CSC 105

LECTURER: DR. B. J. FAWEI

Material
aterial Complied by:
Manager Lucky E.
09068783837
 ASSESSMENT

Examination (70%)

o Hand written examination

o Examination 2 hours

o To answer 4 questions

Continuous Assessment (30%)

o Attendance

o An individual written report

o Test
 ABOUT THE COURSE

Recommended readings:

Mano, M. M. (2007) Computer System Architecture 3rd Edition; Prentice Hall.

Govindarajalu, B. (2010). Computer Architecture and Organization, 2E. Tata McGraw-Hill

Education.

Tocci, R. J. and Widmer, N. S. (2018). Digital systems: principles and applications. Prentice

Hall.
WHAT IS COMPUTER?

Computer is an electronic machine that accepts input data, processes the data, creates output
data.

DIGITAL COMPUTER

A digital computer is an electronic machine that is capable of solving problems by processing

data in discrete form. Digital means that information in the computer is represented in variables
that take a given number of discrete values.

Digital computer processes data such as numbers, letters, symbols and so on expressed in binary
form. Digital computers uses the binary number system Binary number system has two digits 0
and 1 A binary digit is called a bit. Early digital computers were used for numerical
computations.

An information is represented in groups of bits in digital computers Different coding techniques

are applied to represent data such as: Numbers, Letters, and Symbols Instruction set for various
control operations For example: Given the binary number 1001011 Convert to base 10 numbers:
75 In binary code 1001011 is equivalent the letter K It can represent control code specifying
some decision logic

Turing model

Turing introduced the programmable data processing machine

A program is a set of instructions that tells the computer what to do with the data

Example
Computers built based on Turing model stores data

Von Neumann model

SUBSYSTEMS

Memory: The memory store both programs and data during processing.

Arithmetic logic unit: Both calculation and logic operations are done here.

Control unit: Controls all the operations in the ALU, memory and input/output units

Input unit: It accepts all the input data and programs from outside the computer

Output unit: It sends all results from processing to the outside world

LOGIC GATES

All circuits in digital computers consist of a set of interconnected primitive elements called
gates.

GATES

Describes a two-state device (open and close) Contains one or more input terminals and an
output terminal
FUNDAMENTAL GATES

AND, OR, NOT NAND, NOR, Exclusive OR (XOR) and Exclusive NOR

TRUTH TABLE

Truth table is a way of showing how logic circuit’s output depends on logic levels present at the
circuit’s inputs The table outlines all possible combinations of logic levels present Both at inputs
A and B With the corresponding output x

For example:

Functions in truth table are represented with where n is number of binary variables

NOT Gate and Truth table

AND Gate and Truth table

OR Gate and Truth table

NAND Gate and Truth table

NOR Gate and Truth table

Exclusive OR (XOR) Gate and Truth table

Exclusive NOR Gate and Truth table

BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

Boolean algebra is the algebra that deals with binary variables and logic operations. Variables
are represented with alphabets e.g. Boolean function can be expressed algebraically with:

Binary variables
Logic operation symbols
Parenthesis
Equal sign

For Example A Boolean function is expressed as:

Transformation

A Boolean function can be transformed from an algebraic expression into logic diagram For
example: can be transformed to logic diagram as:
PURPOSE OF BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

• To facilitate the analysis and design of digital circuits

• It provides an easy way to express algebraic form to truth table

• It provides an easy to find simpler circuits for the same function

• It provides a convenient tool express algebraic form logic diagrams

BOOLEAN EXPRESSION

Boolean Expression can be manipulated by applying Boolean algebra rules to obtain a simpler
circuit For example: can be reduce to:

Basic identity laws:

2)

3)

4)

6)

7)

8)

9)

Example let from the identity law

Let From the identity law => =

 NUMBER SYSTEM

What is Number System?

A number system describes how a number can be expressed using distinct symbols A number
system can be represented differently in different system e.g. tally (5), binary (2), octal (8)

For example:

DECIMAL SYSTEM

Uses ten digits, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 Also called as base 10 number system

Our day-to-day used number system successive positions to the left of the decimal point
represent units, tens, hundreds, thousands, and so on.

For example, given the number 1234

• The number contains 4 digits

• It contains a unit position of 4

• A tens position of 3

• A hundred position of 2

• And a thousand position of 1

TH H T U

1 2 3 4

BINARY SYSTEM

Uses two digits, 0 and 1

It is also called base 2 number system

For Example:

Binary Number: 101012

Equivalent to

For example, convert to decimal

 OCTAL SYSTEM

Uses eight digits, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7

It is also called base 8 number system

For example:

Octal Number: 125708

Equivalent to

For example, convert to decimal

HEXADECIMAL SYSTEM

Uses 10 digits and 6 letters, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F

Letters represent the numbers starting from 10. A = 10. B = 11, C = 12, D = 13, E = 14, F = 15

Also called as base 16 number system

For example:

Hexadecimal Number: 1257A16

Equivalent to

For example, convert to decimal

NUMBER SYSTEM

Converting from decimal to binary

2 21 Reminder

2 10 1
2 5 0
2 2 1
2 1 0
2 0 1

Conversion from decimal to other number systems follow same pattern

You can try our example cases

 INTEGRATED CIRCUIT (IC)

ELECTRIC CURRENT

What is Electric Current?

Electric current is the movement of electrons carrying electric charge, Electrons are small atomic
particles surrounding the nucleus of an atom

What is electric current?

• Electric current is the movement of electrons carrying electric charge

• Electrons are small atomic particles surrounding the nucleus of an atom

• The movement of electrons carries charges from one location to another

• Electric current is measured in volts

• Electric current moves easily through conductor materials

• The movement of electric current is hindered or blocked by insulator materials

• The amount of resistance a material resist an electric current is call resistance

Conductor materials have low resistance to the flow of electric current

Insulator materials have extremely high resistance to the flow of electric current

• The higher the resistance the lesser the current that will flow

• The lower the resistance the higher the current that will flow

What are semiconductor materials?

Semiconductor is a material that acts as a conductor or as an insulator based on the conditions

For example Diodes and transistors are with semiconductor material

Semiconductor is a material that act as a conductor or as an insulator based on the

conditions
Semiconductor can be made more conductive by adding other impurity elements to it
Adding to some parts and not all enables IC fabrication

Semiconductor material with little or no impurity act as an insulator

There are a number of elements used to control current flow in Electronic circuits

Four elements most commonly used in ICs are resistors, capacitors, diodes and transistors
Resistor

Resistors provides a fixed amount of resistance to current flow in an electric circuit

• Resistors have a set value

• Resistors are useful in controlling voltage and current in your circuit

• Resistor colour codes

Capacitor

Capacitors store electric current and discharge somewhat similar to a battery

 The stored electrons are available for electronic components to use

Capacitance is measured in Farads

Small capacitors usually used in electronics are often measured in microfarads and
nanofarads

DIODE

Diodes allow current to flow in one direction but not in the opposite direction, a one way valve,
Diodes protects your electronics.

• Diodes has low resistance in one direction and high resistance in the other direction

• Diodes have a bar on the cathode (negative) side

Transistor

• Transistors provide two major modes of action

Switch turning current flow on and off

Act as an amplifier (input current to produce larger output current )

Integrated circuit

Integrated circuit is a collection of these components connected together as a circuit all formed
on the same substrate

• Integrated circuits are fabricated on small semiconductor chip

Integrated circuit

Integrated circuit is also called IC

Integrated circuit

• The various components are automatically connected in a small semiconductor chip

• Components cannot be removed or replaced

• The size is extremely small

• Connections can only be seen with microscope

None of the components project above the surface of the chip

Advantages

Increased reliability due to lesser number of connections

Extremely small due to fabrication

Lesser weight and space requirement due to miniaturized circuit

Low power requirements

Operate at extreme values of temperature

Low cost due to simultaneous production

Disadvantages

If any component is bad the whole IC need to be changed

Inductors and transformers cannot be fabricated into the surface of semiconductor

chip

Production of high power IC > 10w is not possible

Modification of parameters inside the IC is not possible

THERE ARE FOUR BASIC TYPES OF CONSTRUCTIONS EMPLOYED IN MAKING

INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

• Monolithic construction

• Thin-film Construction

• Thick-film construction

• Hybrid construction
INTEGRATED CIRCUIT CLASSIFICATION

Manufacturing IC

Starting substrate (silicon wafer)

Fabricate integrated circuits on the wafer

Test each integrated circuit and mark bad ICs

Assemble integrated circuits into packages

Mark and final test packaged product

Integrated circuit

Improvement in IC technology

Number of gates in a single chip increased considerably

Difference in the chips is made by a reference to the package

REFERENCE TO PACKAGE

• Small-scale integration (SSI)

• Medium-scale integration (MSI)

• Large-scale integration (LSI)

• Very-large-scale integration (VLSI)

SSI

Contains several independent gate in a single package

• Inputs and outputs of the gates are connected directly to the pins in the package

• Number of gates are usually < 10

• Limited by the number of pins available in the IC

MSI

• MSI have a complexity of approximately 10 to 200 gates in a single package

• MSI usually perform specific elementary digital functions

For example:

• Decoders

• Adders

• Registers

LSI

• LSI contains a complexity of approximately between 200 and a few thousand gates in a
single package

LSI include digital systems such as:

• Processors

• Memory chips

• Programmable modules

VLSI

MSI contains a complexity of thousands of gates within a single package

For example:

• Large memory arrays

• Complex microcomputer chips

Due to the small size and low cost, VLSI have change the computer systems design technology

Designers can create diverse of structures which were previously not economical

INTEGRATED CIRCUIT

ICs can also be classified based on circuit technology as:

• Transistor-transistor logic (TTL)

• Emitter-coupled logic (ECL)

• Metal-oxide semiconductor (MOS)

• Complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS)

Circuit technology is referred to as a digital logic family, Each family has its own basic
electronic circuit, Basic circuit is either NAND, NOR or an inverter gate
 COMPUTER PERIPHERALS

Computer system

The system unit houses the following devices which are attached to the motherboard along with
disk drives, a fan or fans to keep it cool, and the power supply

central processing unit,

memory modules,

expansion slots,

electronic circuitry

expansion cards

COMPUTER PERIPHERALS

Computer peripherals are devices for input/output and storage, Computer peripherals provide a
means of communication between the computer and outer the world, Computer peripherals
provide an interface for the user to interact with the computer

Computer peripherals used to enter data and instructions into the computer are known as “Input
devices” They are electromechanical devices, they translate input data in the form that computer
can interpret
Most common input device:

Keyboard

Mouse

Joystick

scanner

Computer peripherals that accept or store results for further processing are known as “output
devices”

Most common output device:

Monitor

Printer

plotter

Computer peripherals use the coding scheme such as ASCII, EBCDIC, and Unicode to interact
with the computer

For example

When a is pressed on the Keyboard

The electronic signal is converted to binary form

Computer process it as byte of information

Computer keyboard

Keyboard most popularly and widely used input device for entering data and instruction into the
computer system.

It is similar to a typewriter
It contains a set key switches
A serial keyboard sends data bit by bit
A parallel keyboard sends data in parallel form
TYPE OF KEYS:

Function keys: used to enter frequently used operations in a single stroke

Numeric keys: used to enter numeric data (0-9) in to the computer

Alphanumeric key: used for entering alphabets (a-z and A-Z) in to the computer

Cursor control keys: used to select displayed object or co-ordinate positions by

positioning the cursor on the screen

Three types of computer keyboards

The original PC keyboard with 84 keys

AT keyboard with 84 keys

Enhanced keyboard with 101 keys

Keys placement in them differs

Computer mouse

Mouse is a pointing device used to position the cursor on the screen

It is a small hand held box

It has three buttons on its top for indicating the execution of some operations
For example, recording cursor position or invoking a function
It is rolled along a flat surface
Computer printer

The printer provides information in permanent readable form.

Printers are of the following categories

Daisy wheel printer

Has a plastic or metal wheel on which the shape of each character stands out in relief , It contains
a hammer presses the wheel against a ribbon

Dot-matrix

Create characters by striking pins against an ink ribbon , Each pin makes a dot

A combination of dots form characters and illustration

Ink-jet

It sprays ink at a sheet of paper

It produces high-quality text and graphics

Line printer

Contains a chain of characters or pins that print an entire line at a time. They are very fast but
produce low quality print

Thermal printers

Inexpensive and works by pushing heated pins against heat sensitive paper. They are widely used
in calculators and fax machines

Characters of printers

Speed: The speed of a printer is measured in:

Characters Per Second (CPS)

Lines Per Minute (LPM)

 Pages Per Minute (PPM)

The faster the printing, the more expensive the printer.

Resolution: A more numerical measure of print quality is printer resolution.

Resolution is measured in dots per inch (dpi)

Cable connection

Serial Cables- send data only 1 bit at a time- Distance from PC 1000 ft

Parallel Cables- send data 8 bits at a time. Distance from PC 50 ft. - Most popular USB cable
which has a maximum data transfer speed of 12 megabits/s (1.5 MBYTES/s).
Computer motherboard

Motherboard

Main circuit board of a computer.

It contains:

Central processing unit (CPU)

Basic Input/Output System (BIOS)

Memory,

Mass storage interfaces

serial and parallel ports

expansion slots

All the controllers for standard peripheral devices like the keyboard, disk drive
and display screen.

The chipset and other motherboard circuitry are the "smarts" of the motherboard. Their
job is to direct traffic and control the flow of information inside the computer.
 The chipset is a critical part of any computer, because it plays a big role in determining
what sorts of features the computer can support.

BIOS means Basic Input / Output System

BIOS are the lowest-level software in the computer, They acts as an interface between the
hardware (especially the chipset and processor) and the operating system.

BIOS provide access to the system hardware and enable the creation of the higher-level
operating systems that you use to run your applications.

BIOS allows

You to control computer's hardware settings

Booting up the machine when powered on

Various other system functions.