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Bondline Characterization in High Frequency Welding of Steels
Preprint · December 2020

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.20347.13600
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Bondline Characterization in High Frequency

Welding of Steels
The geometry and orientation of this High Frequency Resistance Weld centerline feature
should be used as a seam weld quality predictor instead of being treated as a flaw.
by
Varbai, B.*, Adonyi, Y.**, Kristály. F. ***, Nagy, E.***, Mertinger, V.***
ABSTRACT
High Frequency Resistance Welding (HFRW), a.k.a. Electric Resistance Welding

(ERW), is a high-speed, solid-state welding process mainly used for making
longitudinal seams in tubular products. This automated process produces
thousands of miles of good welds yearly, yet because of its high reliability it is
seldom mentioned in the technical literature. However, recent ERW welding
difficulties of new high strength steels brought more visibility to this process.
Our paper discusses the characteristics of the centerline metallographic feature

known as the bondline in several carbon- and stainless- steel grades, because some
ERW flaws typically occur along the same location. Based on the examination of
a multitude of weld cross sections and physical simulations, it was found that
bondlines are the results of insufficiently squeezed-out high temperature products
and can indeed be related to flaw formation elsewhere in the weld. The
microstructure and properties of these bondlines vary depending on the steel
composition: mainly soft delta ferrite in low alloy steels or a mix of bainite and
hard martensite in alloy steel grades.
We have also found that it is not the relative hardness or width of these bondlines
are relevant. Instead, their geometry, orientation and uniformity are effective in
predicting the weld quality along the longitudinal seam. Therefore, this paper
should be useful for tubular structure designers, ERW mill operators and welding
engineers still unfamiliar with the HFRW/ERW process.
*Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Budapest,
Hungary
**LeTourneau University, Emeritus Professor, now Senior Professor, University West, Trollhattan, Sweden
*** University of Miskolc, Professor at the Institute of Physical Metallurgy, Metalforming and Nanotechnology
and Researchers, Institute of Mineralogy and Geology, and MTA-ME Materials Science Research Group, Hungary
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INTRODUCTION
HF/ERW Welding Process Background and Fundamentals
Understanding bondlines requires a detailed explanation of High Frequency

Resistance Welding process principles first, a solid-state joining technique where
Joule (resistive) heating is used to produce a metallurgical bond (Figure 1, Ref. 1).
During the final, forging stage of the process, all molten and plasticized metal
particles and inclusions are ejected from the interface. The excess metal on the
outer diameter (OD) and sometime inner diameter (ID) sides are removed by
scarfing right after welding, as the HFRW process is mostly used in continuous
automated applications of longitudinal seam welds for tubular products. A
schematic of the HF welding process is shown in Figure 1, in continuous seam
welding of a tubular product.
Figure 1. Schematic of the HFRW/ERW process (redrawn based on the AWS

Handbook). Notice two important elements: the impeder on the ID side and the
Vee where heat is generated (red arrow). Redrawn from Ref. 1.
Among the characteristics this automated welding process are its high speed and
good consistency. The resulting high productivity makes HF welding popular in
oil-country tubular goods (OCTG), the automotive and aerospace industries, for
high volume production ranging from small diameter/wall thickness of 5.0 mm
OD/0.5 mm thin wall tubes to 625 mm OD 25.4 mm thick wall pipes. It is
noteworthy that over 3.0 million miles of ERW pipe have been installed and are
working safely in oil and gas transportation in the USA alone.
Important to understanding the welding process fundamentals are two electrical

effects governing heat generation: the skin effect and the proximity effect, both
well-known to electrical engineers as a liability which cause electrical components
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to overheat. On the other hand, welding engineers use these same effects to
generate heat and produce welds.
The skin effect describes the depth of penetration of alternating currents (AC) into
metallic conductors, as a function their magnetic permeability and electrical
conductivity and frequency. As equation (1) shows, for a given material, this skin
depth is inversely proportional with frequency, making the area where induced
current circulates very small, typically tenths of a millimeter when using 100-300
kHz frequencies (Ref. 2. )
%
𝛿 = 𝐾 (1)
&∗µ0 ∗ )∗ *
Where: d - AC current penetration depth, mm

K – material dependent constant
µ and µ0. – material magnetic permeability and permeability of free space,
respectively;
s - electrical conductivity
n - AC current frequency, Hz
Because in the Joule heating formula the conductor cross sectional area is at the
denominator (see Equation 2), for a given current and material, the AC high
frequency current travelling only at the conductor surface through a small cross
section will generate more heat than DC current passing through the entire
conductor cross section:
- / 011 213456
𝑄 = 𝐼 - ∗ 𝜌 ∗ 7
∗𝑡 (2)
Where: Q – heat generated (stored) in the Vee, (J)

I – current passing through edges (A), TBD
r - resistivity at Temperature T of the Vee (TBD)
A – area = circumference x skin depth (pD x d)
t – time, sec.
Combining equations (1) and (2) by substituting skin depth “d” into the conductor
area, it follows that the thermal energy developed by Joule heating will be directly
proportional with frequency “n” (Eq. 3).
- / 011 %
𝑄 = 𝐼 - ∗ 𝜌 ∗ p9 :
* t *𝜇 ∗ µ0 ∗ 𝜎 ∗ 𝜈 = K1 * I2 * n (3)
Therefore, HF power sources can increase their heating capability by using higher
induced currents and higher frequencies, because of the reduced skin depth
making resistive heating more efficient. Indeed, HF welding historically evolved
from DC welding to low frequency 60 HZ AC welding. Later came equipment
capable of producing frequencies up to 100 kHz for welding. Today, variable
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frequency power sources can routinely weld steels at 300-400 kHz, and aluminum
and copper at up to 900 kHz - 1 MHz (Ref. 1. ).
The second electrical phenomenon governing HF welding is the proximity effect,

which states that the current passing through two parallel conductors will
concentrate on the side facing the other conductor. The closer the conductors, the
more current concentrates on the adjoining surfaces. This effect manifest itself in
the “weld box”, where the Vee can be found, i.e. the 3-4 inch long area right before
the edges are squeezed together (Figure 2.).
Vee length
Vee
angle
Figure 2. Top view of an HF weld showing the Vee geometry, notice Vee length
and Vee angle. Welding direction from right to left, with arrows showing the
direction of compressive loading in the weld rolls causing the sqeezeout.
This is the area where the thermal energy used for welding develops through
resistive (Joule) heating, enhanced by the skin effect and proximity effects
discussed above. The approximate thermal energy generated in the Vee will be:
- /011 213456
𝑄 = 𝐼 - ∗ 𝜌 ∗ 5∗ d
∗𝑡 (4)
Where: Q – heat generated (stored) in the Vee, (J)

I – current passing through edges (A), TBD
r - resistivity at Temperature T of the Vee (TBD)
A – area = wall thickness x skin depth or 𝑤 ∗ d
t – time, sec
This is where consistency is most important; Vee length, Vee time, Vee angle, are
all to be kept constant, and in balance with the energy removed from the rest of
the circumference by the use of an internal impeder. This means that the Vee
angle in ERW welding has to be kept as small as possible (around 3-4 degrees) in
order to maximize the current density and increase the resistance heating effect.
Overall, the above description of electrical and thermal phenomena involved in

HF welding is important in understanding the process stability and typical flaws
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associated with loss of process stability. Among one critical component which can
cause such problems is a unique part of the ERW mill, the impeder.
The impeder is a water-cooled material with high magnetic permeability inserted

on the ID side of the welding equipment, as shown in Figure 1.
The main role of the impeder is to trap the induced field in the rest of the pipe
circumference, hence keeping the Vee edges at 1300-1400°C. Without the
impeder, the entire pipe circumference would heat up (like in HF heat treatments),
and the vee would cool off, resulting in lack of welding. Because the impeder
absorbs as much as 40% of the energy generated in the induction coil, it has to be
continuously water-cooled, while kept at an exact position relative to the Vee.
The importance of this exact axial position of the impeder placed on the ID side
and impeder temperature on the quality of the weld can’t be emphasized enough.
When the impeder overheats or moves out of an optimal axial position, it no longer
traps the induced magnetic field and more induced currents start flowing in the
pipe on the opposite side of the Vee. Accordingly, the Vee temperature can
drastically drop even by a few hundred degrees C, resulting in cold welds, oxide
inclusions and defective welds.
Typical HFR Weld Flaws - Welding Process Parameters and Stability
Bondlines have often been associated with weld flaws, therefore, understanding
the origin of weld discontinuities is important in relating them to bondlines.
Both induction- and contact-High Frequency welding uses the input power (kVA),
welding line speed (ft/min) and frequency (kHz) as main welding parameters.
Mechanical parameters are related to total upset or squeeze-out during the forging
stage, the difference between the strip width and final pipe circumference,
symmetrical edge presentation, consistent flash removal, etc. Impeder position
and temperature are also very important in maintaining a continuous and stable
welding operation.
From the explanations above, it should become apparent that the ERW process
can lose stability in fractions of a second, without very obvious external signs.
Because welding progresses at tens to hundreds of feet/minute, sometime miles of
defective welds can be produced before the online ultrasonic NDE catches the loss
of stability problem. Monitoring of input parameters such as power (P), frequency
(n), and line speed (S) outputs such as weld surface temperature, impeder
temperature, weld width, flash consistency, etc., are all required to maintain a
stable welding process.
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The previous discussion on HF welding stability was related to equipment and

process parameter optimizations to avoid weld flaws and place bondlines in this
context, because most weld flaws occur at the same location at the weld centerline.
The most common inclusions found at the weld centerline are called “penetrators”
(Figure 3.), which are fingernail shaped oxide inclusions proceeding inward from
the OD side of the weld. When these non-metallic inclusions become longer and
go thought the entire wall thickness, they can produce extensive lack of fusion
which can cause localized corrosion and fatigue, resulting in service failures.
Figure 3. Typical centerline oxide inclusions, also known as a ‘penetrator’.
The second type of flaw which can develop is when the plasticized steel is not
properly squeezed out from the interface during welding (Figure 4.). These are
not as common as oxide inclusions, and are typical to wide temperature gradients.
This is when the edges are heated on a wider region, where loss in their
compressive strength makes them unable to squeeze our impurities from the
interface. The pipe wall typically thickens in the weld area in this case.
Ultimately, this type of defect is also associated with thinning of these thickened
walls due to excessive scarfing (Figure 5.).
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Figure 4. Evidence of local melting and solidification (hot cracks) trapped in the
weld because of insufficient sqeezeout
Figure 5. Typical HF weld cross sections showing the incomplete squeezout (a)
and resulting over scarfing on the OD side (b).
Hook cracks and inclusions originating from the initial steelmaking process are
not as common anymore, yet nonmetallic inclusion segregation lines still
unfortunately are still present in modern steels. Hook cracks can form, when poor
quality base metal is used for welding, where stringers of MnS inclusions pull
away from the steel, similarly to lamellar tearing known from thick plate welding.
In this case, the upturn fibers of elongated nonmetallic inclusions break away from
one another under the effect of residual Hoop stresses, Figure 6.
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Figure 6. Nonmetallic segregations, chemical banding and inclusions from the

base metal, having to do with the incoming steel quality (Ref. 12.)
Geometrical defects can also develop in the ERW welds due to improper edge
presentation, and the resultant thinning of the weld relative to the initial wall
thickness can cause early failure (Figure 7.).
Figure 7. Improper edge presentation (see dotted lines following the original
thickness before OD scarfing of the weld), resultant wall thinning and ID notch
Most of these defects are typically identified by continuous NDE (ultrasonic) which
takes place on the welding line. These systems mark the defective area with a
paint gun and the respective pieces of pipe are cut out using flying shears, which
move at high speeds parallel with the ERW product.
Based on the description of the ERW typical flaws, it will later become evident
that bondlines are not weld discontinuities, but are often treated as such in some
technical reports. In particular, the bondline’s different hardness from the
surrounding weld (lower or higher, depending on the steel composition) is brought
up as an argument. One of the purposes of this paper is to clarify that bondlines
are simply metallurgical non-homogeneities at the weld centerline and that they
never caused any ERW weld failures.
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Bondlines: Terminology, Shape, Morphology, Orientation, Microstructure, and

Properties
The metallographic feature seen at the centerline of some previous weld cross
sections (Figs. 5, 6 and 7) has been called many names, among which the term
“Fusion line” is the most incorrect, as all fusion products are expelled from this
interface during adequate ERW welding. “Centerline” is a more adequate term,
as it relates to the location of bondlines, but we believe it is incomplete term.
“Decarburized Line” is another erroneous term – as the proved later in this paper
– because the low carbon (typically 0.002%) delta ferrite is confused with supposed
retention of a decarburized layer in the center of the weld.
Finally, “Ferrite Line” is the term used which is the closest to reality, but it is not
always adequate in alloyed steels, where delta ferrite is only ~10% of the mixture
of bainite and martensite. Therefore, we propose to call these “Bondlines” instead.
Figure 8 shows another typical bondline straight line morphology in sounds welds,
with bondline width which is independent of the steel type or thickness. Notice
the typically hourglass shape of the Thermo-Mechanically Processed Zone
(TMPZ), while the bondline remains straight.
Figure 8. Sound welds showing the bondline having the same geometry, while the
TMPZ of the weld exhibits an hourglass shape (a) or not (b)
The two steels shown in the previous Figure 8 do not only have different
compositions, but also have different thicknesses. The low alloyed carbon steel (a)
was 10 mm thick, while the stainless steel was only 2.0 mm thick, yet the bondline
in both is equally straight and has about the same width.
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Other researchers focused more on the microstructure, hardness and toughness of

the bondline, which is designated by a diversity of names from “overheated line”
to “decarburized line” through “weld junction”.
Yan, P. et al. (Ref. 5) looked at the toughness of API X65 welded pipe and
concluded that the ferritic HF weld with M-A islands had lower toughness than
the base metal because of the cleavage failure along specific ferrite texture planes.
EBSD found grain size differences in the bondline they called “weld junction”, but
they never blamed the bondline in particular for the low toughness, but
recommended post-weld normalizing to improve toughness by reorienting the
grain texture along the {1,0,0} cleavage planes. Noteworthy was a drop in
hardness at the bondline location, something we have seen many times before.
Park, G., et all (Ref. 6) have found oxide inclusions responsible for failure upon
flare testing of AHSS welded sheet at the bondline location. Their HF welds in
high-Mn TWIP (Twinning Induced Plasticity) steel resulted in excessively wide
bondline (over 250 microns), which opened up toward the ID because of insufficient
squeezout. Manganese oxides and silicates have been found in these nonmetallic
inclusions, but no solution for eliminating these defects were recommended, except
for reducing the oxygen content to which the hot metal formed during welding is
exposed to.
Changchun (Ref. 7) also studied the low toughness of API X70 ERW welds and
concluded that the bondline (which had low carbon content) was the result of edge
decarburization during welding and it was responsible for the poor toughness of
the ERW welds.
Tian, P at all (Ref. 8) also call the bondline “weld junction”, but rather blamed the
coarse microstructure of the surrounding weld thermo-mechanically processed
zone (TMPZ) for the poor toughness and fatigue properties of the ERW welded X70
steel. They were the only ones able to place a fatigue crack initiation notch at the
bondline and measured indeed a CVN impact value there. Yet, the impact energy
was still higher (130 J) than the specified (60 J min). Overall, the fatigue life was
affected more by the surface condition of the pipe than the low toughness in the
weld area.
Khalaj, G. et all (Ref. 9) also called the bondline a “fusion line” but saw no
difference in toughness or crack initiation from it during applying different post-
weld heat treatment cycles to an ERW welded API X 60 pipe. Based on their
discussion on the subsized CVN specimen preparation, the very narrow bondline
of approximately 10 microns was very small when compared with the notch radius
of 250 microns.
Leijun Li (Ref. 10) on the other hand, found in the same steels that the Gleeble-
simulated HF weld bondlines were not decarburized edges, because WDS analysis
did not show significant carbon depletion at the bondline. He found that the softer
centerline region is made of delta ferrite lines entrapped at the weld centerline,
Figures 9 and 10 and proposed a very plausible scenario in explaining it.
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Figure 9. Hardness mapping at 80 microns spacing, 0.5 kg load, showing lower

hardness (blue color) at the centerline (bondline) of the simulated welds, Ref. 10.
Figure 10. Theoretical thermal and mechanical field distribution during the
forging cycle, Ref. 10.
The schematic shows liquid metal being ejected from the interface and delta ferrite
retained in the final weld (austenite transforms into pearlite on cooling). Indeed,
Xray diffraction testing reveled only delta ferrite in this region (Ref. 10).
A thorough analysis of 286 welded pipe failures manufactured between 1940-2000

included seam welds made using DC current and low frequency HF welding (Ref.
12). A marked reduction in hydrotest or service corrosion or fatigue failures was
recorded with ERW pipe welded after 1970, when new HFR control technologies
were introduced.
They found three large groups of failures: 1.) Cold welds or centerline lack of
fusion: 47.6% 2.) Selective Seam Corrosion: 28.2% and 3.) Hook cracks: 24.2% of
the total welds which failed in hydrotesting or during service. Discounting hook
cracks, which are related to the poor quality of the incoming steel, the other two
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flaws, a total of 75.2% of total failures were related to flaws originating at the
same location as the bondline. No wonder that these metallographic features
continued to be at the focus of all HF/ERW evaluation.
There were no failures which occurred by tensile overload of sudden brittle failure
when sound bondlines were present. In every case, there was a pre-existing linear
flaw at the bondline which initiated corrosion or fatigue crack initiation and
propagation. Yet, bondlines can be easily confused with the flaws occurring at the
same location elsewhere in the weld seam.
From the above introduction it should be obvious that bondlines can only be
understood in the context of the ERW process stability and avoidance of flaws.
OBJECTIVES
The purpose of this research was to clarify the nature of an HF/ERW weld
centerline feature called the bondline, revealed in transverse weld cross sections.
Identifying its microstructure, grain size and properties for some common carbon-
and stainless steels, as well as predicting the bondline effect on the weld quality
were the main aims of this research.
METHODOLOGY
Critical review of an extensive weld databases was made possible by Thermatool

Corp., where weld cross sections were examined in the context of production mill
parameters and flaw formation. Comparative analysis with publicly available
R&D publications completed this stage of the work, based mostly on bondline
microstructure, geometry and morphology.
Experimental work performed at LeTourneau University, Longview, TX was

reviewed and made public for the first time, from the perspective of simulated
bondlines, where a Gleeble 1500 thermomechanical system was coupled with a
100 kVA variable frequency industrial power system capable of producing weld in
the 100-900 kHz range.
Figure 11. Physical setup showing the Gleeble chamber and the 100 kW
Thermatool variable frequency power source and HF simulated welding.
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Metallography and hardness testing, as well as X ray diffraction and Electron

Backscatter Diffraction (EBSD) analysis were performed on select samples at
University of Miskolc, Hungary and Budapest University of Technology and
Economics, Material Science and Technology Department. The X-ray diffraction
work was performed using a Bruker D8 Discover type system, using a coherent Cu
Ka Xray made possible by using a Göbel mirror. The energy dispersive detector
was of type LynxEye X-ET and the Bruker EVA 5.0 software was used for the
analysis based on the PDF2 database.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Production ERW Weld Data Analysis
Approximately three dozen reports have been reviewed from several production
mill databases origination around the world, with HF welds made between 1990-
2020. The carbon steel and stainless steel HF welds were separated, Thermo-
mechanically Processed (TMPZ) HF weld widths, bondline width and hardness
were analyzed.
In other HF/ERW welds, the etching techniques used ‘erased’ the bondline (Picral
etch, Figure 12), while showing the untampered martensite structure of the weld
TMAZ zone, (Figures 13 and 14.).
Figure 12. Two macro-etched samples, N80 alloyed steel, showing no evidence of a
bondline (Picral etch).
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Even though these welds show insufficient squeezout on both the OD and ID, Nital
etch would have likely revealed the presence of the bondline.
Figure 13. Untempered martensite end excessive hardness in the HF weld of an

N80 grade, 0.25C, 1.28Mn, 0.24Si, 0.04Cr, 0.012Mo, Ceq=0.55 0.304” wall, 5.5” OD
4130 Steel Tubular, 9 mm wall

700
600
500
Hardness [HV]
400
OD
300 Midwall
ID
200
100
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Position [um]
Figure 14. Typical hardness profile across an SAE 4130 HF weld. Note the slight
drop in hardness at the weld bondline/centerline.
Geometrical Characteristics of Bondlines
When etched properly, bondlines can show fairly sharp edges and its width,
position, and orientation can be adequately documented. Indeed, several
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industrial standards and technical reports focus at length on these geometrical

characteristics, in the context of flaw formation elsewhere in the weld.
Deviations From Parallelism and Perpendicularity
One typical example from the radial orientation (perpendicular to the pipe wall)
is shown in Figure 15. The deviation from desired 90 degree angle (see dotted red
line) is indicative of poor edge presentation during welding.
Figure 15. “Skewed” bondline, 304 stainless, resulting in an ID notch and wall
thinning after scarfing.
On the other hand, lack of parallelism of the bondline edges (especially widening)
is indicative of insufficient local squeezout, leaving inclusions trapped in the weld,
see Figure 16.
Figure 16. Trapezoidal (non/parallel) bondline geometry on the ID side, see red
highlight, which led to insufficient ID squeezout and inclusions, see arrow (Ref.6)
)
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All the above analysis points to the importance of the shape and orientation of the
bondline as an indicator of the ERW weld quality.
In conclusion, no weld failures were seen to originate at sound bondlines, but their
geometry and orientation pointed to possible weld defects elsewhere in the weld
(which, on their turn, could originate failure).
Gleeble Simulations
The main purpose of the simulation work was to separate the thermal- from the
mechanical-effects on the HF weld formation, then re-assemble the individual
effects into an optimum set of conditions. We called this applied research effort:
“In Search of the Perfect HF/ERW weld.”
We used the Taguchi method to build a Design of Experiment (DoE) matrix and
ranked the weight of each thermal- and mechanical- input on the output, i.e. the
simulated weld quality and geometry.
The mechanical results of the study had been published elsewhere (Ref. 5), where
the effects of the total upset and strain rate on the dynamic recrystallization were
studied. In essence, compression tests were performed at different compressive
strain rates between 0.5 in/in/sec to 40 in/in/sec and different constant peak
temperatures. Flow stresses were measured, and the Holloman-Zenner “Z”
parameters were calculated.
It was found that the typically monotonic stress curve for dynamic
recrystallization DRX was experienced only at high temperatures and low strain
rates (at a low Z-parameter). At the same time, the peak stress before dynamic
recrystallization caused flow softening, effect that increased at higher strain rate
and lower deformation temperatures. The critical strain was estimated from the
q-σ plots which were derived from the true stress-true strain plots. This critical
strain εcr for the onset of DRX increased as the temperature decreased (Ref. 5).
What this meant from a practical standpoint is that there was no grain coarsening
at the bondline when DRX conditions were achieved. To the contrary, when
conditions were far from perfect, significant grain growth could be seen in a typical
DP 600 advanced high strength steel HF weld simulation, Figure 17.
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Figure 17. Typical grain coarsening in the bondline in a slighly assymetrical HF

simulation in DP 600 sheet. Note that the bondline is only present in the bottom
part, where the squeezeout was incomplete.
From the multitude of other results found in the physical simulation series, we
picked a few related to the TMPZ width, see Figure 18 and 19.
Figure 18. Bondline width remained the same, relative to TMPZ widths at
different frequencies and power levels.
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Figure 19. Frequency effect on the TMPZ (not bondline) widths for two power
levels, Gleeble simulations, Ref. 12.
Again, the bondine width was more of less the same for all TMPZ widths, slightly
increasing within the 20-40 microns range.
Finally, bondlines were reproduced quite well by heating and compressing solid
bars, without making HF welds using two abutted pieces during Gleeble trials,
Figure 20.
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Figure 20. Compressive high temperature loading at 15 mm/sec/sec deformation

rate of a Duplex Stainless Steel, solid bar.
Xray Diffraction and EBSD Analysis Results
Some of the results obtained from the XRD are next (Figure 21.), with delta ferrite
dominating the microstructure in the bondline in a production ERW weld.
Figure 21. Typical XRD spectrum showing delta ferrite in the bondline in an
actual SAE 1010 steel ERW weld.
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Typical Grain Size and Hardness at the Bondline
Four different actual ERW welds were compared at random, in order to correlated
hardness and grain size differences between the base metal and the bondline.
As the following microstructures show, there was sizeable grain coarsening at the
SAE 1010 and 4130 steel bondlines, as compared to the base metal (Figure 22.).
Accordingly, the hardness in the weld centerline was lower (all delta ferrite) in the
1010 steel and higher (40% bainite+40% martensite+20% delta ferrite) in the 4130
steel.
On the other hand, EBSD was needed to measure grain size in the two stainless
steels.
Figure 22 - SAE 1010 (left) and SAE 4130 (right) grain coarsening
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Figure 23. SAE 1010 weld, 250X mag., Base metal/HF weld line interface
Figure 24. Weld bondline, 1,000 X 4130
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Figure 25. 4130 Transition
Figure 26. 4130 base metal

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Figure 27 Weld bondline, 4130, 1000X mag.
Figure 28
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Figure 29. Linescan across the 4130 bondline, showing no compositional

differences in Mn and Si or Fe – this is typical of all bondlines, which do not show
any evidence of segregation or precipitation.
Optically, we were unable to see the grain size difference between the 304 and 409
type stainless steels base metal and bondline size (Figure 30.). However, based on
XRD cell size measurements, Table 2., it appears that the coarsening was not as
extensive as in the carbon steel samples.
Figure 30. Bondlines in type 409 ferritic/martensitic stainless- and type 304
austenitic stainless steels
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Figure 31. 304 transition, BM to the right, bondline to the left, transition
highlighted
Figure 32. Delta Ferrite, bondline center highlighted, 304 stainless
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Figure 33. Transition between bondline (right) and base metal (left of red line),
see coarse columnar ferrite grains in the bondline, 409 type martensitic/ferritic
stainless steel
Table 2
Steel Base Metal Bondline Average Notes

type Avg Grain size Avg grain size, Hardness, HV
microns microns
1010 14.0 21.0 216 HV 0.05 Some grain coarsening
at bondline
4130 18.0 20.0 650 HV 0.05 “ “
A 304 26.0 11.0 270 HV 0.01 Ferrite grains size

decreased at bondline?
A 409 30.0 74.0 205 HV 0.01 Coarse ferrite grains at
bondline
The results of the hardness measurements can be seen in Figure 34.

27
Figure 34. Hardness distribution on the cross sections of the HF welded joints.
Top: stainless steels 304 and 409. Bottom: carbon steels 1010 and 4130.
In the case of the 304 austenitic stainless steel the hardness values do not show
increase in the bondline area, compared to the base metal. For the 409 stainless
steel some hardness increase can be measured in the bondline are and the
surrounding heat affected zone, due to grain coarsening. In the cases of the carbon
steels both welds showed hardness increase in the heat affected zones. For the
grade 4130 the martensitic microstructure resulted in ~ 750 HV 0.05 around the
bondline. In the hardness profiles of the 1010 and 4130 grade welds the slight drop
confirms the delta ferrite formation in the microstructure, as seen in Figure 10.
DISCUSSION
Based on the HF/ERW process description and flaw formation, we can definitely
say about what bondlines are not:
- They are not chemical segregations – there is no evidence of difference in

chemical composition in sound bondlines, even when Wavelength
Dispersive Spectrum analysis is used. They can also be totally dissolved by
normalizing (seam anneal) during PWHT.
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- They are not decarburized regions of the weld, somehow not ejected and
entrapped from the abutting edges. One clear proof is that bondlines can be
reproduced by simulative heating and forging of solid bars.
- They are not weld flaws, only exhibit different microstructures and
properties from the surrounding weld zone
- They are not the microstructural feature which determines the weld final
properties (hardness, toughness) and did not initiate any brittle fractures,
to our knowledge.
On the other hand, we can say with certainty what bondlines are:
- They are the products of the deformation occurring at area in the weld
experiencing the highest temperature and deformation rate.
- Their microstructure is representative of the elevated temperature

allotropic phase (delta ferrite) of iron but can form bainite and untampered
martensite in some hardenable steels.
- They etch differently from the weld metal and can have different grain size
from the surrounding metal, depending on alloy composition and
deformation rate (coarser, sometimes finer). They can also have higher or
lower hardness, depending on the steel composition;
- Their width typically varies between 30-60 microns and their geometry does
not follow the weld TMPZ width variations or hourglass shape. This fact
implies that they are less affected by cooling rates (dT/dt), but temperature
gradients (dT/dx) instead.
Phenomenological Discussion: Heat Generation and Heat Dissipation in HF

welding
In order to explain the statements regarding cooling rates and temperature

gradients, a phenomenological explanation of the HF/ERW process is needed.
Equations 1-5 described mostly the heat generation mechanism, and the Vee
length, Vee time and the skin (electrical reference) depth were explained.
However, after passing the weld rolls where forging (sqeezout) takes place, the
thermal energy is dissipated first in the latent heat of fusion at the interface, then
conducted and radiated away from the weld center, the hottest region of the weld.
The resultant metal volume melting and plastic deformation can be equated with
the cross sectional area of the weld at any random location. Therefore, the TMPZ
width and the squeeze-out flash area have been extensively studied over the years
using weld transverse cross sections.
29
Regarding cooling rate and temperature gradient effects on the TMPZ width, the
sketches shown next might help in our explanation. Figure 35 shows the
temperature distribution on the left and the forging cycle consequence on the right
for the same temperature gradient, but different cooling rates, it can be seen that
the weld TMPZ will be narrower at low heat input.
Figure 35. The effect of the cooling rate on the TMPZ width (effect of heat input).
The bondline width will somewhat follow this trend within the 20-60 microns
range.
On the other hand, for the same heat input, the steeper temperature gradient will
cause a narrower TMPZ, Figure 36.
Figure 36. Temperature gradient (frequency effects) for the same heat input.
Again, bondline widths will somewhat follow the same trends within the 20-60
microns range, but insufficient squeezout can cause increases of up to 200 microns
(not a good thing).
Unfortunately, the two effects shown in Figure 36 are difficult to separate in real
HF welds and could only be demonstrated via physical simulations.
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One indirect support of the above explanation can be found in the work by Han et
al (Ref. 11) where the mechanical effects of the high temperature deformation are
totally ignored, as they did not see any bondlines in their models and experiments.
Instead, they found the through-thickness temperature gradient dT/dy has to be
minimized to avoid the hourglass shape TMPZ, which is a correct conclusion in
our opinion.
The ultimate synergistic effect of the above variables on the final bondline and
weld quality can’t be simply put in an analytical form. What seems to be certain
is that:
1. The bondline width is slightly dependent on- and increases with- heat input
and it decreased with increased frequency. Most importantly, its width is
defined by the mechanical cycle (squeezout rate).
2. For the best case scenario: using low heat inputs and high frequencies (i.e.
high cooling rates and steep temperature gradients), the TMPZ width
decreases and the bondline can even disappear if the resulting squeezout
rate causes dynamic recrystallization DRX.
Ultimately, the bondline uniformity, shape and orientation should be carefully

monitored during welder setup runs in order to avoid defects in the ERW welds.
Otherwise, they are of no consequence on the final performance of the welds.
CONCLUSIONS
The HF (ERW) weld bondlines were characterized using production mill data,
failure analysis and physical simulations, and the following conclusions were
drawn:
1. The ERW bondline is a metallurgical heterogeneity caused by weld

centerline non-equilibrium phase transformations during cooling. There
were no chemical segregations present anywhere in a sound bondline, only
different allotrophic phases and/or precipitates.
2. The bondline microstructure was mainly delta ferrite in austenitic and

martensitic stainless steels. In low carbon steels, delta ferrite was also the
main bondline constituent, while bainite and untempered martensite were
found in medium alloyed steel bondlines.
3. The bondline grain size varied with the peak temperature, temperature
gradient and deformation rate and is generally coarser than the base
metals’, but sometimes is dominated by finer, dynamically recrystallized
grains. The PWHT typically coarsens these grains and reduce the weld
strength, while improving toughness.
31
4. The bondline hardness reflected the above microstructural differences,

being somewhat softer that the weld TMPZ when delta ferrite is present
and harder that the TMPZ for most other cases when bainite and
martensite are present in the bondline.
5. The bondline width was usually very narrow, usually in the 20-60 microns
range, its properties do not generally govern the behavior of the entire ERW
weld. If perfect squeezout was accomplished, no bondline was present, while
when the bondline width approached 200 microns, flaws began to appear
because of incomplete squeezout.
6. The bondline uniformity, shape and orientation can be used as a good

predictor of the weld quality elsewhere along the weld seam.
7. A sound bondline should never be considered a discontinuity and its

presence is inconsequential on the weld service performance.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors are grateful to Thermatool Corporation for providing historical data
on HF/ERW welds going back for decades of failure analysis, production mill data
and internal developments. We are also thankful for discussions and important
insight given during the preparation of the manuscript by Dr. Leijun Li from the
University of Alberta, Canada.
REFERENCES
1. American Welding Society 1980. Welding Handbook Resistance and Solid-

State Welding and Other Joining Processes, Seventh Ed.
2. Shull, P. J., 2001. Nondestructive Evaluation Theory, Techniques, and

Applications, Marcel Dekker.
3. Swenson, J., Adonyi, Y., Warke, R.W. 2008. Deformation Effects During
Variable High Frequency Welding of Steels. Proceedings of the 8th
International Conference on Trends in Welding Research, Calloway
Gardens, GA
4. Baumer, R., Adonyi, Y., 2009. Transient High Frequency Welding

Simulations of Dual Phase Steels, Welding Journal 88(10): 192-s to 201-s,
https://app.aws.org/wj/supplement/wj1009-193.pdf
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5. Yan,P, Gungor, O.E, Thibaux, P., Liebeherr, M., Bhadeshia, H.K.D.H,.

2011. Tackling the toughness of steel pipes produced by high frequency
welding and heat treatment. Materials Science and Engineering A 528(29-
30) 8492-8499, Elsevier, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2011.07.034
6. Park, G., Kim, B., Kang, Y., Kang, H., Lee, C. 2016. Characterization of
bond line discontinuities in high Mn TWIP steel pipe welded by HF-ERW.
Materials Characterization 118 (August 2016) 14-21 Elsevier,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matchar.2016.05.005
7. Chanchun, Y. 1996. Metallographic examination evaluation criteria and

control for ERW pipe production. Tube International 15(2): 153-155
8. Tian, P., Xu, K., Lu, G., Quia, G, Xiao, F. 2018. Low-Cycle fatigue properties
of the X70 high-frequency Electric-resistant welded pipes. Advances in
Materials Science and Engineering, Volume 2018, ID 2358038,
https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/2358038.
9. Khakaj, G., Pouraliakbar, H., Jandaghi, M.R. 2017. Microalloyed steel

welds by HF-ERW technique: Novel PWHT cycles, microstructure evolution
and mechanical property enhancement. International Journal of Pressure
Vessels and Piping, 152 (May 2017), pp. 15-26,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpvp.2017.04.003
10. Kannan, R., L. Li, Gui, N., Anderson, M. Rashid, L. Collins, L, Arafin, M:
2020, Bond Formation Mechanism for Resistance Welding of X70 Pipeline
Steels. Welding Journal Vol. 99, Aug. 2020, Research Supplement pp. 210s-
223s, https://doi.org/10.29391/2020.99.020.https://s3.amazonaws.com/WJ-
www.aws.org/supplement/2020.99.020.pdf
11. Han, Y., Yu, E.L. 2012. Numerical Analysis of High-Frequency Induction
Welded Pipe. Welding Journal October, Vol.91, Research Supplement pp.
271s-277s
12. Battelle 2012. Battelle’s Experience with ERW and Flash Weld Seam
Failures: Causes and Implications, Contract No. DTPH56-11-T-000003
Battelle Project No. G006084
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Bondline Characterization in High Frequency Welding of Steels

Preprint · December 2020

Balázs Varbai Yoni Adonyi

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Bondline Characterization in High Frequency

High Frequency Resistance Welding (HFRW), a.k.a. Electric Resistance Welding

Our paper discusses the characteristics of the centerline metallographic feature

HF/ERW Welding Process Background and Fundamentals

Understanding bondlines requires a detailed explanation of High Frequency

Figure 1. Schematic of the HFRW/ERW process (redrawn based on the AWS

Important to understanding the welding process fundamentals are two electrical

Where: d - AC current penetration depth, mm

Where: Q – heat generated (stored) in the Vee, (J)

The second electrical phenomenon governing HF welding is the proximity effect,

Where: Q – heat generated (stored) in the Vee, (J)

Overall, the above description of electrical and thermal phenomena involved in

The impeder is a water-cooled material with high magnetic permeability inserted

Typical HFR Weld Flaws - Welding Process Parameters and Stability

The previous discussion on HF welding stability was related to equipment and

Figure 3. Typical centerline oxide inclusions, also known as a ‘penetrator’.

Figure 6. Nonmetallic segregations, chemical banding and inclusions from the

Bondlines: Terminology, Shape, Morphology, Orientation, Microstructure, and

Other researchers focused more on the microstructure, hardness and toughness of

Figure 9. Hardness mapping at 80 microns spacing, 0.5 kg load, showing lower

A thorough analysis of 286 welded pipe failures manufactured between 1940-2000

Critical review of an extensive weld databases was made possible by Thermatool

Experimental work performed at LeTourneau University, Longview, TX was

Metallography and hardness testing, as well as X ray diffraction and Electron

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Production ERW Weld Data Analysis

Figure 13. Untempered martensite end excessive hardness in the HF weld of an

4130 Steel Tubular, 9 mm wall

Geometrical Characteristics of Bondlines

industrial standards and technical reports focus at length on these geometrical

Deviations From Parallelism and Perpendicularity

Figure 17. Typical grain coarsening in the bondline in a slighly assymetrical HF

Figure 20. Compressive high temperature loading at 15 mm/sec/sec deformation

Xray Diffraction and EBSD Analysis Results

Typical Grain Size and Hardness at the Bondline

Figure 24. Weld bondline, 1,000 X 4130

Figure 25. 4130 Transition

Figure 26. 4130 base metal

Figure 27 Weld bondline, 4130, 1000X mag.

Figure 29. Linescan across the 4130 bondline, showing no compositional

Figure 32. Delta Ferrite, bondline center highlighted, 304 stainless

Steel Base Metal Bondline Average Notes

A 304 26.0 11.0 270 HV 0.01 Ferrite grains size

The results of the hardness measurements can be seen in Figure 34.

- They are not chemical segregations – there is no evidence of difference in

- Their microstructure is representative of the elevated temperature

Phenomenological Discussion: Heat Generation and Heat Dissipation in HF

In order to explain the statements regarding cooling rates and temperature

Ultimately, the bondline uniformity, shape and orientation should be carefully

1. The ERW bondline is a metallurgical heterogeneity caused by weld

2. The bondline microstructure was mainly delta ferrite in austenitic and

4. The bondline hardness reflected the above microstructural differences,

6. The bondline uniformity, shape and orientation can be used as a good

7. A sound bondline should never be considered a discontinuity and its

1. American Welding Society 1980. Welding Handbook Resistance and Solid-

2. Shull, P. J., 2001. Nondestructive Evaluation Theory, Techniques, and