The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology

https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-021-07421-8

CRITICAL REVIEW

A mini review on manufacturing defects and performance

assessments of complex shape prepreg-based composites
Muhammad Hafiz Hassan 1

Received: 24 August 2020 / Accepted: 3 June 2021

# The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag London Ltd., part of Springer Nature 2021

Abstract
Autoclave processing is the most common method used for curing thermoset prepregs due to its capability to minimize void
content. However, unresolved problems still exist in the prepreg manufacturing process, such as the inconsistent thickness, pores,
voids, and resin-rich areas of the laminate panel. Until now, laminate thickness, resin distribution, and fiber wrinkling have been
the key issues that have caught the attention of many researchers. In this review paper, defect-related factors involved in the
manufacturing of complex laminated composites are identified, starting with the layup process itself and ending with the curing
process. The occurrence rate of defects in complex shape laminate is affected by several factors, including mold selection,
material characteristics, bagging configuration, and stacking sequence. The vacuum bagging process needs further attention as
it has been identified as the most critical process following its high contribution to the issues of void content and resin accumu-
lation. Various methods for quality measurements of complex shape laminate were also described in this review, specifically for
the aspects of thickness uniformity, resin distribution, and inter-laminar defects.

Keywords Defect . Complex shape laminate . Prepreg material . Factor contribution . Performance measurement

1 Introduction multiple layers of reinforcement and wet resin to a flat mold,

Components made of advanced composite materials like pre-
preg are commonly used by industries for structural applica-
tions because of its optimized laminate design and controlled
resin content. The application of these materials is based on its
unique advantages such as high strength to weight ratio, high
modulus, high corrosion resistance, and low density [1–3].
Autoclaving is one of the most common curing techniques
used in prepreg production. However, during the autoclave
manufacturing process, voids, wrinkles, uneven thickness,
and distribution of resin can occur due to imperfect layup,
vacuum bagging, and curing [2].
Figure 1 shows the application fields of each composite
structure, the primary issues faced during the manufacturing
of the composite panel, and the processes that lead to the
typical defects. There are three types of composite structures,
including flat, sandwich-like structures and complex shape
structures [3]. Typically, the flat structure is created by adding
* Muhammad Hafiz Hassan
mhafizhassan@usm.my
1
School of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Sains Malaysia,
14300 Nibong Tebal, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
while the complex laminate is created using unique mold
designs.
The main purpose of this review paper is to report the types
of defects that often occur during the manufacturing of com-
posite panel, in specific the ones with a complex shape. The
parameters that led to the defects were addressed separately,
depending on which sub-process was involved during the
production of the prepreg laminate. All standard methods
available for the quality assessment of the finished complex
shape composite panel have also been reported in this paper.
2 Complex shape composite structure
In aircraft part assembly, stiffeners are commonly used to
prevent web buckling on the supports and the concentrated
load area. To decrease the weight relative to the steel material,
some of the stiffeners are made from the composite material.
The designs of stiffeners have become diverse in functionali-
ty, incorporating T-shaped, J-shaped, L-shaped, and hat-
shaped configurations [4, 5]. The L-shaped, which is the sim-
plest unit of a stiffened panel, is extensively used in aircraft
wings especially at the wing spar-to-skin and stiffener-to-skin
interfaces. The T-shaped plate, on the other hand, is typically

Fig. 1 Composite application
used as a planar frame structure for the wing section of the
aircraft.
In the production of complex shape composite panels,
there are still numerous issues to be addressed. The biggest
problem experienced during the manufacturing process of
complex shape panel is the formation of wrinkles at cor-
ners section [6]. Fiber wrinkles are the result of the inabil-
ity of the laminate plies to shear or remove wrinkles, trans-
ferred from the consumable materials. Resistance to wrin-
kles was more dominant for plies that includes [90°] plies
because of the low resistance of these plies to local pres-
sure from wrinkles [7]. Another common issue is resin
accumulation. This issue is due to the formation of a low-
pressure region at the corner section of the composite dur-
ing the vacuum-bag bridging and highly associated with
components produced from a concave tool. Thickness var-
iations are another common issue in the compaction of
complex shape laminates. It is reported that the highest
thickness gradient was localized at the corner [6–12], and
the compaction behavior (i.e., thinning or thickening) was
dependent on mold type and fiber ply orientation.
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
Large amount of experimental and numerical works has
been published on the compaction of autoclave-cured com-
plex shape laminates [7, 8, 10, 12–14]. The effect of various
process parameters such as cure cycle, mold type, mold corner
radius, flange length, bagging configuration, stacking se-
quence (ply orientation), and resin type system on the com-
paction quality of complex shape laminates has been widely
investigated [ref]. In overall, the quality of the produced com-
posite panel was measured in terms of its difference in thick-
ness as well as the void content.
3 Defect in complex shape manufacturing
process
The analysis of the causes and the development of methods to
minimize defects in composites has continuously been taken
into account over the last few decades. To date, most of the
defect assessment studies for complex composite laminates
have concentrated only on the curvature of the L-stiffener
[11, 15–17]. The following subsection provides an overview
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
of typical defects in the production of the complex laminate
shapes. These manufacturing defects are considered because
they often led to a serious deterioration of the mechanical
properties [18] and the service life of the composite.
3.1 Thickness non-uniformity
One of the key problems in the development of complex shape
laminates is the non-uniformity of the thickness. The illustra-
tion of the non-uniform thickness at the corner section of the
composite laminate is shown in Fig. 2. Corner thickening is
reported to be very prevalent on the laminate produced using
the concave (female) mold, while corner thickening is preva-
lent when using convex (male) molds [8, 11, 12]. The dispar-
ity in reaction stress at the corner between the surface of the
laminate exposed to the tool and those exposed to the vacuum
bag caused these thickness variations. Additionally, quasi-
isotropic laminates typically displayed a thickness profile that
was more uniform than laminates directed in the [0°] or [90°]
directions [6, 11, 14].
Furthermore, the non-uniformity of compaction pressure is
the main factor leading to the difference in laminate thickness.
The study of laminates with basic geometries in [7] has devel-
oped a fundamental understanding of the flow and compac-
tion of thermoset matrix composites. This study was princi-
pally focused on high flow composite systems cured in an
autoclave under bleed conditions. The quantity of resin mass
losses was monitored and compared with the prediction model
from the analytical work [6, 7, 11, 19].
3.2 Non-uniform resin distribution
One of the crucial problems that require attention during com-
posite manufacturing is resin flow. This is because the resin
flow is reported to affect the distribution of the fiber volume
fraction, the laminate’s mechanical properties and the final
dimension of the part. Figure 3 shows the visual observation
at the corner of a composite panel for the case of resin poor
and resin rich. The resin-poor and resin-rich term explains the
distribution of the resin content to the entire composite
Fig. 2 Change of thickness in
corners in different mold
application
laminate during the consolidation of the composite panel [2,
10, 15, 20].
The studies of laminates with basic geometries in have
developed significant fundamental understandings on the res-
in flow and the fiber compaction processes [2, 7, 20].
Nevertheless, there has been little research carried out on the
resin flow and fiber compaction for the complex shape com-
posite laminate [8]. The compaction of L-shaped laminated
composites was studied by Hubert and Poursartip [11] through
experimental research on two types of carbon epoxy compos-
ites. The analysis showed that the accumulation of resin rich
or resin quickly occurs with the use of low viscosity resin in
the concave mold with a bleeding condition. This claim was
supported by Brillant [21] who suggested placing the non-
perforated film in order to prevent the resin from flowing
out of the configuration of out-of-autoclave prepreg bagging.
3.3 Inter-laminar defect
There are two major issues in inter-laminar defects that require
intermediate intervention for enhancement: void content and
fiber wrinkling. Most authors have investigated inter-laminar
defects in flat laminate, but less research has been done on
complex laminate shape development, especially at the sharp
corner region.
a) Void content
Void is a tiny cavity in composite panel. The void usually
presents between stacking plies, during semi-impregnation in
resin or in bundles themselves. Voids can be formed in com-
posite laminates by four mechanisms: (1) entrapped air during
ply collation, (2) moisture in the resin, (3) volatiles released
from the curing process, and (4) internal stress build-up from
resin cure shrinkage [2, 22, 23]. It is reported that the moisture
content of prepreg materials could be minimized by allowing
them to reach room temperature correctly after removing the
roll from the freezer [24]. For a no-bleed condition, the resin
could be prevented from flowing out of the laminates by

Fig. 3 Example defect relating to
the resin distribution in complex
shape manufacturing process [6]
increasing the applied pressure and monitoring the bagging
configuration.
b) Fiber wrinkling
Since the composite laminate is formed from layers of pre-
preg materials, the chances of the laminate becoming wrinkled
are high, particularly at the corner. Figure 4 shows typical
inter-laminar defect that can be found at the corner region of
the composite laminate. The wrinkles are usually formed
when the layup process is performed using a concave mold
with sharp radius corners.
Pandey and Sun [25] analyzed two mechanisms of wrinkle
formation during the production of continuous-fiber polymer-
ic composites. The first method assumed that the wrinkle
length was minimal, and the pre-wrinkled state of the wrin-
kling layer was straight. During the forming process, each
layer in the laminate was assumed to be under the in-plane
load because of the laminate’s global bending. Their research
has shown that in the top layer, there were sets of loads under
which wrinkling may occur. The wrinkling only takes place
when the applied load exceeded the critical load.
The second method assumed that the wrinkling was trig-
gered by the buckling of one layer experiencing maximum
compression; remaining layers provide support to the unwrin-
kled part of the wrinkling layer. The analysis was performed
using large-deflection theory, and variations in potential
Fig. 4 Example of inter-laminar
defect. (a) and (b) Fiber wrinkling
deformation in concave mold de-
sign and (c) void occur in corner
section region [6]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
energy of the wrinkled layer as a function of its perturbed
states were used for wrinkles formation prediction [25].
Two mechanisms of fabric deformation during fabric drap-
ing were identified by Long et al. [26]: simple shear and shear-
slip at the fiber crossovers. Simple shear consists of a trellising
action, whereby the tows in the fabric rotate about the cross-
over points. This deformation mechanism can accommodate
large fiber rotations, typically up to [60°]. Fiber “lock-up”
occurs at this point as the parallel rotating fibers contact each
other. This phenomenon was followed by either wrinkling or
bridging, as the material unable to conform to the surface [25,
27–31].
4 Manufacturing defect in prepreg
manufacturing
The main processes to be focused on in the prepreg
manufacturing process are layup, vacuum bagging, and curing
process. Different selections of parameters are known to lead
to different types of defects. For instance, the non-uniform
laminate thickness is the common issue reported during the
layup process of complex shape composite [14, 21]. On the
other hand, for the vacuum bagging process, the non-
uniformity of laminate resin distribution is the common issue
[6]. This section discussed in detail the common type of
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
defects observed during the layup, vacuum bagging, and cur-
ing process of complex shape composite.
4.1 Layup process
The layup process is one of the critical process that may con-
tributes to the defect in complex shape laminate. Based on
previous layup research [6, 21, 32], the process includes mold
selection, material preparation, and the stacking sequence of
the laminate. The significant impact of the improper layup
process will contribute to void formation and non-uniform
thickness. The layup process for prepreg material is the same
in both the autoclave and oven curing process, but the differ-
ence is based on the type of prepreg being used during the
laminate layering [28]. The traditional prepreg is used for the
autoclave’s manufacturing process, while the special out-of-
autoclave (OoA) is used for oven curing.
4.1.1 Thickness uniformity
For the autoclave manufacturing process, the fiber orientation
during the layup process is represented by the stacking se-
quence. Most of the common stacking sequences in the com-
plex shape layup are [0°]n, [90°]n, [ 90°, 0°, +45°, −45°]n, and
[Q]n. For the unidirectional composite type, the [Q] sequence
is a quasi-sequence where the configuration is more stable and
stronger. A different set of stacking sequences can lead to the
complexity of shaping the laminate into the desired shape. The
key problem in the issue of thickness uniformity is at the
corner region. Hubert [6] by the help of the illustration in
Fig. 5 explained why the [0°] and [Q] samples remained uni-
form in the corner compared to the [90°] for unidirectional
type fabric construction. He claimed that the in-plane com-
pression and tensile stress were generated at the curvilinear
fiber bed for the case of using convex and concave molds,
respectively. The dotted lines indicate the original shape of
the fibers, which are oriented in that direction presumed to
be very stiff. Since both [0°] and [Q] laminates have fibers
in the curve’s plane, they resist compaction effectively. On the
other hand, [90°] samples with no fibers in the plane of the
Fig. 5 Longitudinal and shear
stresses generated by the
compaction of a curvilinear fiber
bed for convex and concave tool
configurations [6]
curve are unable to resist compaction; therefore, it leads to
changes in corner thickness.
Li et al. [14] studied the effects of stacking sequence ([0°]
and [Q] laminates) and structural elements towards the thick-
ness uniformity of the L-shaped CF/BMI resin laminates.
They found that the type of the stacking sequence significantly
influences the uniformity of the cured laminate thickness. It
was found that the curvature radius, flat part length, and num-
ber of plies did not affect the uniformity of cured laminate
thickness for the quasi-isotropic laminates. For the [90°]n lam-
inates, the corner radius has a greater impact on the consoli-
dation of the corner than the length of the flat part and the
number of plies. According to the simulated results, resin
pressure and consolidation time were mainly affected by the
type of stacking sequence, due to the changes on the perme-
ability and compressibility behaviors.
In general, corner thickening typically happens with the use
of concave mold and corner thinning with the use of convex
mold. Previous studies have shown that the compaction be-
havior of angle-bended laminates produced from the convex
mold is different from those processed on the concave mold
[11, 12, 32–34]. The high-pressure region generated at the
corner of the male metal mold has led to corner thinning at
the laminate curvature. Low compaction forces on the female
metal mold, on the other hand, led to corner thickening. The
distribution of reaction stress for various types of mold, such
proposed by Hubert [6], is shown in Fig. 6. The reaction stress
in the corner is higher in the convex mold case, and thus there
is thinning. Conversely, the reaction stress is lower for a con-
cave tool, where corner thickening occurs.
For the L-shaped composites, the arc region area varied
with the curvature radius; therefore, curvature variation is dif-
ferent. Li et al. [14, 35] investigated the thickness variation of
laminate produced from the rigid convex and concave molds
of different 2, 4, 6 mm radius. For the [Q] laminates, the cured
thickness varies lightly with the curvature radius. In compar-
ison to the change in curvature radius, the thickness of the
curled [90°] laminates from the rigid convex tool showed
major changes. Furthermore, it is claimed that the greater the
radius of curvature, the better consolidation will be formed.

Fig. 6 Reaction stress at the
corner for convex and concave
mold configurations [6]
The debulking process is an important process in the OoA
manufacturing process, particularly for prepreg material as it
helps in removing air and compacting the laminate layers. A
common debulking operation draws vacuum for 5 to 15 min
on the layup. The frequency for debulking depends on the
component and thickness; however, it is relatively common
to have it at every three to five layup layers. While there is
substantial debate about the merits of debulking, a general
guideline is that there would be less void nucleation sites for
a more compacted laminate.
Hubert and Poursartip [11] claimed that debulking a four
layup layers laminate in a vacuum bag at room temperature
successfully increased the compaction between the plies and
improved the air evacuation. The debulking process is very
important for a thick composite consisting of up to 50 layers to
ensure that all the trapped air is completely extracted during
the layup process. Naji and Hoa [9] conducted a debulking
process on a set of ten-layer, five-layer, and fifty-layer thick
angle-bend laminate, and they found that the fifty-layer set
promoted a uniform laminate thickness. In his research,
Kratz [36] suggested seven configurations of the debulking
process, including applied pressure, release film types, and
edge breather setup on a flat laminate. He found that during
the debulking process, the application of edge breather greatly
improved air permeability. This finding therefore proved that
the in-plane direction of air movement is also critical during
the debulking process for air evacuation.
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
The type of material and configuration used in the oven
cure manufacturing process is different from the autoclave
cure during the layup process. In Brillant’s [21] study, the
thickness variation was tested using two types of OoA pre-
preg: Cycom 5320 8-Harness satin and Cycom 5320 plain
weave. The influence of the material on the measurements
was then attributed to the weave design and density of the
fiber. Plain weave fabrics usually have a looser weave and
are harder to drape than harness satin fabrics [37–39]. The
study showed that for both materials, the magnitudes of the
thickness deviations were identical. Therefore, it is clear that
the configuration of the material does not affect the difference
in the final thickness of the laminate.
The type of mold is another aspect that leads to the thinning
and thickening of laminate corners. Brillant [21] introduced
four different mold designs, in his study on the combined
effect of the thickness and corner radius on the thickness var-
iation of the laminate. Four distinct molds were considered:
two types from the concave and convex molds. He discovered
that the thickness variation of the manufactured laminate in-
creased with the decreasing radius-to-thickness ratio.
4.1.2 Resin distribution
The common resin type used in the composite layup is the
thermoset and thermoplastic. Each type of resin has its own
viscosity property, which during the curing process can lead to
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
distinct flow characteristics. Distribution of resin is the term
used to describe the coverage of the cured resin within the
laminate. Hubert [6], who in the production of complex shape
laminate considered two different resin forms, claimed that the
lower viscosity resin easily contributes to the laminate corner-
rich resin as compared to the higher viscosity resin.
In addition, it is reported that the resin permeability in the
transverse direction is independent of the orientation of the fiber
[6, 11, 40, 41]. For instance, the work Sharma and Siginer [42]
have shown that the distribution of resin pressure and the con-
solidation period were mainly influenced by the type of stack-
ing sequence in the flat region. The resin pressure in the [90°]
laminates decreased rapidly compared to the [Q] laminates and
achieved complete consolidation in a shorter period.
There is a strong likelihood of a resin-rich defect to exhibit
at the corner region of rigid concave mold [6]. The resin-rich
defects often occur at the curvature section of the laminate,
due to the less pressure at the corner section of the concave
mold. If the mold radius is small, the potential for a rich-resin
defect to occur is very high. Meanwhile, due to the higher
compaction pressure applied during the curing process, the
resin-poor defect usually occurs at the corner section of the
convex mold.
4.1.3 Fiber wrinkling
The stacking sequence has a major impact on the production of
fiber wrinkling during the curing process. The low transverse
viscosity of the composite provides no resistance to the local
pressure created by the wrinkles. The presence of fibers orient-
ed in the longitudinal direction of [0°] restricts the material’s
deformation behavior. Meanwhile, the fibers oriented in the
[90°] transverse direction offer little resistance to deviatoric
stresses caused by the mold geometry (both convex and con-
cave mold). Based on this argument, the [90°] layup is therefore
more vulnerable to the development of wrinkles [29, 43].
The resin viscosity becomes lower during the curing pro-
cess, and because of the curvature of the mold surface, the
layers of Teflon film, bleeder cloth, and breather cloth may
develop wrinkles. If the layers are unable to slip during pres-
sure application, the wrinkle cannot be removed, hence start to
affect the surface of the laminate exposed to the bag. All in all,
the wrinkles are usually more difficult to remove with the use
of concave mold [21, 33].
4.2 Vacuum bagging process
After the layup process, the laminate is then sealed in a plastic
bag for the curing process. A standard vacuum bag configu-
ration is illustrated in Fig. 7. The dams are placed along the
periphery of the laminate to prevent the resin from leaking into
the breather. To stop resin pools from forming between the
laminate and dams, the dams are butted up against the layup’s
edge. With either double-sided tape or Teflon pins, the dams
are kept in place.
Many studies have been performed on the vacuum bagging
process to minimize the issues related to the thickness unifor-
mity and resin distribution of the complex shape laminate.
Caul sheets [12] or a pressure intensifier [21, 44] was used
in to ensure that pressure was evenly distributed during the
curing process to achieve uniform laminate thickness. In order
to regulate the resin flow, bagging conditions can be varied,
whether in bleed condition or non-bleed condition.
4.2.1 Thickness uniformity
For this section, the topic began with the autoclave
manufacturing process and proceeded with the oven cure’s
manufacturing process. The caul sheets are usually used in
autoclave manufacturing to distribute the external pressure
to the composite panel uniformly. However, for the oven cure
process, the intensifier is used as additional pressure to in-
crease the compaction to prevent the void formation. There
are several types of intensifier available [21, 44, 45], such as
aluminum, rubber mold, or a combination of both. During
autoclave manufacturing, rubber molds are used to amplify
and evenly redistribute the pressure on the angle-bended com-
posite laminates. Nevertheless, the use of this flexible tool is
challenging and time-consuming.
In a concave mold application, the shape of the outer surface
of the intensifier or pressure strip would evenly press the inner
surface of the laminate profile. As this is the case, the type of the
intensifier and the pressure strip should be tightly controlled
when put in the bagging configuration. Fernlund et al. [12]
and Kim et al. [46] used a convex mold in the autoclave
manufacturing process for the intensifier application. They
found that the caul sheets’ materials and geometries significant-
ly influence the thickness profile of angle laminates produced
on male metal molds (convex mold with intensifier). From their
research finding, the caul sheet successfully changed the lami-
nates’ pressure distribution throughout the cure cycle, and
markedly reduced the degree of corner thinning.
On the other hand, the rubber male mold has also been used
for the angled-shape laminate to prevent bag bridging at the
corner and to intensify the pressure on the composite laminate
[44]. The configurations of the rubber molds are more diverse
and complicated compared to the caul sheet. They have vari-
ous shapes and can be strengthened to change their stiffness
and service life with fillers or fiber.
The intensifier application is very useful for the oven cure
manufacturing process to increase the compaction pressure for
OoA production. Brillant [21] investigated the improvement
of thickness uniformity for OoA prepregs at the corner radius
using two types of rubber intensifier: triangle and pressure
strip. He demonstrated that the corner radius of the pressure
intensifier and pressure strip had a major impact on the final

Fig. 7 The typical vacuum bagging configuration [8]
thickness profile of the laminate. While corner thickening with
the use of a pressure intensifier has been reduced, there are still
other defects related to the flow of resin. Resin accumulation
easily occurs due to excessive intensifier pressure in the con-
cave mold application.
Wang et al. [45] studied the tool assembly schemes to de-
termine the pressure distribution in the autoclave manufactur-
ing of T-stiffened skin using carbon fiber/bismaleimide pre-
pregs. The influence of tool assembly schemes and integral
molding technologies on T-stiffened skins’ compaction was
discussed in detail. A self-designing substantial pressure test-
ing method was introduced to measure T-stiffeners’ pressure
distribution during the curing process. The experimental re-
sults showed that T-stiffeners’ pressure distribution was sig-
nificantly reduced by tool assembly schemes and tool radii.
The compaction forces transferred on the prepregs stacks
with different male rubber molds have been compared using
the simulated data by Xin et al. [44]. The results showed that
the stiffness of the convex mold significantly affected the
degree of corner thickening and the distribution of pressure
on the laminates. In addition, different stiffness of convex
mold regions was required for the corner and flat regions to
ensure uniform compaction. A laminate of uniform thickness
could be produced by using the modified flexible mold.
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
4.2.2 Resin distribution
The arrangement and sealing of the bagging system are
essential for the autoclave manufacturing process and need
to be handled properly. During consolidation, the leakage
from the bagging device will cause less compaction [47].
The bagging condition may differ from a bleed or no-bleed
by regulating the excess resin after the curing process.
When bleeding conditions are required, a bleeder cloth
can be put on top of the laminate to absorb the excess resin.
The Teflon film application can also be utilized for no-
bleed condition, however, to avoid resin flow from the
laminate [6]. It is reported that the bleed sample was found
to have a higher average fraction of fiber length, Vf, com-
pared with no bleed sample. A similar result was observed
by Radford [48] with similar use of molding and bagging
condition.
Conversely, resin pressure is the critical factor controlling
the bagging configuration in the manufacturing process of the
autoclave. The movement of resin happens in the transverse
direction between the layers of the composite laminates.
Lynch et al. [49] used an inexpensive pressure sensing system
to investigate the resin pressure distribution in the composite.
The resin pressure was measured from the driving force
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
created at two different locations during the curing. An online
resin pressure measuring system was proposed by Xin et al.
[44] for the autoclave process, based on the concept of opti-
mizing the transferred liquid pressure and the size of the mea-
suring probe system. The result indicated that the accuracy
and dynamic response of the system could meet the require-
ments needed for the resin pressure measurement.
The applied pressure is borne by the fiber bed in no bleed
state, and the resin pressure inside laminates distributes evenly
in through-thickness and in-plane directions. The higher fiber
content prepreg could result in lower resin pressure during no
bleeding phase, which inhibits void growth. On the other
hand, low fiber prepreg contributes to lower fiber stress and
affect the uniform distribution of the fiber in composites. The
resin pressure profile is greatly affected by the fiber volume
fraction of the prepregs, suggesting that the fiber content of
prepregs should be optimized to achieve free defects and uni-
form distribution of fiber.
For the oven cure manufacturing process, the edge breath-
ing system should facilitate breathing by creating a passage
for air and volatiles between the laminate plies and the breath-
er materials [50]. Two common configurations of edge breath-
ing have been reported by Brillant. [21] In the first configura-
tion, woven fiberglass fabric was wrapped around sealant
tape, touching the laminate and breather cloth. The fiberglass
fabric created a channel through the breather cloth and into the
vacuum line for the air to be expelled, while the sealant tape
prevented any bleeding of the in-plane resin [33].
For the second method, individual fiberglass tows were
spaced evenly around the laminate parameter and overlapped
into the thickness of the laminate. The glass tows were in
touch with the laminate and breather, thus providing an escape
route. For both methods, the sealant tape and cork dams were
used to prevent the vacuum bag from pinching the edges of the
laminate and blocking the evacuation paths. For this reason,
the thickness of the sealant tape and cork dam should therefore
be greater or equal to the laminate thickness [51].
Proper laminate edge breathing in OoA prepregs is essen-
tial to make full use of the air evacuation pathways engineered
into the prepreg. Louis [52] claimed that the Advanced
Composite Group (ACG) manufacturer recommended the
use of peel-ply or dry glass tows to open the laminate edge
breathing at regular intervals [53]. The failure to do so can
result in other consumables for vacuum bagging, some of
which are non-permeable, blocking, and effectively sealing
the laminate free edge.
Brilliant [21] has further applied the edge breathing tech-
niques in the manufacturing process of complex shape com-
posite. In order to improve the evacuation of entrapped air
during the debulking process, woven glass fabric was used
as edge breathers. Unfortunately, the problem of resin accu-
mulation remains to occur at the corner radius of the finished
product. The corner’s problem emerged mainly during the
production process from the bagging arrangement. In order
to manufacture high-quality laminates, further enhancements
in the bagging arrangement should also be taken into account.
In general, the role of the bagging configuration remains
similar to the process of autoclave processing. It is known that
very limited research has been conducted on the bagging con-
figuration setup in the OoA manufacturing process. The study
by Brilliant [21] has proposed five different bagging configu-
rations for male and female mold design. In order to discover
the effect of the air movement at the corner and void defor-
mation after the curing process, different breather positions
were considered. The positioning of breather cloth at the cor-
ner was reported to be a source of defects in both molds. The
corner should be free from breather to (1) prevent the defor-
mation of wrinkles and (2) prevent resin accumulation at the
corner [6, 21]. However, the lack of breather at the corner
increased the void content and resin accumulation for a con-
vex mold application.
4.2.3 Void content
The development of the void is closely related to the bagging
configuration in which the hydrostatic resin pressure is subse-
quently influenced during the cure. It is understood that high
hydrostatic resin pressure minimizes void formation by killing
air bubbles and prevents dissolved gases from forming voids
[54]. Also, high resin pressure is also helpful in such a way
that it compensates for the tensile stresses during curing.
When the resin pressure is too low, the internal stress state
during densification will hit the critical stresses for void for-
mation [55, 56]. From their experimental work, Hubert and
Poursartip [7] have shown that high compaction pressure is
ideal for resin pressure optimization in laminated and non-
bleed conditions. The void content was increased in the bleed
conditions owing to the lowering of the resin pressure.
Fiber wrinkling occurs occasionally during the vacuum
bagging process. The wrinkles from the bagging configuration
can be transferred to the laminate’s surface during the curing
process due to the resin’s lower viscosity. The arrangement for
bagging has a critical influence on the content of the voids.
The volume and position of breather material directly affects
the capacity of the system to evacuate air from the laminate.
The laminate thickness can be uniform in a pressure-
intensifier application. In return, the application of the inten-
sifier will lead to the creation of the void. Brillant [21] found
that more void was created under the pressure intensifier be-
tween the first 2 to 3 plies. This phenomenon indicates that the
edges of the pressure intensifier may have been deformed with
the pressure applied and pinched the laminate plies, blocking
some paths of air evacuation.
As the resin becomes soft during the curing, any wrinkles
in the consumable materials will be passed on to the laminate.
Brillant [21] proposed a breather configuration to avoid the

wrinkle at the corner section. The breather cloth was separated
in two pieces, and the corner edge was exposed to the vacuum
bag directly as shown in Fig. 8. It is seen that the surface
wrinkle at the corner section is considerably reduced by
implementing this configuration. However, resin-rich or resin
accumulation remains to form due to the lack of breather to
absorb the excess resin.
4.3 Curing process
In composite manufacturing study, the curing process has
been less emphasized because it relates to the viscosity of
the resin and the movement regulation of the resin.
Traditionally, the manufacturer data are used for an accurate
curing recipe for a specific prepreg processes. To date, very
limited studies have been conducted on the production of
complex laminate shapes.
4.3.1 Thickness uniformity
It is difficult to control the quality of the panel in the
manufacturing of thicker composite parts, especially to
achieve a minimum void content and perfect uniformity of
thickness. There have been several works on the curing of
thick thermosetting composite materials. With reference to
the work performed in [10, 35, 57], researchers have success-
fully built cure simulation models that are capable of forecast-
ing temperature and degree of cure distributions within the
composite laminate. Naji and Hoa [8, 9] proposed a 2-step
and 3-step curing cycle to study the variations in thickness
and fiber volume fraction of angle bed structure made from
graphite/epoxy Hercules AS4/3501-6 prepreg. For the 2-step
cure process, the recipe was T1=115°C, t1=60min, T2=115°C,
and t 2=120 min while for the 3-step cure process was
T1=115°C, t1= 120 min, T2=150°C, t2= 90 min, T3=177°C,
and t3=240 min. It was found that the 3-step cure method
managed to regulate the thickness uniformity of the angle
bend structure. This finding clearly showed that the number
of steps of curing cycle significantly regulate the thickness
uniformity of the complex shape structure.
Fig. 8 Proposed breather
configuration to avoid surface
corner wrinkle during curing [21]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
4.3.2 Resin distribution
The resin flow is an important parameter in the curing process
that needs attention to monitor the quality of resin distribution.
The resin flow is influenced by inadequate resin pressure and
bleeder material. It is very well known that the resin-rich ten-
dency to occur in a complex shape structure is very high. Xin
et al. [44] proposed two curing cycle stages in their research to
control the resin-rich problem during the curing process. In the
first stage, the resin was allowed to leak into the bleeder. Then,
the assembly was cooled down, and the bleeder was removed.
The bleeder was used to absorb excess resin to achieve the
suitable fiber volume fraction of the composite. The function
of removing the bleeder before the resin is fully cured is to
prevent further resin flow during the second stage and also to
increase the smoothness of the laminate.
5 Performance measurement
Performance measurement is the measurement of the degree
of defects related to the structure of composite product. In this
section, all the measurement methods and apparatus used in
the experimental setup for laminate performance assessment
were compiled and briefly explained. The standard of mea-
surement for each defect will be addressed separately based on
its type.
5.1 Thickness uniformity
a) Point to point measurement
The uniformity of the finished laminate thickness is gener-
ally measured by measuring the thickness at several stations,
as shown in Fig. 9. Most of the researchers used the microm-
eter [12, 44] or Vernier caliper [21] to determine each station’s
thickness. Brillant [21] introduced another technique of mea-
suring thickness of composite component by using image pro-
cessing. A line was drawn at each measurement position be-
tween the top and bottom surfaces of the component, and the
program then measured the length of the line in pixels. The
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
Fig. 9 Schematic for position of
thickness measurement [12]
thickness for each point was analyzed by using point to point
calculation.
b) Degree of uniformity
The idea of calculating the degree of corner thickening or
corner thinning was introduced based on the thickness ratio of
the corner region and the flat region [44]. The ratio of the
average thickness of the flat regions and the thickness of the
curved region was determined based on this formula:
h6
H¼ ð1Þ
hflat
where h6 is the thickness of the curved regions and hflat is
the average thickness of the flat region.
c) Strain percolation
Percolation flow is a way of predicting the movement of
resin into or out of the laminate. A strain percolation describes
the final thickness of the laminate based on the loss of resin
mass and the fraction of fiber length [6]. By assuming that the
in-plain strains are small, the laminate percolation strain is
defined as follows:
M rloss


εpercolation ¼ V f 0 ρ F þ 1−V f 0 ρR ð2Þ
ρR
where ρR is the resin density, ρF is the fiber density, and Vf0
is the initial fiber volume fraction of the composite. Vf0 can be
measured according to the ASTM D 3171-76 standard [58].
d) Bulk factor calculation
A bulk factor of a material is defined as the ratio of the
flange’s initial thickness before healing to the final thickness
of the flange after healing. Generally, it requires two
measurement values: thickness before the cure process and
thickness after the cure process [21]. The bagging configura-
tion type is also one of the parameters influencing the value of
the bulk factor. During the vacuum bagging process, the man-
ner in which trapped air evacuates from the laminate depends
on the bagging configuration. In addition, debulking frequen-
cy and duration also play essential roles in the calculation of
the bulk factor during debulking. Using point to point mea-
surement, the bulk factor can be calculated, and the average
initial flange thickness can be calculated. The calculated bulk
factor represented how good the bagging configuration is to
evacuate the trapped air from the laminate. The formula to
determine the bulk factor is as below:
t averageflangeI
c1 ¼ ð3Þ
t averageflange
taverageflangeI is the thickness of the flange before cure and
taverageflange is the thickness after cure.
5.2 Resin distribution
a) Resin mass loss
Resin mass is a measurement taken on the laminate sample
before and after curing. The measures consisted of the mass,
thickness, and volume faction profiles of the laminate
[59–61]. From the mass measurements, the resin mass loss
ratio can be computed as follows:
 
mc −mc0
M rloss ¼ − ð4Þ
mc0
where mc is the laminate mass after cure and mc0 is the
laminate mass before curing.
Xin et al. [61] suggested a different approach for resin
calculation, in which reference was made to the amount of
resin flow from the prepreg stack into the bleeder materials.
The bleeder materials’ weight, which covers the top surfaces

of the laminate, was calculated after the curing process. Then,
the mass of resin absorbed per ply of unit area of bleeder (m)
was obtained by the following equation:
M 5.3 Inter-laminar defect
m¼ −m0 ð5Þ
nS
where M is the mass of the bleeder material after cure
process, S the area of the bleeder material, n the number of
plies of bleeder material, and m0 the original areal density of
one ply of bleeder material.
b) Fiber volume fraction determination
The fiber volume fraction is an indicator that can be used to
determine the uniformity of the resin distribution within the
composite laminate. Radford [48] and Hubert [6] found that
the bleed sample has a higher average fiber volume fraction
than the non-bleed sample. A low fiber volume fraction was
obtained on the mold side, and a greater fiber volume fraction
was obtained on the bag side.
The local fiber volume fraction (Vf) can be measured by
using an image processing technique as proposed by Radford
[48] and Yang and Colton [62]. The samples were polished
with a diamond solution of 5 μm and were coated with a light
carbon layer. The images were then taken in a scanning elec-
tron microscope (SEM) in backscatter mode and was observed
at a magnification of × 400. Next, the acquired images were
processed to measure the fiber area ratio. Additionally, acid
digestion technique is another technique that can provide cor-
rect fiber volume fraction value [58]. Gu et al. [59] and Xin
et al. [60, 61] proposed that the Vf can be obtained according
to the following equation.
na f
Vf ¼ ð6Þ
ρf hf
where hf is the thickness of the laminate, n is the number of
prepreg ply, af is the areal density of the fabric, and ρf is the
volume density of carbon fiber.
c) Micrograph observation/micro-sectioning
The presences of the cross-section defects also influence
the products’ final quality. It is possible to observe resin-rich
or resin accumulation through the micrograph illustration. The
observation of the micrograph is very helpful in evaluating the
defect or impurities occurring at the corner section of the com-
plex laminate shape. For instance, Hubert [6] reported that the
bridging of the bag at the corner explains the presence of the
resin on the surface exposed to the concave mold bag. The bag
bridges produced a small gap where resin can be seen to
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
accumulate by percolation, thus increasing the local thickness
of the laminate.
a) Micrograph observation/micro-sectioning (wrinkle)
The major contribution of the fiber wrinkling defect is al-
ways caused by the process of layup and bagging arrangement
[23]. However, most wrinkle-related performance measure-
ments had concentrated on visual inspection. The surface
wrinkle also sometimes occurs in the vacuum bagging process
upon layering the consumable material [7]. Brillant [21] re-
ported the presence of several soft material layers between the
laminate surface and the bag. These layers of Teflon film,
bleeder cloth, and breather cloth formed the wrinkles due to
the mold surface’s curvature. The wrinkle would be created if
the layers do not move during the application of pressure, thus
affecting the surface of the laminate exposed to the bag [6, 21,
32, 63].
With a concave tool, the wrinkles are usually harder to be
removed. The prepreg material with low resin viscosity is
more likely to wrinkle in the bag. The presence of additional
bleeder layers, as used in the bleed condition, raises the risk of
wrinkles development. Finally, the low transverse viscosity of
the composite does not give any resistance to local pressure
induced by the wrinkles. Additionally, it is frequently record-
ed that the [90°] stacking sequence is more vulnerable to
wrinkle formation.
b) Void content measurement
There is a clear relationship between the amount of void
material and the mechanical properties of finished composite
laminate. It is difficult to remove the voids, but for the use in
the aircraft industry, it is strongly recommended to regulate
the void to be less than 1%. There are various studies of non-
destructive and destructive methods performed to quantify the
composite void content [64]. In destructive methods, such as
acid digestion, the formula from the ASTM D3171-76 stan-
dard is used to provide a reliable value of the void content,
based on the calculation of the fraction of the fiber length. The
formula of void content calculation is according to the follow-
ing equation:
V v ¼ 100−ðV r þ V m Þ ð7Þ
where the Vv, Vr, and Vm are the void volume, reinforce-
ment volume, and matrix volume respectively in percent.
For the entire laminate, the amount of the void content
varies between the flat and the corner regions. This claim
was proven by Hubert [6], who compared the void content
at the flat and corner section of the laminate in order to find
Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Table 1. Summary of parameter study and performance measurement based on defect study

Type of defect Curing method Sub-process Parameter study Performance measurements

Thickness uniformity Autoclave Layup Stacking sequence • Point to point measurement

Mold type • Degree of uniformity
Mold radius • Strain percolation
• Bulk factor calculation
Number of plies
Frequency of debulking
Vacuum bagging Type of intensifier/caul sheet
Curing Staggering stage
Oven cure Layup Material configuration
Mold type
Frequency of debulking
Vacuum bagging Type of Intensifier/caul sheet
Resin distribution Autoclave Layup Stacking sequence • Resin mass loss
Mold type • Fiber volume fraction
Resin type • Micrograph observation
Vacuum bagging Type of bagging configuration
Curing Two stage curing cycle
Oven cure Vacuum bagging Edge breather configuration
Type of bagging configuration
Inter-laminar (void/fiber wrinkling) Autoclave Layup Stacking sequence • Micrograph observation
Mold type • Void content measurement
Vacuum bagging Type of bagging configuration a.) Acid digestion
b.) Burn off
Oven cure Vacuum bagging Type of bagging configuration

the best method for bagging configuration. Two methods were
proposed in his study: acid digestion and image analysis,
where the value of void content was compared between those
two methods. The degree of voids was ranked on a scale of 0
to 3, with 0 corresponding to no voids and 3 corresponding to
a greater number of voids. It was reported that more voids
were present for the bleed condition and at the laminate corner
region.
Brillant [21] estimated the void content via image analysis
using the ImageJ software. The image was converted to a
binary image after changing the threshold to highlight each
void location. Then, by using a tracing tool, each void’s con-
tour was traced and measured by the program. For each cut
surface, the void content was measured as the proportion of
the total area occupied by the void over the total laminate
surface area, as described by the following equation:

Table 2 Summary of intensifier/caul sheet application in prepreg manufacturing

Author Complex shape Mold type Intensifier/caul sheet Intensifier/caul sheet configuration Curing
type material method

Fernlund et al. C stiffened Convex (male) Rubber and hybrid Full rubber Autoclave
[12] Thin composite (4 plies of carbon fiber)
Rubber-composite
Thick composite (12 plies of cured carbon fiber)
Wang et al. [45] T stiffened Concave Rubber Silicon pressure strip Autoclave
(female)
Kim et al. [46] Hat stiffened Convex (male) Rubber Hat shape male mold Autoclave
Xin et al. [44] L stiffened Concave Rubber L-shaped flexible Autoclave
(female) Triangle flexible
Reinforced triangle flexible
Brillant. [21] L stiffened Concave Rubber Triangle flexible Oven cure
(female) Pressure strip

S void01
Vc01 ¼ x100
S laminate01
S void02
Vc02 ¼ x100
S laminate02
V c01 þ V c02
Vcaverage ¼
2
where Vc01 and Vc02 are the void content for surface 1 and
surface 2, Svoid is total area occupied by voids, and Sla min ate is
overall total area of the laminate.
6 Concluding remarks
This paper presented an overview of the common defect in the
manufacturing of complex-shaped composite of prepreg-
based material. The factor contributing to the specific defect
was discussed separately based on the sub-process collected
from the previous studies. The performance measurement of
each defect was also discussed separately.
Table 1 summarizes the state of research relevant to the
contribution of the factor and the measurement of perfor-
mance based on the specific defect and the subprocess in-
volved in the manufacturing process of prepreg. The follow-
ing remarks can be made based on the current review:
1. The primary issue in the complex shape composite
manufacturing is the complexity of controlling the thick-
ness uniformity, and most of the contributing factors are
originated from the layup stage.
2. Careful selection of the parameters of the vacuum bagging
process is necessary to monitor the flow and the distribu-
tion of the resin within the entire laminate. A proper se-
lection of bleeder type and intensifier or caul sheets is
necessary to prevent void formation during the curing
process.
3. The layup and the vacuum process contribute significant-
ly to the amount of void content at the inter-laminar re-
gion. The stacking and mold selection sequence increases
the chances of the development of fiber wrinkling.
4. The application of the caul sheet or intensifier as summary
in Table 2 is useful for both autoclave and oven curing to
ensure the uniformity of the prepreg material.
Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the Ministry of
Higher Education, Malaysia and Universiti Sains Malaysia for the finan-
cial support for this research work.
Availability of data and materials Not applicable.
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
Author contribution Muhammad Hafiz Hassan — Construct the main
content of the article.
ð8Þ
Funding There is no research grant involved in this article writing, and
ð9Þ the author’s sponsorship is already mentioned in the acknowledgements
section.
ð10Þ Declarations
Ethical approval Not applicable.
Consent to participate Not applicable.
Consent to publish Not applicable.
Competing interests The author declares no competing interests.
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