Digital Electronics

Analog electronics deals with analog signals and digital electronics

deals with digital signals.
Analog signals are those which can take a range of values. Values of
analog signals are found to change with time. Physical quantities such as
pressure, velocity, sound, current flow are examples of analog signals.
On the other hand, digital signals do not vary with time but take a
definite value at any given instant of time.
Analog circuits are usually much more susceptible to noise (small,
undesired variations in voltage). Small changes in the voltage level of an
analog signal may produce significant errors when being processed.
Digital circuits usually use a binary scheme for digital signaling. These
systems assign two different voltages as two different logic levels -- a high
voltage (usually 5V) represents one value and a low voltage (usually 0V)
represents the other.
Digital techniques and systems have the advantages of being relatively
much easier to design and having higher accuracy, programmability,
noise immunity, easier storage of data and ease of fabrication in
integrated circuit form, leading to availability of more complex
functions in a smaller size.
The real world, however, is analogue. Most physical quantities –
position, velocity, acceleration, force, pressure, temperature for
example – are analogue in nature. That is why analogue variables
representing these quantities need to be digitized at the input if we
want to benefit from the features and facilities that come with the use
of digital techniques.
Introduction to Number Systems
• Mathematical computations have been performed using decimal
numbers 0–9 for ages. ( Decimal number system has base 10)
• Computers cannot operate 10 digits as its processor’s circuitry has
millions of tiny switches that have to be either turned ON or OFF.
• It works only in two states: when the switch is in ON state its input is 1
and when the switch is in OFF state it is 0. These digits (0 and 1) are
called bits and correspond to the OFF/ON positions of the switches in
the computer processor. Thus, two digits match up to the ten digits to
perform all mathematical operations. Therefore, to understand the
language of computers, it is essential to study the binary number
system.
NUMBER SYSTEMS
1. Decimal (base 10)
2. Binary (base 2)
3. Octal (Base 8)
4. Hexadecimal (Base 16)
• The octal number system is a base-8 number system and uses the
digits 0–7 to represent numbers.
• Binary numbers are often expressed as long chains of 0s and 1s. These
strings of binary number sometimes confuse and was the biggest
drawback of using the binary numbering system. Hence, to reduce the
confusion, the hexadecimal or base-16, numbering system was used
as an easier substitute to display the binary numbers.
• In hexadecimal system, there are six more symbols to take us beyond
0–9. These are A = 10, B = 11, C = 12, D = 13, E = 14, F = 15.
Some important terms in BINARY
BIT: Bit is an abbreviation of the term ‘binary digit’ and is the smallest
unit of information. It is either ‘0’ or ‘1’.
BYTE: A byte is a string of eight bits.
NIBBLE : A Nibble is a string of four bits.
Binary to Decimal Conversion
1. Convert (11)2 to decimal equivalent.
1 × 21 + 1 × 20 = 310

2. Convert (11101)2 to decimal.

3. Convert 0.11 into decimal.

 
4. Find the decimal equivalent of the binary number (1001.0101)2

(The integer part= 1001

The decimal equivalent= 1 × 20+ 0 × 21+ 0 × 22+ 1 × 23= 1+ 0+ 0+ 8= 9)
(The fractional part= .0101
the decimal equivalent= 0 × 2−1+ 1× 2−2+ 0 × 2−3+ 1 × 2−4= 0+ 0.25+ 0 +
0.0625= 0.3125)
Therefore, the decimal equivalent of (1001.0101)2= 9.3125
Decimal to Binary Conversion
1. Convert 21 into its binary equivalent.
2. Convert 275 into its binary equivalent.

The binary number of 27510 = 1000100112

3. find the binary equivalent of (13.375)10.
Solution:
The integer part= 13
The binary equivalent of (13)10 is (1101)2
The fractional part= .375
0.375× 2= 0.75 with a carry of 0
0.75× 2= 0.5 with a carry of 1
0.5× 2= 0 with a carry of 1
The binary equivalent of (0.375)10= (.011)2
Therefore, the binary equivalent of (13.375)10= (1101.011)2
OCTAL-TO-DECIMAL CONVERSION
The decimal equivalent of the octal number (137.21)8 is determined as
follows:
The integer part= 137
The decimal equivalent= 7 × 80+ 3 × 81+ 1 × 82= 7 + 24 + 64= 95
The fractional part= .21
The decimal equivalent= 2 × 8−1 + 1× 8−2= 0.265
Therefore, the decimal equivalent of (137.21)8= (95.265)10
Decimal to Octal
Conversion of decimal numbers to octal numbers is obtained by dividing a
given decimal number repeatedly by 8. The resulting remainders give the
octal number.
EX: Convert 165410 to octal form.

Answer: 3170
To cross verify = 3170 = 3 × 512 + 1 × 64 + 7 × 8 + 0 = 1656
EX 2: We will find the octal equivalent of (73.75)10
The integer part= 73

The octal equivalent of (73)10= (111)8

The fractional part= 0.75
0.75× 8= 0 with a carry of 6
The octal equivalent of (0.75)10= (.6)8
Therefore, the octal equivalent of (73.75)10= (111.6)8
Binary to Octal
The binary to octal conversion is much simpler. The given binary
number is divided into groups of three starting from the least
significant bit. The value of each group is given as the digit of the octal
number.
Ex: Convert 1010100112 into octal form.

Answer: 1010100112 = 5238
Octal to Binary
The same technique employed previously is followed for converting
octal to binary conversion. For every digit in the octal number, its 3-bit
equivalent binary number is provided.
Ex: Convert 73558 to binary form.

Answer: 73558 = 1110111011012
Decimal to Hexadecimal
Conversion of decimal numbers to hexadecimal numbers follows the
same division or remainder technique. Here, the decimal number is
divided by 16 and the remainder gives the desired hexadecimal output.
EX: Convert 453 to hexadecimal.

Answer: 45310 = 1C516
EX 2: Let us determine the hexadecimal equivalent of (82.25)10
The integer part= 82

The hexadecimal equivalent of (82)10= (52)16

The fractional part= 0.25
0.25× 16= 0 with a carry of 4
Therefore, the hexadecimal equivalent of (82.25)10= (52.4)16
Hexadecimal to Decimal
The same procedure followed for converting binary to decimal is used
in converting hexadecimal to decimal. The hexadecimal number is
multiplied by powers of 16 according to the position.
EX: Convert hex 3E7 into its decimal equivalent.
EX: 2
The decimal equivalent of the hexadecimal number (1E0.2A)16 is
determined as follows:
The integer part= 1E0
The decimal equivalent= 0 × 160 + 14 × 161 + 1 × 162= 0 + 224 + 256=
480
The fractional part= 2A
The decimal equivalent= 2 × 16−1 + 10 × 16−2= 0.164
Therefore, the decimal equivalent of (1E0.2A)16= (480.164)10
Binary to Hexadecimal
The binary to hexadecimal is the simplest of all conversions. This is
performed by grouping the given binary number in groups of four from
right to left (LSB to MSB). They are replaced by its hexadecimal
equivalent. The reverse process is used for converting hexadecimal to
binary.
Ex: Convert 11000101 to hexadecimal.

Therefore, (11000101)2 = C516

EX 2: hex equivalent of (1011001110.011011101)2.
The hex equivalent= (0010 1100 1110.0110 1110 1000)2= (2CE.6E8)16
HEX to BINARY
Let us find the binary equivalent of (17E.F6)16 
The given hex number = (17E.F6)16
The binary equivalent = (0001 0111 1110.1111 0110)2
= (101111110.1111011)2
The 0s on the extreme left of the integer part and on the extreme right
of the fractional part have been omitted.