Chapter 1 notes

Monday, May 1, 2023 10:34 PM

1. Abnormal Psychology: is concerned with understanding the nature, causes, and

treatment of mental disorders.
2. Family aggregation: disorders run in a family

1.1.1: Indicators of abnormality

- Definition of mental disorders present many challenges - bc no one behaviour
makes someone abnormal, instead some clear elements indicate abnormality

1. Subjective distress: people diagnosed with different mental illness might or might
not have distress. It is neither a sufficient condition nor a necessary condition for
us to consider something as abnormal.
a. Sufficient condition = all that is needed
b. Necessary condition = a feature that all cases of abnormality must show
2. Maladaptiveness （适应不良）: maladaptive behaviour interferes with our well-
being and with our ability to enjoy our work and our relationship
a. not all disorders involve maladaptive behaviour
b. Ex. Anorexia (eating disorder), depression vs antisocial personality disorder
3. Statistical deviancy: statistically rare behaviour does not mean abnormal,
statistical common does not mean normal
a. Ex. Genius
b. Statistical rare and undesirable (intellectual functioning): abnormal
c. Statistical rare and desirable (genius): good
4. Violation of the standards of society
a. When people fail to follow the conventional social and moral rules of their
cultural group, we may consider their behaviour abnormal.
b. Magnitude of violation and how commonly the rule is violated by others
matter: Magnitude + statistical rare/common
5. Social discomfort
a. Violation of implicit social rule = potential way that we recognize
abnormality (depends on circumstances)
6. Irrationality and unpredictability:
a. Unpredicted behaviour might be considered abnormal
b. Irrational behavior considered abnormal
c. *our evaluation of whether the person can control his or her behaviour
7. Dangerousness
a. Someone dangerous to himself or others may be abnormal
 6. Irrationality and unpredictability:
a. Unpredicted behaviour might be considered abnormal
b. Irrational behavior considered abnormal
c. *our evaluation of whether the person can control his or her behaviour
7. Dangerousness
a. Someone dangerous to himself or others may be abnormal
b. However, depends on context
Decisions about abnormal behaviour always involve social judgements and are based on
the values and expectations of society at large. Social norms are also shifting, abnormal
behaviour in one decade may not be deviant in another.

1.1.2: The DSM-5 and the definition of Mental Disorder

- DSM stands for Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
- Revolution of DSM has the goal of maintaining continuity as well as being guided
by new research.
○ However, there was no constraints should be placed on the level of change
that could be made.

Purpose of DSM
1. Provides all information necessary to diagnostic criteria
2. Provides a common language to clinicians
3. Provides descriptive information about the type and number of symptoms
needed for each diagnosis to ensure accuracy and consistency(reliability)
4. (but DSM does not include treatment)

- A mental disorder is defined as a syndrome in an individual and involves clinically

significant disturbance in behavior. Always associated with significant distress or
disability in key areas of functioning. P.s. predictable or culturally approved
responses to stressors or losses are excluded from mental disorders.
- Disorder must not stem from social deviance or conflicts that the person has with
society as a whole.

1.2 Classification and Diagnosis

- Why do we need to define abnormality?
○ Science rely on classification - classification systems provide us with a
nomenclature (a formalized naming system) - provides a common
language and shorthand terms for complex clinical conditions. → facilitate
communication
○ Structure information: classification systems shape the way information is
organized. Disorders that share common features are put together. (such as
panic disorder, specific phobia, and agoraphobia)
§ Classification facilitates research.
§ Classification of mental disorders has social and political implications:
defining the domain of what is considered to be pathological
 ○ Structure information: classification systems shape the way information is
organized. Disorders that share common features are put together. (such as
panic disorder, specific phobia, and agoraphobia)
§ Classification facilitates research.
§ Classification of mental disorders has social and political implications:
defining the domain of what is considered to be pathological
establishes the range of problems that the mental health profession
can address. --- delineates the extent of reimbursement.
- Disadvantages of classification
○ Shorthand leads to a loss of information
○ Stigma = barrier to seeking treatment for mental health problems
§ Greater barrier for military personnel and mental health
professionals.
§ More result from disturbed behavior
○ Stereotype
§ Culturally based negative stereotype associated with mental diseases.
(Maniac in horror movies)
§ We automatically infer these negative stereotype to people who have
mental diseases.
○ Labeling
§ A person's self-concept may be directly affected by being given a
diagnosis of menta disease.
§ Label sticks, even after recovery
§ Classification systems do not classify people, they classify disorders
that people have
- How can we reduce prejudicial attitudes toward people who are mentally ill?
○ Arthur et al.
§ Residents in Jamaica, ask their attitudes towards mentally ill people -
treat them bad
§ Conclusion: stereotyping, labeling, and stigma toward people with
mental illness are not restricted to industrialized countries.
○ Pescosolido et al.
§ Presents vignette (brief description) about people with mental illness,
no labels used.
§ Conclusion: people understanding that mental illness is caused by
problems in the brain doesn't mean that they are any less prejudiced
toward those with mental illness.
○ Graves et al.
§ Measure students' psychophysiological reactivity when viewing slides
of patients
§ Conclusion: stigma does seem to be reduced by having more contact
with people in the stigmatized group, but barriers exist; people have
more psychophysiological reactivity to slides of the patients reported
higher levels of stigma toward these patients; people tend to avoid
 § Measure students' psychophysiological reactivity when viewing slides
of patients
§ Conclusion: stigma does seem to be reduced by having more contact
with people in the stigmatized group, but barriers exist; people have
more psychophysiological reactivity to slides of the patients reported
higher levels of stigma toward these patients; people tend to avoid
those with mental illness because the psychophysiological arousal
these encounters create is experienced as unpleasant.

1.3 Explain how culture affects what is considered abnormal, and

describe two different culture-specific disorders
- In the languages of certain Native Americans, Alaska Natives, and Southeast Asian
cultures, there is no word for "depressed"
○ The way some disorders present themselves may depend on culturally
sanctioned ways of articulating distress.
- Culture can shape the clinical presentation of disorders
○ In China, individuals with depression frequently focus on physical concerns
rather than verbalizing their feelings of melancholy or hopelessness.
- Some types of psychopathology appear to be highly culture specific
○ Taijin kyofusho （对人恐惧症）: Japenses anxiety disorder, the fear that
one's body, body parts, or body functions may offend, embarrass or make
others uncomfortable.
○ "Attack of Nerves": Latino descent, a clinical syndrome that does not seem
to correspond to any specific diagnosis within the DSM. -- when
experiencing a stressful event, patients have a sense of being out of control,
may be aggressive, or faint or experience a seizure-like fit.
- Some behaviors are only normal to certain cultures, yet, certain actions and
behaviors are almost universally considered to be the product of mental disorder.

1.4 Distinguish between incidence and prevalence, and identify the

most common and prevalent mental disorders.
1.4.1: Prevalence and Incidence
- Epidemiology: the study of the distribution of diseases, disorders, or health-
related behaviors in a given population.
○ In mental health epidemiology, determining the frequencies of mental
disorders is vital
- Prevalence: the number of active cases in a population during any given period of
time. (expressed as percentages)
○ Point prevalence: the estimated proportion of actual, active cases of a
disorder in a given population at a given point in time.
○ 1-year prevalence: active cases of a disorder in a given population at any
point in time throughout the entire year.
○ Lifetime prevalence: the portion of people of a given population who ever
 time. (expressed as percentages)
○ Point prevalence: the estimated proportion of actual, active cases of a
disorder in a given population at a given point in time.
○ 1-year prevalence: active cases of a disorder in a given population at any
point in time throughout the entire year.
○ Lifetime prevalence: the portion of people of a given population who ever
had a mental disorder in their lives up until the point of epidemiological
assessment,
- Incidence: the number of new cases that occur over a given period of time.
(typically 1 year)
○ Tend to be lower than prevalence figures bc they exclude pre-existing
cases.
1.4.2: Prevalence estimates for mental disorders.
- National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R)
○ Almost half of the Americans experience some kind of mental disorders in
lifetime.
○ Anxiety disorders is the most common
○ But duration of the disorder may be relatively brief.
○ Some are mild
○ But NCS-R data is old
○ Comorbidity
1.4.3: The Global Burden of Disease
- Mental and substance use disorders account for over 7 percent of the global
burden of disease > burden of disease caused by HIV/AIDS
- Mental disorders account for 184 million disability adjusted years of life
(DALYS) :These disorders result in the loss of 184 million years of otherwise
"healthy" life.
- Depression is the most prevalent
1.4.4: Treatment
- Not all people with psychological disorders receive treatment (stigma)
- Hospitalization and inpatient care are the preferred options for people who need
more intensive treatment
- Enormous decrease in inpatient beds.
- People with sever mental illness (with no financial resources and no health
insurance) find no treatment, will end up coming to the attention of law
enforcement personnel.

1.5 Discuss why abnormal psychology research can b3e conducted in

almost any setting
- We conduct research to learn about the symptoms of a disorder, its prevalence,
whether it tneds to be either acute (short in duration) or chronic (long in
duration)
- Research allows us to further understand the etiology (causes) of disorders.
almost any setting
- We conduct research to learn about the symptoms of a disorder, its prevalence,
whether it tneds to be either acute (short in duration) or chronic (long in
duration)
- Research allows us to further understand the etiology (causes) of disorders.
- We need research to provide the best care for the patients who are seeking
assistance with their difficulties.
- Research protects investigators from their own biases in perception and inference
(ex. Confirmation bias)
- Kazdin's quote: Research methodology is an approach toward problem solving,
thinking, and acquiring knowledge.

1.6 sources of information

1.6.1 Case studies
- Pros
○ Provides detailed information
○ Can describe new or rare clinical problems
○ Provides valuable source of new ideas
- Cons
○ Low generalizability
○ Potential for bias
○ Anecdotal and impressionistic
1.6.2 self-report data
- Questionnaire Design
○ Short
○ Easily understood
○ standardized
○ Avoid leading questions
§ Ex. Do you think teachers should be sympathetic to student's
problems?

- Questionnaire: strengths
 - Questionnaire: strengths
○ Large numbers : quick and cheap
○ Measurement
○ Reliability (can be repeated)
- Questionnaire: limitations
○ Lack of depth
○ Lack of flexibility
○ Lack of clarification - compromises validity
- Interviews strengths
○ Depth
○ Flexibility and clarification
○ More validity
- Interview limitations
○ Time and cost
○ Interpretation and selection: observer bias
○ Lack of reliability
- Self-report limitation
○ Memory is not reliable
○ Demand characteristics
○ Lack of ecological validity: cannot predict real life behavior
- Self-report summary
○ Know the methods
○ Evaluation
○ Selection
○ Limitations of all self-report methods
1.6.3 Observational Approaches
- Direct observation: directly observing the objects behaviors in a given situation
- Collect information about biological variables (heart rate,,,) using technology
- Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS): generating a magnetic field on the
surface of the head, stimulating underlying brain tissue. Can deactivate a part of
brain
Observing behavior refers to careful scrutiny of the conduct and manner of specific
individuals

1.7 Forming and testing hypotheses

- Hypothesis is an effort to explain, predict, or explore something
Our working hypotheses regarding the causes of different disorders very much
shape the approaches we use when we study and treat the disorders.
1.7 .1 Sampling and Generalization
1.7 Forming and testing hypotheses
- Hypothesis is an effort to explain, predict, or explore something
Our working hypotheses regarding the causes of different disorders very much
shape the approaches we use when we study and treat the disorders.
1.7 .1 Sampling and Generalization
- We want to study groups of individuals who have similar abnormalities of
behavior
○ Step 1 determine criteria (ex. Using DSM)
○ Step 2 find people who fit criteria, get a representative sample
○ Step 3 using techniques like random sampling to get better generalization
○ Online approaches has pros and cons
§ Simple, more data,
§ Not representative
1.7.2 Internal and External Validity
- External validity: the extent to which we can generalize our finding beyond the
study itself
- Internal validity: the degree to which research findings from a specific study can
be generalized to other samples, contexts, or times
○ Reflects how confident we can be in the results of a particular given study
1.7.3 Criterion and Comparison Groups
- Comparison group (control group): groups of subjects who do not exhibit the
disorder being studied but who are comparable in all other respects to the
criterion group. Also, a comparison group of subjects who do not receive a
condition or treatment the effects of which are being studied.
- Criterion group: group of subjects who exhibit the disorder under study

1.8 correlational research designs

- Correlational research: the study of two variables if they go together, without
manipulation
- Because we cannot create situation when studying mental disorder, we use
correlational research, comparing patients and normal people.
1.8.1: Measuring correlation
- Negative/positive correlation, r
1.8.2: Statistical Significance
- Statistical significance p<.05: the probability that the correlation would occur
purely by chance is less than 5 out of 100
- Factors affecting statistical significance: magnitude/size of the correlation, sample
size (>50)
1.8.3 Effect Size
- Effect size: to facilitate comparison of results across different studies, effect size
reflects the size of the association between two variables independent of the
sample size.
 size (>50)
1.8.3 Effect Size
- Effect size: to facilitate comparison of results across different studies, effect size
reflects the size of the association between two variables independent of the
sample size.
1.8.4: Meta-Analysis
- Statistical approach that calculates and then combines the effect sizes from all the
similar studies (data from each study will be turned into effect size metric)
1.8.6 retrospective vs prospective strategies
- Retrospective research: looking back in time
○ Try to collect information about how the patients behaved early in their
lives.
- Prospective research: looking ahead in time
○ Longitudinal design
○ Try to focus on people who have potential of developing disorders in the
future.
1.9 Experimental design
- Case research designs: the same individual is studied over time. Behavior or
performance at one point in time can then be compared to behavior or
performance at a later time.
- ABAB design: in case research design, ABAB is used: referring A phase, and B
treatment, and then A phase, and then B treatment.

- Analogue studies: we study not the true item of interest but an approximation to
it. (animal research)