The structure of Raga music

Author(s): Raja Ramanna

Source: Current Science , 10 May 1995, Vol. 68, No. 9 (10 May 1995), pp. 897-916
Published by: Current Science Association

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/24096755

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 GENERAL ARTICLES

The structure of Raga—Part

musicI. Swara and Tala
Raja Ramanna

While there is general awareness of the deep cultural

people must have the opportunity of acquiring a w
values of classical Karnatic music amongst the general
knowledge of the structure of the music, firs
understand
public, there is a lack of appreciation of its theory and it better, secondly to recognize freq
structure. It is the existence of structure which makes and rhythmic distortion and lastly to help in the d
music classical, logical and a part of philosophy. ment
All of new ideas. The need to understand the
this gives it a permanence and scope for development
of ornamentation (Gamakas), which is a special
and makes it survive through the ages. sion of Karnatic music, requires a finely train
Though the structure of Raga music has had a long
Unfortunately, the improvisatory nature of orname
period of development and has been stabilized over makes
the the writing of this aspect of music difficult
centuries (Appendix 1), recent developments in science
it can be put on paper once the notation is pro
and technology and the influence of other cultures have
correlated with actual performance.
had an impact, which makes the study of structures
essential for satisfactory performance, interpretation Swaras
and
appreciation. Political and economic developments have
also changed the nature of the audience and music has
The Sama Veda, which is dated to earlier than 1500
become a people's art. Gone are the days of Maharajas
bc, has the statement that a Raga has at most only
and Zamindars, who in the past supported the develop
seven Swaras or notes in an octave. In principle, an
ment of the arts in a profound way. Temple musical
octave can be divided into any number of parts, but
culture continues to help in the preservation of music,
musical value of a Raga restricts these to a maximum
particularly in the great dance forms like Bharata
of only seven out of altogether 22 intervals. In keyboard
Natyam.
music, the total number of intervals is only 12. The
Classical Raga music is no longer the chamber music
frequency ratios of the Swaras (notes) play the most
that it used to be, and to present classical music to
important part in the creation of a Raga or a scale.
large audiences, high-fidelity reproduction has become
The only scale in which all the 12 notes of a scale
essential; this requires technologists who have a working
are used is the chromatic scale in European music and
knowledge of musical theory and structure. In the West,
it is used mostly for special effects. However, in the
the interaction between musicians and technologists has
19th century, the use of a continuous change of the
been well established. In matters concerning instruments,
tonic in chromatic sequences in an extended piece of
recording, amplification and faithfulness of reproduction
work, called chromatic harmony, has changed the nature
with respect to a given hall, the developments in physics,
of European music. Change is greatly encouraged in
particularly by Helmholtz1, and the theory of materials
the West and the coming of electronic music with its
of construction have played an important part. This has
immense possibilities has been used to the maximum
helped in refining the tastes of the public. In fact, many
extent. It has, however, raised the basic question as to
discriminating musicians refuse to perform in halls with
what is the very nature of music.
bad acoustics or bad reproduction facilities. Modern
A short discussion on notation is required at this
electronics, especially compact discs, have demonstrated
stage to make all this clear. We have three notations
the meaning of faithful reproduction and will soon have
at our disposal (Table 1): (1) the European staff notation;
an impact on Indian music. However, all this would
(2) the Venkatamakhin notation; and (3) the method of
not have been possible but for the close interaction of
giving subscript numbers to Swaras (notes) to indicate
musical theory, physics, modern electronic technology,
the frequency depression or enhancement.
the acoustics of auditoria, etc.
In European notation the sign , called the 'flat', is
For this transformation to take place in India, not
used to denote a fixed depression in the frequency and
only musicians but also audiences and the technical
the sign } , called the 'sharp', an enhancement. The
corresponding words in Indian music are 'Laghu' and
Raja Ramanna is in the National Institute of Advanced Studies, Indian 'Tivra\
Institute of Science Campus, Bangalore 560 012, India.
The staff notation used in European music during the
1 fi last 400 years is based on equal temperament, i.e. the
* 1 cent = loge —, where /, and f2 are the frequencies of the
1200 /j scale is divided into 12 equal parts where each of which
notes comprising the interval. is called a semitone, i.e. 100 cents*.

CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 68, NO. 9,10 MAY 1995 897

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GENERAL ARTICLES

Tabic
Tabic1. Different
1. Different
types of notations
types
and theirof
frequency
notations
ratios and the

e=
Staff notation ifr? nn ififaa
bv?
■e Vv O -k> to oa he?
he? & jszifz
2

Names of notes Q
C Db D D* D* Eb E E* Fb F I G A" A A" C
Freq. ratios 200 400 500 700 900 1100 1200 Cents

Venkatamakhin ga
ra n ru re ga gi gu ge ma mi mu Pa dha dlii
dha dlii dhu
dhu tflic
dhc na ni nu ne Sa
notation

Freq. ratios 1 112 182 204 394 316 386 408 589 520 590 610 702 792 814 884 $06 996 1018
1018 1088
1088 11
111C
IC 1200

Presently used ril ri2 ri3 ma

mal1 ma2
ma 2
gal ga2 ga3 Pa dhal
dhal dlia2
dha2 dQia3
dha3 nal na2 na3 Sa
notation

1. The set of notes is called a major scale if starting he was totally deaf, which indicates the possibilities of
from the tonic (say C) the intervals are the staff notation.
„ . „ . , .. „ .. In the Venkatamakhin scheme, the octave is divided
2 semitones, 2 semitones, 1 semitone, 2 semitones, _ „ . . ' .
cd de ef fg into 7 Swaras ot different intervals in 72 different ways.
2 semitones, 2 semitones, 1 semitone The frequency ratios of the 22 Swaras as measured by
GA AB BC Clements2 are also shown in Table 1. The 72 combina
2. The set of notes is called a harmonic minor scale if tions are known as Melkarta Ragas or the basic Ragas
the intervals from tonic are from which other Ragas are derived. In all, several
2 semitones, 1 semitone, 2 semitones, 2 semitones, hundred RaSas can be recognized. Thou
cd de1 e1f fg identical, they differ in the way they are played.
1 semitone, 3 semitones, 1 semitone The Venkatamakhin method of generating all the
ga1 a1r bc Melkarta Ragas is ingenious, in that there are always
3. The set of notes is called a melodic minor scale if 7 notes in both the ascending and the descending sc
the intervals starting from the tonic in the Dividing the octave into 12 notes, the first four not
ascending part of the scale are of a Raga, i.e. the lower tetrachord, are chosen between
2 semitones, 1 semitone, 2 semitones, 2 semitones, Swaras C (Sa) and F (Ma) and the subsequent n
cd de1 e1f fg for the upper tetrachord between G (Pa) and C' (Sa).
2 semitones, 2 semitones, 1 semitone We note that there is only one
and F* (Mi). In a systematic manner, 36
and in the descending part are developed firstly with F (Ma) as the 4th note in the
2 semitones, 2 semitones, 1 semitone, 2 semitones, firs* tetrachord and are called Suddha Madhyama Ragas
Cßl gf (Figure 1) and another 36 with F* (Mi) instead of F
2 semitones,
FE^ E^D DC
1 semitone, 2 semitones (Ma), called Prati Madh
gaps are filled by th
constraints that the
The frequency ratios between the Eu
the Raga system are not in one-to-o
but only roughly so. This is due to th
temperament. European scales have the advantage that the Ragas derived from each of the Melkarta Ragas
a change of tonic, i.e. in Sruti, keeps the intervals of are given in Figure 3.
a scale unchanged and this is of great advantage in In the derived scales, there is some symmetry in the
modulation (change of tonic as to be explained later), derivations. For example: (a) the number of identical
in tuning musical ensembles, orchestra, etc. Its disad- Swaras for the ascending and descending parts of a
vantage is that it introduces some mistuning even in Raga is different for different Melkarta Ragas. (b) For
important intervals such as the tonic-to-dominant in- the 8th Melkarta Raga, the identifying Swara is the
terval C-G (Sa-Pa). Staff notation, however, has the second note, i.e. D^(Ri) and it is invariably present,
advantage that one can hear the music through the and if not in the ascending scale, it is in the descending
eyes if one is trained to do so. The great composer scale, (c) In the Melkarta Raga, many a missing 3rd
Beethoven wrote his later very complex works when implies a missing 7th, probably due to the close relation
898 CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 68, NO. 9, 10 MAY 1995

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 GENERAL ARTICLES

36 MELKARTA RAGAS (SHUDDA MADHYAM/

with names and triads describing the mela ragas
UPPER TETRACHORD —>

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CHAKRA
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NO 1
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KANAKANGI RATNANGI
RATNANGI GANAMURTI
GANAMURTIVANASPATI
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GAYAKAPRIYA VAKULABHARA MAYAMALAVA CAKRAVAKAM SURYAKANTAM HATAKAMBARI
CHAKRA NO. 3
NAM GAULA

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CHAKRA NO. 4 DHVANI PRIYA MANOHARI

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„u<^nA
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YAGAPRIYA RAGAVARDHANI
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GANGEYA -- VAGADISWARI
VAGADISWARI SULINI CALANATA
CHAKRA NO. 6 BHUSHANI

3P
Figure I. 36 Melkarta Ragus (Shudda Madhyama) with names and triads describing the Mela Ragas.

to the interval of the 5th. It is, perhaps, for these A change of tonic in consecutive steps of a Raga also
reasons, even listeners not necessarily trained in music gives rise to other Ragas and these form a family. However,
can differentiate between Ragas in almost an instant. a great many of the combination of notes produced in
this way are sterile and do not lead to new Ragas as
Change of Raga with tonic shift they will not all conform to the rules of Raga structure.
The following analysis gives a method of determining
The change of tonic in a piece of Karnatic music is other valid Ragas by means of a tonic change,
strictly forbidden. This has, perhaps, come about due The set of Ragas arising from a change of Sruti show
to the fact that any change of tonic requires a retuning the interplay between the Suddha Madhyama Ragas
of all the notes in a non-even temperament system. If (SMR) and the Prati Madhyama Ragas (PMR) though
this can be overcome by computer devices, Karnatic at first sight they seem very different,
music can have the advantage of tonic modulation where To determine which of the SMRs can be converted
a raga can be heard with a different tonic. This may by a Sruti change to either PMR or another SMR, the
break monotony and add freshness to music. following mathematical scheme is developed.

CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 68, NO. 9, 10 MAY 1995 899

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GENERAL ARTICLES

36
36MELKARTA RAGAS (PRATI
MELKARTA MADHYAMA)
RAGAS (PRATI MADHYAMA)
with
with namesnames
and triads and
describing
triads
the meladescribing
ragas the mela ragas

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CHAKRA NO. 7

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CHAKRA NO 8 GAVAMBHODHI BHAVAPRIYA SUBHAPANTU SHADVIDHA SUVARNANGI DIVYAMANI
VARALI MARGINI (JEEVANTIKA)

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(VAMSAVATI)

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• (CATURANGINI)

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CHAKRA NO. 12 SUCHARITRA JYOTISWARUPINI DHATU- NASIKA- KOSALAM RASIKAPRIYA
(JYOTIRAGA) VARDHANI BHUSHANI

Im
Figure 2. 36 Melkarta Ragas (Prati Madhyama) with names and triads describing the Mela Ragas.

Let S,, S2, S3, S4, S5, S6, and S7 be a sequence of intervals is shifted cyclically to the second (II) posi
musical intervals forming a Melkarta Raga, i.e. it has The sequence now becomes S2, S3, S4, S5, S6, S7,
in all 12 semitones. For a SMR, the following con- this has to be a PMR, the following conditions ha
ditions hold: also to be satisfied:

S, + S2 +'S3 — 5, S5 + S6 + S7 — 5, and S4 —
S2 + S3 + S4 — 6, S6 +
Here the sum 5 refers to the total number of semitones
in the two tetrachords and 2 to the interval between
the subdominant and the dominant in a SMR. The interval S5 is just one semitone in t
corresponds to the interval F" to G. Combining (1) an
(2), we have
Case 1

Let there be a tonic shift such that the sequence of S2 + S3 = 4, and S6 + S7 = 4. (2a)
900 CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 68, NO. 9, 10 MA Y 1995

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 GENERAL ARTICLES

8 0 HANUMA TODI
MELAKARTA RAGA 15.1 ARDRADESI
- ■ H—

J j »• V "W •u J *
$-itJ -J JJ r r 1 r UJ -•

Si Ra Gi Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa Sa Ni Dha Pa Ma Gi Ra Sa 3 Sa Ra Gu Ma Pa Dha Nu Sa Sa - Dha Pa Ma Gu Ra Sa

15.2 BHAULI

8.1 AMRUTA DHANYASI

5 Sa Ra Gu Pa Dha - Sa Sa Nu Dha Pa - Gu Ra Sa
fr~ —J—f Pi*—
w UJ—■ JT1 ' i l ' ' j.
15..3 GAULA

8.2 ASAVERI
1 Sa Ra - Ma Pa Nu - Sa Sa Nu - Pa Ma RaGu Ma Ra Sa

15.4 GAULIPANTHU

5 Sa Ra - I Ma Pa Dha - Sa Sa Ni Sa Pa Dha Ni Dha Pa Ma Gi Ra Sa

Q
g Sa
^ iu' JJ' r
o«jRa
Ra- -MaMa
Pa Pa
- Nu Sa Sa
- Nu Sa Nu
Sa Dha
Nu Pa MaPaF Ma Pa Dha Ma Gu Ra Sa
Dha

8.3 DESYA TODI 15 5 GAUR|

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—U bm ■m ■m w f===t
Sa Gi Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa Sa Ni Dha Pa Ma Gi Ra 54 ^ Sa Ra - Ma Pa Nu - Sa Sa Nu Dha Pa Ma Gu Ra Sa

15.6 GURJARI

8.4 DHANYASI

$ ij j j j|,J r
^3 Sa Ra Gu Ma Pa Dha Nu Sa Sa Dha Nu Pa Ma Gu Ra Sa
r. r i r t M ,J j u s
"Sa - Gi Ma Pa Ni Sa Sa Ni Dha Pa Ma Gi Ra S»
15.7 GUMMAKAMBHOJI

8.5 GHANTA
iU J f J|J
+ 3fj
tl p =4 15.8 GUNDAKRIYA

Sa Gi Ra GI Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa Sa Ni Dha Pa Ma Gi Ra Sa

17
-=3^3
Ra - Ma Pa - Nu Sa Sa Nu Pa Dha Pa Ma Gu Ra Sa

8.6 MEGHARANJINI
15.9 JAGANMOHINI

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::j
• .
I
._ Sa Ra GI Ma - - Ni Sa Sa Ni - Ma Gi Ra Sa oa . Ma Pa - Nu Ra Ra Nu - Pa
10 Sa - Gu Ma Pa - Nu Sa Sa Nu - Pa Ma Gu Ra Sa

15.10 KANNADA BANGALA

8.7 PUNNAGAVARALI

ju J J J J r i
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21 Sa Ra Gu Ma Gu Ma Pa Dha - Sa Sa - Dha Pi. M,. Gu Ra Sa

15 Ni Sa Ra Gi Ma Pa Dha Ni Ni Dha Pa Ma Gi Ra Sa Ni 15.11 KRISHNA VENI

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8.8 SUDDHA SIMANTINI 23 ^a ^a " 's'u ^a ^a " ^a ^a '<JI

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15.12 MALAHARI

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r~hr.=±
hi J lr [
15.0 MAYAMALAVA GOULA
MELKARTA rAga

I iu J J *^.r r ir
Sa Ra Gu Ma Pa Dha Nu Sa Sa Nu Dha Pa Ma Gu Ra Figure 3. (Contd.)

CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 68, NO. 9, 10 MAY 1995 901

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GENERAL ARTICLES

15.13 MALLIKA
MALLIKA VASANT
VASANT 20.0
20-° NATABHAIRAVt
NATABHAIRAV!
MELKARTA RAGA
RÂGA

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ff=\ M
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27 Sa - Gu Ma
Ma Pa
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r r
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Nu Sa
Sa Sa
Sa Nu
Nu Dha
r|J
H
Oha Pa
Pa Ma
Ma (m
Ui Fla
Fla Sa
Sa Sa
Sa Ri
Ri GJ
Gl Ma
Ma Pa
Pa Dha
Dha Ni
Ni Sa
Sa Sa
Sa Ni
Ni Dha
Dha Pa
Pa Ma Gl Ri Sa
U
JJ . pH
pdi

15.14 MECHABHAUU 201 AMRITHA VAHINI

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29 Sa Ra Gu • Pa Dha - Sa Sa Nu Dha Pa Ma Gu R.. Sa 3 Sa Ri - Ma Pa Dha Ni Sa Sa Ni Dha - Ma Gi Ri Sa

15.15 NÂDA
NADA NÂMA
NAMA KRIYA 20.2 BHAIRAVI

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-

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Sa Ri
Ri Gi
Gi Ma
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Sa Ni
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Pa Ma Gi Ri Sa

15.16 PAOI 20 3 DILipAKAM

DILIPAKAM

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7 Sa Ri Gi Ri Ma Pa Ni Dhi Ni Pa Dhi Ni Sa Sa Ni Dhi Pa Ma Gi Ri Sa

15.17 PARAJU (FARAZ) 20.4 GOPIKA VASANTAM

35 4~i '' J
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35 Sa
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Sa Pa
Ni Dha SaMa
Ni Gi Dha
Sa Pa Ma Gi -' Sa
15.18 PURVI 205 HINDOLAM

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37 Sa
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Gu Ma
Ma Pa
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^
iiJ J J j ijppl l<
Nu Dha
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Sa Sa
Sa Nu
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- Pa
Pa Ma
Ma Gu Ra Sa
11 Sa Ma Gi Ma Dhi Ni Sa Sa Ni Dhi Ma Gi Sa

15.19 REVAGUPTI 20.6 JAYANTHASRI

î — i J1». i F 1 ^

39
l U • i
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l>J i» -
13
v r i r n
13 Sa
Sa Gi
Gi Ma
Ma Dha
Dha Ni
Ni Sa
Sa Sa
Sa Ni
Ni DhaDha
Sa Dha
Ni
Dha MaMa
Ma
Ma PaPa
Pa Ma
Ma MaGi
Gi : Sa
Gi Sa ''

15.20 SÂRANGANATA
SARANGANATA 20 7 JINGLA

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41 Sa Ra - Ma
Ma Paj j|.,i
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15.21
15.21 SÂVERI
SAVERI 20.8
20.8 MANJI
MANJI

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15.22 SINDHURAMAKRIYA 20.9 MARGA HINDOLA

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20.10 SARAMATI
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i-S.23 MANGALA KAISHIK!
KAISHIKI

ift?
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15.24
15.24BHUPALAM
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20.11 DESI
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Figure 3. (Contd.)

902 CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 68, NO. 9, 10 MAY 1995

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 GENERAL ARTICLES

22.0 KHARAHARA PRIYA

MELKARTA
MELKARTARAGA.
RÂGA. 22.12
22.12 JAYANÂRÂYANI
JAYANARAYANI

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22.1 ABHOG,
ABHOGI 2213 JAVANTASENA
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22.2 ANANDA
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5 Sa Gi Sa
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22.3 ÂNDOLIKA
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22.4 BRINDAVANA SARANGA 22.16 KANNADA GAULA

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22.5 CHITTARANJANI 22.17 KAPI

KAP! JINGLA

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22.18 KARNATAKA KAP!

22.6 DARBAR 22.18 KARNATAKA
22.6 DARBAR KAPI

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22.19 MADHYAMAVATI
22.7
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22.20 MAALAVASRI
22.8 HIMDOLA VASANTA

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22.21 MANI RANGU

22.9 HINDUSTANI - KAPI

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19 Sa Ri - Ma Pa - Ni Sa Sa Ni Dhi Ni Pa Ma Gi Ri Sa 43 Sa Ri ' Ma Pa " Ni Sa Sa Ni " Pa Ma Gi Ri Sa
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22.10 HUSENI 22.22 MANJARI

iJ j iÉ^Épi
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21 Sa Ri Gi Ma Pa Ni Dhi Ni Sa Sa Ni Dhi Pa Ma Gi Ri Sa

22.11 JAYAMANOHARI 22 23 MANOHARI

frJ^'J '-f—1 rtJ ^ jj j j J fP J

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Figure 3. (Contd.)

CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 68, NO. 9, 10 MAY 1995 903

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 GENERAL ARTICLES

22.24 MUKHARI
MUKHARI 22-36
22.36 SIDDHASENA
SIDDHASENA
V
nr-L n H
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9

4g
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49 Sa Ri - Ma Pa Dhi - Sa Sa Ni Dhi Pa Ma Gi Ri Sa 73 Sa Gi Ri Gi Ma Pa Dhi -- Sa Sa Ni Dhi Pa Ma Ri Gi Ri Sa
Ilip J I î \r il^3

22.25
22.25 NÄDACHINTAMANI
NADACHINTAMANI 22
22 37
37 Sr|rAGA
sr|rAga

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22.26 NADAVARANGINI
NÄDAVARÄNGINI 22.38 SRIRANJINI

U . -
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22.27 NÄYAKI . 22.39 SUDDHA BANGÄLA

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22.28 PHALAMANJARI 22.40 SUDDHA DHANYÂSI

DHANYASI

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22.29 PANCHAMA 22 41 SVARA BHUSHANI

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22.30 PURNASHADJAM 22 42
42 UDAYA
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53 Sa Ri Gi Ma Pa Ni -- Sa Sa Ni -- Pa Ma Gi Ri Sa
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28.0 HARIKAMBODHI
MELAKARTA RAGA
RÄGA

j j » ü j j
22.32 RITIGAULA
mi j J JJ J J r irJ J ~r m
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28.1 BAHUDARI
BAHUDARI

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4 irJfUni
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22.34 SAINDHAVI j j M JJ J
Ij*
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m

28.3
28.3 CHAyATARANGINI
CHAyATARANGINI

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22.35 SALAGA BHAIRAVI 7 Sa Ri Ma Gu

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Figure 3. (Contd.)

904 CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 68, NO. 9, 10 MAY 1995

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 GENERAL ARTICLES

28.5 ISAMANOHARI 28-17 NAGASWARAVALI

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4'i jjjJjjj-i a> Jj J
j jJ>j r
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28.18 NARAYANA
NÀRÀYANA GAULA
28.6 JHUNJOOTI

13 Dhi
64 j j j J M ifry
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13 Dhi Pa 37

28.7
28.7 JUJAHULI
JUJAHULI 28.19
28.19 NÂRÀYANI
NArAYANI

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28.20
28.20 NATAKURANJI
NATAKURANJI
28.8 KAMBODHI
28.8 KAMBODHI

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r J^LijJ j i J
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i
28.9 KAPI
KAP! NARAYANI 28.21 NAVARASA KALANIDHI

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28.10 KARNATAKA BEHÂG

BEHAG 28
28 22
22 NAVARASA
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KANNADA

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28.11
28.11KEDARA
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gaula 28
28 23
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PRATAPAVARALI

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28.12 KHAMAS 2B24

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49 Sa Ri - Ma Pa Dhi Ni Sa Sa Ni Dhi Ni Pa Ma Gu - Sa

28.13
28.13 KOKILADHVANI
KOKILADHVANI 28
2825
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rAqa pANJARAM
pANJARAM

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28.14 KUNTALAVARALI
28.14 KUNTALAVARALI 28 2g RAV|CHANDRIKA
28.26 RAVICHANDRIKA

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28.15
28.15 MALAVI
MALAVI
28.27 SAHANA

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28.28 SAMA
28.16 MOHAN A

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Figure 3. (Contd.)

CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 68, NO. 9, 10 MAY 1995 905

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GENERAL ARTICLES

28.29
28.29 SARASVATI
SARASVATI MANOHARI
MANOHARI29
2911ÄRABH)
Arabh,

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JJ;
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28.30 SINDHU KANNADA

A
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'
'

fa *=
61 Sa - Ma Gu Ma Ri Gu Ma Pa Dhi Pa Sa Sa Ni Dhi Pa Ma Gu Ri Sa 7
5 Sa Ri - Ma Pa - Nu Sa Sa Nu Dhi Pa Ma Pa Gu Ma Ri Sa
28.31 SUDHA TARANGINI

29.3 BANGALA
BANGÂLA

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28.32 SUPOSHINI 7 Sa Ri Gu Ma Pa Sa Sa Ni - Pà
Pa Ma Ri Gu Ri Sa

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28.33 SURATI | j j j j J J M ! 'pippp

g Sa Sa
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4 29.5
29.5 BEHAG
BEHAG

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29.6 BILAHARI
28.35 VARAVEDI

mi J J r 1 r r j ^ J i
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71 Sa - Ma Gu Ma Pa Ni Dhi Ni Sa Sa Dhi Ni Dhi Ni Pa Ma Gu -

29.7 DESAKSHi
28.36 UMÀBHARANAM
UMABHARANAM

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28.37 VALAJI 29.8 DEVAGANDHARI

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75 Sa - Sa
♦j t j t j J J j JI
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17
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17 Sa Dhi
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28.38 VIVARDHINI
29.9 GARUDA DHVANI
GARUDADHVANI

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28.39 YADUKULA KAMBODHI

29.10 HAMSADHVANI

Sa Ni Dhi Pa Ma Gu Ri

Sa Ri Gu - Pa - Nu Sa Sa Nu - Pa - Gu Ri Sa
29.0 DHEERA SANKARA BHARANA
MELAKARTA RAGA
RÄGA

29.11 HINDUSTANI BEHAG

itririrrr J' ^J j
r
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23 Sa - Gu Ma Pa Nu Dhi Nu Sa Sa Nu Dhi Nu Pa Ma Gu Ri Sa

Figure 3. (Contd.)

906 ^ CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 68, NO. 9, 10 MAY 1995

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 GENERAL ARTICLES

29.12 JANARANJANI 29.18 KUTUHALAM

^JjJ, [,J
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25 Sa Ri Qu Dhi
J
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jJ
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mi

29.13 KANNADA 29.19 MAND

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j. j j j J ri r
rJir
27 Sa Ma Gu Ma Dhi Nu Sa Sa Dhi Pa Ma Gu Ma Ri Sa 39 Sa - Gu Ma Pa Dhi - Sa Sa Nu Dhi Pa Ma Gu Ri Sa

29.14 KADANA KUTUHALAM 29.20 NAVROJ

■w
W

29 Sa Ri - Ma - Dhi Nu Gu Pa Sa Sa Ni Dhi Pa Ma Gu Ri Sa
Pâ
Pa Dhi Nu Sa Ri Ga Ma Pa Ma Gu Ri Sa Nu Dhi Pa

29.15 KEDARAM 29 21 NILAMBARI

4 j'jjjJJfr
•si Sa - Ma Gu Ma Pa Nu - Sa Sa Nu - Pa Ma Gu Ri Sa n. n> rJ-n .. „ ~
31
ir
Sa - Ma Gu Ma Pa Nu - Sa Sa Nu - Pa Ma Gu Ri Sa 43 Sa Ri Gu Ma Pa Dhi Pa Nu Sa Sa Nu Pa Ma Gu Ri Gu Sa
rJm J J
29.16 KOLAHALAM 29.22 PURNA CHANDRIKA

33 Sa - Pa Ma Gu Ma Pa Dhi Nu Sa Sa Nu Dhi Pa Ma Gu Ri Sa 45 Sa Ri Gu Ma Pa Dhi Pa - Ga Sa Nu • Pa Ma Ri Gu Ma Ri Sa

29.17 KURANJI 29.23 SINDHU MANDARI

35 Sa Nu Sa
Sa Ri
Ri Gu
Gu Ma
Ma Pa
Pa Dhi
Dhi ....
.... Dhi
Dhi Pa
Pa Ma
^iJjJJJrr
i"-Njjjiji
Ma Gu
Gu Ri
Ri Sa
Sa Nu
ir
i 4iJJ-iJ
NuSa
Sa47
47Sa
SaRi
RiGu
GuMa
MaPa
PaDhl
DhlPa
PaSaSaSaSaNu
NuDhi
DhiPaPaGu
GuMa
MaDhi
OhlPa
Pa Ma
MaR'
Ri Sa

Figure 3. Commonly used Melkarta Ragas (nos. 8, 15, 20, 22, 28 and 29) and their derivatives. The symbol 'j ' used here is t
a missing note from the Mela Raga and is not a time measure. The symbol above the notes of the Melkarta ragas refer to t
given in Appendix II.

Case 2 Case 4

If the tonic is shifted to

sequence now starts with S3 and becomes inconsistent in that S5 + S6 + S7 has to become
both 5 and 6, which means that no PMRs are possible
S3 + S4 + S5 = 6, S7 + S, + S2 = 5, and S6 = 1. (3) from a tonic transfer to the dominant.

From (1) and (3) we have, Case 5

S5+ S7 = 4, and S3 + S6 = 4. (3a) por the tonjc tra

following conditions are required for
Case 3 to PMR:

In a similar manner, for a tonic shift to the fourth place S3 + Ss = 3, S, + S3 = 4. (6)

(IV), we have
Case 6
S5 + S6 = 4, 1 + D, + S3 = 5. (4)
For a tonic transfer to the seventh place (VII), the
This case gives the largest number of possibilities as conditions are:
the first condition in (4) repeats itself and we have to
depend only on condition (1). S, + S2 = 4, S5 + S6 = 3. (7)

CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 68, NO. 9,10 MAY 1995 907

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GENERAL ARTICLES

Table 2. Murchana Karaka Ragas. Ragas produced by tonic shift of Suddha Madhyama Ragas to Prati

aa
1
1f |1. L la
a

1 2 1 ?§ 21"
I 1| la
~3 2is8 Is !„
12 §5
2. S 1S 3 2 12 isIs -SS 1s 33§§ Ss S
112S 12 I2
iö 53
Is
li 15
52
1s
Jz || 5 5
È155
1I c§
1=
is sä
11 13 q 2 II
CI

J5 S§ 5 2 J
<2 2^ li
Is
sI =
3
s. 3
5£ 2
£Jc-;
2 1IIs |IS§ |11g 11 11 II
1S §5 3 2 1II s 2ss
™ •3
rt <0

S s p
o»
s

O0
1.
1. Kamkanji
Kanakanji
1132113
0 0
o 00 o
0 O O
0 0O 0O O O
o u
n 00
2.Ratnanfi
2. Ratnanji
1132122
TL
H
3. Ganaiurtl
G&naturU
1132131
n
li S
TSL
4. Vanaspatl
A. Vanaspatl
1132212
/*>
/*» t *I /V. ••

TC
(■ ■>
5. Nanavatl
Kanavatl
TV
1132221 < < < «
< < < "
< • - < «
< <
to
to
to
6.6.Tanatupi
Tanarupi /—» to
to to
to to
to to to
to to (0
to to
to to
to CO
to
<
1132311
1132311vj
^ < < < < < < < <
< < < <

H
X
ct DC
cx EX
et ' Ct ' oc
EX ' " EX et
IX EX
at
oe
Ct ct
7. Senapati
Seiupati UJ
UJ UJ
1222113 UJ UJ
UJ UJ
UJ UJ
UJ UJ UJ Ul
-J

IT
X
-I
—J —J -1 -I " -J -J -1 -J
8.
8. Hanutatodl
Hanuaatodl -J -J
EX
ce
1222122 Bt
Ct et
EC EX ct et
. EX et
IX et ct
tu

X
' UJ " UJ UJ UJ
UJ

TT
UJ UJ
UJ UJ

w
UJ UJ
9.9.
Dhenka
Dhenka UJ
UJ

TV
UJ »
k t F K
f
V to
' 1222131 <s> 00
i/o V)
to l/>
v> to
V) - V» • . to to
to

10.
10. Katakapriya
Katakapriya
1222212
1222212
.,
b
M
311.
11. Kokilapriya
11. Kokilapriya
1222221
X
JV
12. Rupavati
12. Rupavati
1222311

.Gayakaptiya
13. .Gayakapi lya ^^
1312113 U
31
TT
1A.Vakulabharar.aa
14. VaCulabhatar.il
VII H
E
1312122
15. Hayaialavafaula
.IV
,b£
2
II
1312131
16.
18. Chaktavakai
Chakravakaa
1312212
1312212
sn
yü
17.
17. Suryakanlaa
Suryakantaa
1312221
1312221
E
J2
18. HaUkasSatl
Halakakbatl
1312311 III
in
19. Jhankaradhvar.i
Jhankaradiwar.i
2122113 VI
20.Hatabhairavi
20. Harabhaitavi 2T
ET
2122122
2122122
21.
21.Kiravani
Kitavani
U
IV 31
2E
2122131
22.
22. Rhataharapriya
Khataharaptiya
2122212
12
HE
23. Gaurioanohari
GauriBanohari
2122221
m
E
24.Vatuv.aptiya
2A. Varuv.aptiya
2122311
25. Naratanjanl
Hararanjanl
2212113
26.
26. Charukest
Charukesl
2212122
2212122
ar
M
27.Sarasarvfl
27. Sarasat\(l 1I Br
dz:
2212131
28. Har ikaobhojI
Hatikaobhoji
2212212
VE
VIT
29. Sankatabharar.a
29. Sankatabharana
. 2212221
«
E
3£
30.
30. Najanandini
Nafanandini
2212311 Hi
31.
31.Yatapriya
Yataptiya •_
3112113 U
32.
32. Ra(avardt\ani
Rafavardhani
3112122

17
33. Ganieyabhushani .
3112131 ÎY
34.
3A. Vafadhisvari
Vagadbisvarl
VI
_

3112212

Yî W
35.
35. Sulini
Sulini
1
3112221 YT II/
36.
36.CtvalanaU
Chalanala
3112311 %
TBL

Notes:

1. On the X axis are given all the Suddha Madhyama Ragas with their serial numbers and names.
2. A set of seven numbers is given below the Raga to represent the intervals between the notes of the Raga. A semitone is represented by 1,
a tone by I, a tone by II, a tone + semitone by III and two tones by IV.
3. Where a SMR is converted to a PMR by a tonic change, the new tonic is shown by Roman numerals, where the two Ragas coincide. II,
III, . . . VIII correspond to the 2nd, 3rd, etc., notes of the Raga.
4. The tonic changes merely rearrange cyclically the intervals. For example, intervals of 18th Raga Hatakambari are I3j_2311. A tonic change
of III makes it the 43rd Raga Gavambhodhi, whose intervals are 1231113, obtained by making the 3rd interval of 19 as the first.
5. Sterile column Ragas are marked 'O'.
6. Those sequences which have both F and FV, Ma and Mi are forbidden.

908 CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 68, NO. 9, 10 MA Y 1995

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 GENERAL ARTICLES

The resulting sequences of the intervals from the above Rhythm, Tala
conditions for SMR to PMR are given in Table 2, and
Table 3 gives the possible transfers from SMR to other Rhythm constitutes one of the
SMRs. Karnatic music, if not of all Indian music. Bharata's

Tabic 3. Murchana Karaka Ragas. Ragcis produced by tonic shift of Suddha

- .2 sd■dà • s
iUii s
= s
s s
s d
à

I. Kanakanjl
1132113 £ 0 £ 0 <k £ £
&_ 0 O
0_ 0 £
Rainanti
2. RatnaniL
1132122
U32122
3. Ganaaurtl
Gmiurtl
2
1132131
4., Vmspall
Vmspatl
1132212
5. Ratiavati
Kanavit!
Œ
M.
1132221
6. T»n»tupi
Tanarupl
1132311
7. Stnapati
Sanapati

8.
1222113
6. Hanuaatodl
Hanuaalodl
22
1222122
9. . Dhtnka
Dhtnka
He[ 3D[sn tnoiL
m M
1222131
10. Katakaptiya
E
1222212
11. Kokllaprlya
Kokllapriya
M E
1222221
12. Rupavatl
1222311
Gayakaprlya
13. Gayakaptlya
1312113
U. Vakulabkarana
14. VakulabKaranaa
1312122 w
JY
15TIU5
15. Niya«il»vi(»ul»
131
16.
16. Cha
Cbakravakai

17.
1312212
131
17. SuryakanUt
Sutyakantat
Ml
K
1312221
18. Hatakaibarl
HaUkaibarl
%
m
1312311
19. Jhankaradhvani

20.
2122113
20. Natabhalravi
Narabhaltavl
%
21.
2122122
21. Klravanl
Klravini
s
K 1 E.
2122131
22. Kharabaraprlya
Kharabaraprlya
X
X
2122212 ic
m T3C_l _I1
EVE
23. Gauriaanoharl

24.
24.
2122221
Varunaptlya
Varunapriya
E
2122311
25. Kararanlanl
2S. Kifiranjanl
2212113
26. Charukasl
2212122 3 Tv
TV"
27. Sarasan(l
Sarasanfl
2212131
26. HirikaabKoJl
20. Hirlkaabkojl
2212212
29. Sankarabharana
E 3E,3I_2 32.
E
2212221
30. Hatanandlnl
as _2_1L
n IL
2212311
22123U

31. Yataprlya
31. Y»t»prlya ^
3112113

~w
W
32. Rajavirdhanl
Rajavardhanl
3112122
Ganftyabbusbanl
33. Ganftyabhushanl
3112131
34.
34. Vagadhlivatl
Vafadhlivatl
3112212
3112212
'35.
"à5. SulUl
SulUl
3112221 nr
HI
36. Chalanata
Chilanata
3112311

Noies:

1. Items (I) to (4) are as in Table 2 except that one reads Suddha Madhyama Ragas wherever Prati Madhyama Ragas are mentioned.
2. Sterile column Ragas are marked 'O' and those which do not produce Suddha Madhyama Ragas but produce only Prati Madhyama Raga
are marked '0'.

CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 68, NO. 9, 10 MAY 1995 909

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GENERAL ARTICLES

Natya Shastra states that all song word andA musical

dance work
is is usually divided into bars (Avarta),
eachout
derived by Tala. The rules are clearly laid bar being
and a measure of time with a fixed number
of smaller units
there is wide scope for interesting combinations of of time. Only in Alapanas, bars are
not
various sorts. Indian rhythmic notation is based onrequired
seven as they are often improvization on a Raga,
patterns, the Sapta-Tala system (Table 4). U, called
without rhythm.
Anudruta, stands for one unit of time and could Whilebe these
a indications give the number of units in
quaver or semiquaver depending upon the tempo the bar, ofthey
thegive no idea of the accents within the
work. In the above table, the unit of time in staff bar. The accents within the bar play an important role
notation is a quaver and I stands for 4 quavers. in Indian music, since it has developed from the chanting
0, called Druta, stands for 2 units of time. of the Vedas and it is thus closely related to the prosody
1, called Laghu in general, stands for 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, of various Indian languages, particularly Sanskrit. These
etc., units of time and is written as I3, I5, I7, etc., accents form the most important aspect of Tala.
respectively. The units 6 and 8 are described by their If we associate a quaver with an Anudruta, it follows
smaller multiples. that the Laghus, as shown in Figure 5.
In staff notation, the unit of time is denoted by the
symbol O, called the semibreve. The semibreve can be
broken rhythmically into equal beats of shorter durations, 13
13 means
means ^: —- — triple
— triple group
group TrisraJati
Trisra Jati
as shown in Figure 4. 14means
14 means | quadruple
' quadruple group
group Chaturasra Jati Chatu
I5
I5 means
means quintuple
quintuple group
groupKhanda
Khanda
JatiJati

I7 means septuple group Misra Jati

I7 means J J J J SCptUpIe ®r0UP Mi
I9 .means I I I I I I I I I nonuple group Sankirna Jati
Figure 4. The semibreve = 2 minims = 4 crochets = 8 quavers =16 I9 .means Z ZZ ZZ J*™ zz ZZ ZZ iz: nonuple group Sankirna Jati
semiquavers, etc. etc.
etc.

Figure 5.
Figure 5.5.
Figure
In European music, rhythm is indicated by two numbers
immediately at the beginning of a work, e.g. A piece of music is said to be in Chaturasra Jati
(quadruple time) and Dhruva Tala if the number of
4
means 4 crochets in a bar, notes in a bar is 4 + 2 + 4 + 4 = 14, i.e.
4

Laghu 1 Dhruta 1 Laghu 1 Laghu 1

q means 6 quavers in a bar, and
written as I4 0 I4 I4
O

means 8 semiquavers in a bar, etc. In staff notation on a monoto

16
that shown in Figure 6.
The top number refers to the units of time in a bar
and the bottom one refers to the type of unit. The
minim is given the number 2, the crochet 4, the quaver
8 and the semiquaver 16. These numbers correspond to
r r r r r r r rr^
the number of such units equal to a semibreve.
Figure
Figure6. 6.
Table 4. The seven patterns of rhythm (Tala)
This Tala, as an exercise on the Raga Mayamalava
Tala SymbolsSymbols
Equivalence
Equivalence
in staff
in staff
notation
notation goula, takes the form shown in Figure 7.
1. Dhruva I40 V* V4
I4I4

2. Mathya I40I4OI4
I4

3. Roopaka O OI4
I4 iu ■''j
IJ ijJj i m
4. J hampe I4U
I4UO
O Figure 7.
5. Triputa I40 O
Mayamalavagoula Raga is usually chosen for such
6. Ata I4I4O O
exercises as the sequence of notes are adjacent semitones
7. Eka
and come easily on the frets of a Veena.
In principle, the different Laghus can be broken up

910 CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 68, NO. 9, 10 MAY 1995

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 GENERAL ARTICLES

l3 =
m
M
Found in

0 Sapta Tala

Found in 108

Tala System

Figure
Figure8.8.
(4a) (4b)

into different unit components as long as the accents are > > >
maintained in the same place, as shown in Figure 8. The (5} -
mark '>' means that the note is accented. The flexibility
mi (5b) ji rn nn
(5b) (5c)
u I 3 u 1, u u

of the rhythms depends mainly on these accents and

the seven Talas are sufficient to encompass a wide Figure 10.
Figure 10.
range of possible rhythms. The choice of the seven
combinations is due to Purandaradasa (1484-1564), who
is called the father of Karnatic music. He standardized
the basic rhythmic requirements into just these seven
schemes. There are many other schemes involving a
larger grouping of Laghus but these classifications do
not find a place in our introductory exposition. That
the Sapta-Tala scheme covers most of the requirements
of accents is evident from the following.
A 3-beat rhythm can have any one of the 3 modes
of accents (Figure 9). In the Sapta-Tala system, (1) is
available as Eka Tala Trisra Jati and
U)\ (2) >
is> available (j) mm
as Rupaka Tala Chaturasra Jati, as U i3 0 (in
o o crochets), * l3
and (3) is not indistinguishable from (2) in a running
Figure
Figure11. 11.
piece of music.

significance, as it is closely connected with

(l) (2) (3) (2)
(1) classical(3)
dance - Bharata Natyam. Usually the Talas are
=z = z = = | | classified as (a) the tailing ones, (b) the spreading ones
> > > > > like>a > river,
> (c)
> the number of units decreasing and

ie b u o o u then U increasing
0 0 u or vice versa like the shape of
Dhamaruga, the drum of Shiva or a Tabal
Figure
Figure 9. 9.
an(j ^ as a ran(jom set Some exa
(c) and (d) are as follows:
A 5-beat rhythm can have one of the 10 modes shown
in Figure 10. Modes (4a) to (5c) are found in Tala ^ I I I O U
collections. It is seen that the commonly used Talas 12 8 4
are in the Sapta-Tala and the 108 enumeration has only (^) U O I4 Ig I2
one addition and perhaps is not much used. The bigger Combinations of (a) and (b) are also possible:
compilation only completes the list. . . . . n TT n T t t
In the 7-beat rhythm, the possibilities after excluding C U Ô
Talas of more than 4 accents, as it would be unmusical 4 s 12 8 4
to have a large number of accents, are 19 in number, (d) I4 O I8 I4 U O I8 I4 I8 I4
of which many are merely inversions. Only 7 of these There are many other classifications of interest to th
appear as separate (Figure 11). expert, as found in ref. 3.
Of these, the Sapta-Tala system accounts for 1, 3, 6 Polyrhythmic musical interludes are
and 7. The 108-Tala system has nothing basically new of Karnatic music concerts and prov
to add. The compilation of all Talas by Sundaram3 exciting aspects of multiple rhythms. T
includes the rest. The 108-7a/a system is of great preparation though they appear to
CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 68, NO. 9, 10 MA Y 1995 911

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GENERAL ARTICLES

Table 5.
Musicians on different instruments start simultaneou
Unit of Commonly using different Talas. By choosing appropriate com
Name time used symbol tion of Talas, they conclude at the same time th
the different Talas are independent of one another. T
Anudruta 1 U
Drula 2 0 synthesize to produce an effect which is overwhel
Druta Virama 3 3 A person performing Dhruva Tala for 30 bars, Ma
Laghu 4 4
Tala for 42 bars, Roopaka Tala for 70 bars, Jham
Laghu Virama 5 5

Laghu Druta 6 6
Tala for 42 bars, Triputa Tala for 60 bars, Ata Tala
Laghu Druta Virama 7 7
for 35 bars and Eka Tala for 105, all end at the same
Guru 8 h time in a composition lasting 420 units of time.
Guru Virama 9
The author remembers a performance by the late
y
Guru Druta 10 ',0
Guru Druta Virama 11 11 Palghat Mani Iyer and his group several years ago and
Pluta 12 •,2 recalls its psychological impact on the audience, which
Pluta Virama 13
was quite unforgettable. At no time was an impression
13
Pluta Druta 14 14

Pluta Druta Virama 15 of randomness ever created. A fuller list of the names
>,5
Kakapada 16 1,6 for the Tala division is given in Table 5.

Part II—Forms, instruments and aesthetics

At a concert of Karnatic music, the positioning of the the main theme or Pallavi of the work is announced,
main performer and the instrumental accompanists who It is repeated several times, each time with a different
support him is traditional. Usually, on the left side of ornamentation. The Pallavi is followed by the Anupallavi,
the main performer sits either the flutist or a violinist the counter theme. After completing the statement of
or less frequently a harmonium player, who supports Pallavi and Anupallavi, the main musician takes on
him in a canon-like (imitative) manner. Occasionally, elaboration of the two themes in which new forces are
they take over the main activity themselves. Just behind brought in, such as Kalpana Swaras, which makes use
the singer are the Tanpuras to give him the exact tonic of Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, etc., instead of words (Sahitya) and
(Sruti) as accurately as possible, for the singing of the tempo changes are brought in. The musician often gets
Swaras in complex Ragas requires that the leading support from the use of Chittaswaras or subthemes
musician be exactly on the tonic. On his right side are given by the composer to be used in contrast with the
placed the percussion instruments like the Tabala, Pallavi and Anupallavi.
Mridangam, Morching (Jew's harp), etc. On occasions The Pallavi elaboration is always supported by the
where there are two main performers, they sit in the percussion instruments exploring the details of the Talas
centre next to each other so that the support for one to which it belongs. At some given stage, the entire
another is well coordinated. proceedings is passed on to the percussion instruments,
Before the commencement of concert, the tuning of which take on the performance of a Tala expo
all the instruments starts. It takes up considerable time may or may not be supported by other instrum
and immediately after this the musician begins the The Tala exposition has been described ear
Alapana on the Raga of the first work to be performed. forms an important climax of the performan
The Alapana is an important part of a musical concert likely, at this stage, that all the side inst
and is meant to expose the Raga of the main work in (Pakkavadyas) take part in the work and c
many different ways, what Ananda Coomaraswamy calls climax with a resounding Kalpana Swara endi
'moulds' of musical phrases. The main performer is There are many variations to the elaboratio
supported by the instruments around him and more often a song may be sung as a Ragamalika, where t
than not the percussion instruments are silent during appear in different Ragas but all of them are b
the Alapana as it does not always have a Tala structure. the same tonic. Once the Pallavi and Anu
The Alapana can last from a few minutes to several elaborated, there is a great degree of freedom f
hours and there have been cases where it has lasted performer for further elaboration, Swara-wise an
for several days. The Alapana is essentially improvization wise.
on the 'moulds' of the Raga. Once the Alapana is over, The form described constitutes the classic
912 CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 68. NO. 9, 10 MAY 1995

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 GENERAL ARTICLES

the concert. The concert usually starts with a Varna with appropriate Gamakas. The difference in the r
(Etudes) and usually ends with a Bhakti (religious) or ing of a piece by a senior musician and a junior music
secular music. It always ends with a Mangalam, forming lies mainly in the charming, stylish and graceful rend
a hymn of finality to the concert. by the former. Gamakas are a vital part of Indian mu
In earlier times, the voice, the Veena, the flute and and they serve to determine the melodic character
the percussion instruments were the basic instruments Raga. They are the backbone of Ragas, as muc
of performance. In recent times, the violin has been harmony in European music. Two Ragas with iden
accepted as an integral part of the family of instruments Arohana and Avarohana and derived from the same
at a concert. The flute belongs to an older period and Janya Mela might yet differ from each other on account
the fine variations of Swaras are obtained by partial of the characteristic Gamakas being present in one Rag
pressure applied on the holes on a flute and the air and absent in the other. Arabhi and Sama, and Manji
pressure exerted into the resonating column gives it and Bhairavi are instances in point. The same variety
great possibilities. In recent times, other European in of Gamaka appears with different degrees of intensity
struments have also been introduced into concerts such rapidity and range in different ragas.
as the mandolin, guitar and even electronic instrumentsGamaka is a comprehensive term meaning and inclu
as principal instruments. Though the capability ing of not only the shakes but also the manipulation of
note in any manner resulting in a musical effect. In
electronic instruments is great, they are still not fully
explored, and have not been given a permanent position other words, when the plain character of a note is
at classical concerts. Vocal performance, however, has altered so as to result in a musical effect, it is a
various advantages over instruments as lip and mouth
Gamaka. There are Gamakas peculiar to vocal music
and Gamakas peculiar to instrumental music. Gamakas
movements can produce effects which cannot be imitated
make music pulsate with life. In graceful Gamakas, a
on instruments. Perhaps, a day may come when electronic
fine web of microtonal variations is woven.
instruments will take over at least part of the vocal
possibilities. It will be difficult to indicate in notation all the grace
In temple music, the main instrument is the Nadanotes used in a musical composition. But persons con
swaram accompanied by percussion and has its own
versant with the Bhava and the true melodic picture of
techniques, especially at open-air performances. Ragas will supply the grace notes and shakes instinctively
The essence of Karnatic music lies in the system of and render the music in an artistic manner.'
adorning notes called Gamakas. It is difficult to describe Appendix II gives the list of definable Gamakas in
specific laws for the construction and use of Gamakas. European notation purely as example. It is here that
As pointed out by Prof. P. Sambamurthy4, playing notesthe student of Karnatic music has to depend on the
or singing of notes unadorned is rare in Karnatic music.phrase Guru-Shisya Parampara (the ecstatic relation
between the teacher and the taught).
Even in the first lesson in music in Mayamalava Goula
Raga, one is taught to sing Ri and Dhi with Gamaka
right from the beginning. He quotes from the Natya 1. Helmholtz, On the Sensations of Tone as a Physiological Basis for
Sastra, saying 'Music without Gamaka is like a moonlessthe Theory of Music, 1875.
night, a river without water, a creeper without flowers,2. Clements, E. H., I.C.S.: Ragas of Tanjore, 1913, reedited by Caxton
a lady without ornaments and a flower without smell'.Publication, Delhi, 1988.
3. Sundaram, B. M., Tala Sangraha, Purcussive Arts Centre, Bangalore.
I quote again from Prof. Sambamurthy since it is the
4. Sambamurthy, P., South Indian Music, The Indian Music Publishing
best description of Gamakas I have come across. HeHouse, Madras, 1983, vol. I to VI.
writes: 'the artistic and polished rendering of music5. Krishna Rao, H. P., First Steps in Hindu Music in English Notation,
consists in the notes of the melody being decorated Weekes & Co, Hanover Street, Regent Street W, 1906.

Appendix I. Musical events of historical importance

Musical events
Period Work Person concerned Remarks in Europe Major world events

1800-1001 bc Sama Veda Chants to Vedic hymns - Harappa and Mohenjodaro

1000-500 bc Parivrajaka Narada Equivalent to Solfa Egypt
system defined
(Sa, Ri,
Ri, Ga,
Ga, ...
... Ni,
Ni, etc.)
etc.)
Upanishad
Upanishad Greek
Greek music Confucius, Buddha
music Confucius, Buddha
Early
Early Tamil
Tamil
school
school

CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 68, NO. 9,10 MA Y 1995 913

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 GENERAL ARTICLES

Appendix I. (Contd)
Musical events
Period Work Person concerned Remarks in Europe Major world events

4 BC Natya Sastra Bharata Treatise on dance -

5 C AD Bruhaddesi Matanga Early compilation of -

Chola & Pallavas
Ragas, then known as Jatis
11 C AD Sangita Parsvadeva Classification of Bhashanga
Samayasara and Upanga Ragas
11 C AD Sangita Jagadeka Malla Classification of gender and
Chaudamani time Ragas
12 C AD Geeta Govinda Jayadeva One of the greatest musical
poems ever written
12 C AD Sangita Narada Gamakas classified
Makaranda

1210-47 Sangita Sarangadeva Pallavi exposition

Ratnakara 22 Sruties
Distinction between Margi
and Desi Ragas
12 C AD Panditaradhya Palkurini Identification of Sruties Muslim invasions in
Charita Somanath the North
Kavl
12 C AD Sangita Haripaladeva
Sudhakara

14 C AD Raga-tarangini Lochana Kavi Raga elaboration Development of

Christian music
1450-1600 Renaissance
1453 Fall of Constantinople
1492 Columbus
1450 Vijayanagar
15 C AD Sangeetasara Vidyaranya Alapana development established (1336)
(1320-80)
Purandaradasa Sapta-tala system
(1484-1564) Composer, referred to as the father
of Karnatic music. Introduced
standardized teaching methods.
Group singing introduced
Annamacharya Composer, friend
(1424-1503) Collaborator of Purandaradasa
Kanakadasa

Andhra School Bhajan Paddhati

Tallapakkam
Chinnayya Ramadas
(17th Century)
1521 Josquin Des Prez Vasco-da-Gama

Palestrina Mughal Period

(1525-94)
1550 Swaramela Ramamatya Elaboration of Ragas Shakespeare
Kalanidhi (1564-1616)
'565 Battle of Talikota
(Fall of
Empire)
1609 Raga Vibodh Somanatha
1594 (ca.) Chaturdandi Venkatamakhin Melkarta system perfected
Prakasika

1660 Sangita Ahobala J. S. Bach

Parijata (1685-1750)
17 C ad Anupa Sangitha Bhavabhatta
Vilasa
Tanjore School Patron of music
Shahoji, and composer Viennese
Maharaja of Tanjore School
(1684-1710)

914 CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 68, NO. 9, 10 MAY 1995

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 GENERAL ARTICLES

Appendix I. (Conld)
Musical events
Period Work Person concerned Remarks in Europe Major world events

1789 French Revolution

18 C AD Shyama Shastri Trinity of Hayden

(1762-1827) Karnatic music (1732-1809)
Thyagaraja Mozart
(1767-1847) (1756-1791)
Muttuswamy Beethoven
Dikshitar (1770-1827)
(1775-1835)
19 C AD Subbaraya Sastri Composer Chopin
(1803-1862) (1810-1849)
Swati Tirunal Veena Liszt
(1813-1847) (1811-1886) Indian Mutiny
Singaracharlu Pallavi expert Wagner
(1834-1892) (1813-1883)
Maha Vaidya Composer/vocal Verdi
natha Iyer (1813-1901)
(1844-1893) Mussorgsky
Patnam (1839-1881)
Subramanya Iyer Composer Debussy
(1845-1902) (1862-1918) First World War
Veene Sheshanna Composer/ Veena
(1852-1926)
Bidar Krishnappa Composer/Harikatha/vocal
(1866-1931)
Vasudevachar Composer/vocal
(1896-1961)
Muthiah Bhagavatar Composer/Harikatha Second World War
(1877-1945)

Appendix II. Gamaka symbols5.

A composition is sung in Raga regulated by Tala and embellished by 5. Anuswara, or the grace note. In order to produce
the following Gamakas, or graces: two notes are sometimes blended together; one of the notes is the
principal note and the other the grace note. The grace note is writ
1. Jaru (or the slur) (/ ). The curved line X", called a slur, placed smaller. It retains its pitch, but borrows its duration
over two or more notes, shows that they are to be played in a note. A grace note preceding a principal note a
connected style. The first note alone is struck, and the others are the latter in singing, and gives it only an additiona
lightly sustained for their full value. When only two notes are when it succeeds it, the order of pronunciation
connected by a slur, the intervening notes, if any, are gently slid grace note is sung as a vowel, as shown in Fig
over. When a slur connects two or more notes of the same name, the pronunciation in singing is Pa-a, Ni-i and Dha-a.
first is sustained during the value of all the notes.
2. Linum When a note merges slowly andPgradually
PND.
N D into PND DPNPDS
DPNPDS
another higher note, the symbol called linum, is used. k K h
3. Kampitam The symbol called Kampitam (shake), Written
Written in—»-H *- Played — Played »». <*K~
W * 5 =f=
placed over a note, shows that the note above it in the Sthayi are to |> lW P
be alternately repeated in quick succession (Figure Al). —U
Written
Written Played
Played Pronounced Figure Figure
Pronounced A3.
A3.
P<.
NN NSNSN5N5
N SNS N5 N 5 6. Humpitam (j ). When a line is drawn through the stem of a grace
note, it is played with the utmost rapidity, and the principal note
A/i-i-l-i-i-i-L-L.
A/(-i-i-L-l-l-i-i• hardly loses any time. The small note shows the point from w
the principal note darts.

Figure
Figure Al. 7- Al.
Emphasis. When a note is preceded by a grace note immediately
4. The symbol œ*. A note with the symbol placed over it aubove it in th° Sthayi and is of the nature described in (6) abo
, ., . , .. . ., „ , the note is emphasized as M and D in Sankarabharanam in the ascent,
shows that the note and the note above it in the Raga are to be r
alternately and equally repeated, each twice in the time value of the 8. Sphuritha. Notes are sometimes used
written note (as shown in Figure A2). note of a pair is preceded by a grace note immediately below it in
Written
Written Played Pronounced
Played the s,hay' and is of the nature described in (6) above, the grace is
Pronounced
called Sphuritha when the pairs are ascending (Figure A4).
P P D P D
5 5 ö 6 P P
J
Pa-a
PcL-a-a-a..
a-a. S
—

—d 5!
F ■j
r H., 1 1

jj Lu -f
r.
r -
. t.J £
Sphuritha «m

Figure
Figure A2. A2. Figure Figure
rigure A4.
A4. A4.

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GENERAL ARTICLES

9. Prathyahatha. When the second note of a pair is preceded by a 13- The symbol ( ). A note with the sym
grace note immediately above it in the Slhayi and is of the nature is played as shown in Figure A9.
described in (6) above, the grace is called Pruthyahatha when the
pairs are descending (Figure A5)
5 S D D M M
Written I Played
J>
A -
M
§
Ri
o?—
m o
Prathyahatha
Figure
Figure
A5. A5.
£ — Figure A9.
Figure A9.

14. The symbol I. A note with the symbol i placed over it is played
10 Andolilam (—). The symbol — placed ove
three-quarters of the note and a quarter of the
Raga are to be played in the time value of the written note (Figure A6). q
l
M M Written H—— Played
Go. a.

Written Figure
FigureA10. AlO.

Played ^ 15. The symbol (~). A note with the symbol ~ placed over it is played
Q as shown in Figure All.

Figure
FigureA6. A6.
11. The symbol (=). When the symbol = is placed over a note, the M
mode of playing explained in the preceding paragraph is repeated
twice (Figure A7). For Kurulum, Thirup, Ullasitam, etc., see the Written ~"f~ Played
excellent work on music by Subrama Dikshitar of Ettyapuram5.
The following abbreviations are also useful: Ma. a.
M
Figure All.
I
—
L

Written —Played 1J W u
P
rMA a : I I 16. The symbol f. The symbol f shows that the note over which it
Figure
Figure A7 's P'ace(^
A7. 's struck and at once stopped, silence continuing till the
time indicated by the note expires (Figure A12).
12. The symbol (■ ■ —). A note with the symbol placed over it
is played as shown in Figure A8.
M P M M

Figure A12.
Played |j |
Written 0 -

S1a- The symbols , , —, etc., are sometimes used

Figure
Figure A8. under the notes.
A8.

916 CURRENT SCIENCE, VOL. 68, NO. 9,10 MAY 1995

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