure follows a similar trend in the frictionless simulations.
9
Metal Forming
Figure 11. Mean crack dimensions and crack patterns for various
counter pressure levels, μ = 0.04.
Figure 12. Punch force demand curves for different counter
pressure levels, μ = 0.04.
Figure 13. Mean crack dimensions for various counter pressure
levels and friction coefficients.
10
For the frictional conditions, Figure 12 shows the dia-
grams of punch force versus normalized process time are
given, for the analyses without counter pressure and with
counter pressure of 75 and 125 MPa. In accordance with
the previous results, the crack size dependent oscillations
in the force demand diminish with smaller cracks. In
addition to the counter pressure, the effect of friction also
increases the peak load levels for analyses. Moreover, due
to friction, the steady trend of the force demand curve now
experiences a monotonic drop off with the reduction of
contacting surfaces.
Figure 13 is to compare the crack morphologies for
frictional and frictionless analysis, at different counter
pressure values. The dimensions of the cracks in frictional
simulations come out to be considerably small compared
to frictionless simulation results, which is expected.
As shown in Figures 8a and 8b, the application of
counter pressure, although healing crack occurrence for
certain intensities, does not necessarily eliminate the
central damage accumulation completely. Figure 14 shows
the damage iso-error plots for certain counter pressure
levels in frictionless and frictional simulations. As seen,
for both µ = 0, and µ = 0.04, once the counter pressure is
100 MPa, discontinuous chevron crack formations arise.
For these cases, damage iso-curves have a discontinuous
structure, similar to the crack patterns, where maximum
damage values occur at the free surfaces of the cracks. The
cracks are eliminated at a counter pressure of 200 MPa, on
both of the frictional conditions. It is remarkable that the
central damage accumulation this time has a continuous
distribution. Another notable point is that the central
damage intensities in the frictional case are less than those
seen in the frictionless simulation, which is in agreement
with the above stated observations.
Our final attempt is investigation of the steady state
radial damage and equivalent plastic strain distributions
for chevron-free simulations subjected to frictionless and
frictional conditions, as given in Figures 15 and 16,
respectively. Damage plots, given in Figure 15, reveal that
for both frictionless and frictional simulations the counter
pressure decreases the damage accumulation considerably
at both centre and surface. A comparison of Figure 15a
and 15b shows that, for equal levels of counter pressure,
the frictional interface conditions result in lower central
but higher surface damage accumulations, compared to the
frictionless conditions, which is in accordance with the
previous observations.
Figure 16 illustrates that the current application of
counter pressure introduces a difference in the central
equivalent plastic strain accumulations for both frictionless
and frictional experiments. With the increase of applied
pressure, central plastic flow is promoted, which, although
slightly, decreases the overall radial equivalent plastic
strain gradients. This is also in accordance with the
experimental findings of Wagener and his colleagues, who
detected uniform equivalent plastic strain distributions
with the aid of counter pressure employment. In addition,
it can be seen that, unlike at the centre, friction introduces
a marked increase in the plastic strain intensities at the
surface region. Accordingly, the distribution of equivalent
plastic strain has a steeper trend at the half radial distance
closer to the surface.
steel research int. 80 (2009) No. 9
 Materials Technology

Figure 14. Damage contours, a) counter pressure = 100 MPa, μ = 0; b) counter pressure = 200 MPa, μ = 0;
c) counter pressure =100 MPa, μ = 0.04; d) counter pressure = 200 MPa, μ = 0.04.

Figure 15. Radial damage distribution for different counter pressure levels (steady state), a) μ = 0, b) μ = 0.04.

Figure 16. Radial equivalent plastic strain distribution for different counter pressure levels (steady state), a) μ = 0, b) μ = 0.04.

Concluding Remarks presented. For this purpose, an isotropic damage coupled

finite strain elastoplastic framework is utilized, where
A numerical investigation of the effect of counter damage definition is enhanced to give account for quasi-
pressure on defect formation in forward rod extrusion is unilateral damage evolutionary forms. It is shown that

steel research int. 80 (2009) No. 9 11

Metal Forming
chevron crack formations can be prevented at the expense
of increased load demand, not mentioning the mechanism
complications, by devising counter pressure which helps
keeping the tensile triaxial stress fields under tolerable
limits.
Acknowledgement
The authors wish to thank Miss Burcu Anık for her
labour in this study.
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