Digital Communications and Networks 8 (2022) 388–410

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Digital Communications and Networks

journal homepage: www.keaipublishing.com/dcan

A comprehensive layered approach for implementing internet of

things-enabled smart grid: A survey
Zahra Alavikia *, Maryam Shabro
Electric Power Utility (EPU) Digital Transformation Center, Niroo Research Institute (NRI), Tehran, Iran

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The current power grid confronts severe challenges in satisfying customers' demands. Fast transition to the much
Smart grid (SG) more flexible power grid enriched with renewable energies, micro-grid, and distributed energy resources has been
Internet of things (IoT) considered as a straightforward solution to the customers’ high demand. Using smart equipment and renewable
Layered approach
energies, electric power generation and storage through the power grid domains will be facilitated, which enables
Open issues
bi-directional energy and information flows. The power grid with such enhanced features is called Smart Grid
(SG). Controlling and managing the diverse sets of variables in the SG requires precise measuring, monitoring,
communicating, and analytic systems which increase the complexity of the grid. This complexity is the main
barrier to the realization of the SG up to now. The emergence of the Internet of Things (IoT) simplifies monitoring,
communications, and data processing among smart things to connect to anything in the world. This motivates the
SG stakeholders and researchers to proceed with the best way to exploit the IoT technologies in the SG. In this
survey paper, we summarize various efforts in this regard to highlight the advantages of the IoT-enabled SG and
its probable gaps. To this end, a comprehensive layered approach has been proposed in this paper to classify
various applications of the IoT technologies in the SG. Investigating IoT opportunities in each architecture layer
facilitates the role of each technology and its relationship with other technologies. Also, open issues and future
measures for the realization of IoT-enabled SG have been discussed in the paper.

1. Introduction wind, as well as home energy production sources. Compared to the

1.1. Motivation
The traditional structure of the power grid has not much changed
since 1930, and the data exchange in this network is generally based on
the methods defined in the 1970s. This traditional structure consists of
three main parts, including generation, transmission, and distribution, in
which the electric power flows in one direction from the service pro-
viders to the commercial/home customers [1]. Although the overall
structure of the power grid has remained constant over time, some new
technologies have evolved in recent years. One of the main challenges in
this regard is how to utilize modern Information and Communication
Technologies (ICT) to improve reliability, observability, and power ef-
ficiency while meeting diverse power grid requirements.
To demonstrate the necessity of exploiting modern ICT in the power
grid, let us review some new innovative concepts which strongly need the
adoption of the ICT in their processes. One upcoming concept is the
increasing deployment of renewable energy resources like the sun and
conventional power grid, these kinds of energy supplies have much more
decentralized infrastructure, and unpredictability may not be available
over time. These specifications directly affect the power grid's perfor-
mance and thus need advanced ICT for pervasive monitoring and control.
In addition, ICT enables consumers to manage their power consumption
rates through the underlying communication infrastructure which en-
ables autonomous remote monitoring and control in a smart home. Here,
residential consumers are informed about the energy consumption of
every electric appliance and its effect on their bills using ICT in real-time.
This outstanding capacity assists them to make an informed decision in
reducing their power usage. Also, when consumers produce energy
through small sources like photovoltaic panels installed in their houses
and feed it back into the grid, a new bidirectional energy market is
created, which allows the consumers to actively get involved in the
electricity trading while managing their power consumption. To support
the capability of two-way energy flow and bidirectional connectivity, the
measurement, monitoring, and communication systems should be
improved. Similarly, the expected increase in electric vehicles and charge

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: z.alavi.k@gmail.com (Z. Alavikia).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcan.2022.01.002
Received 24 September 2020; Received in revised form 4 January 2022; Accepted 16 January 2022
Available online 1 February 2022
2352-8648/© 2022 Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications. Publishing Services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co. Ltd. This is an
open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Z. Alavikia, M. Shabro Digital Communications and Networks 8 (2022) 388–410

stations with charging and discharging cycles (so-called vehicle to grid) ⋅ A comprehensive layered approach is introduced to discuss IoT op-
would significantly change the patterns of consumption to a bidirectional portunities in the SG.
power flow that needs further communication requirements [2,3]. The ⋅ Innovative IoT technologies are classified according to each layer of
advantages of the ICT for facilitating the interoperability requirements of the IoT-enabled SG architecture.
the grid are also discussed in IEEE Std 2030–2011 [4]. All of these new ⋅ Recent research efforts on enhancing IoT capabilities for the SG ap-
operation functions are hardly achieved unless proper ICT is employed in plications have been classified according to the IoT-enabled SG
the power grid to support two-way information exchange in the grid [5, architecture.
6]. ⋅ Fundamental research directions and measures for accelerating the
In general, increasing the information flows is a prerequisite to IoT-enabled SG have been discussed.
improving the efficiency and productivity of the existing power systems
at all levels of generation, transmission, distribution, and consumption The list of acronyms used in the paper is provided in Table 1.
(power grid domains). This enhancement accelerates the transition of the
traditional power grid to the future power grid, which is called Smart
1.3. Comparison with other related surveys
Grid (SG). The main part of the SG is based on the data collected from a
large number of sensors in the SG. These sensors include both novel and
With the advent of IoT, sporadic efforts have been conducted in the
conventional sensors, such as voltage and current transducers, electrical
literature to study how IoT opportunities would change different parts of
measurement sensors, power line temperature sensors, magnetoresistive
the power grid. In this regard, the IoT software, architecture,
sensors, outage detection sensors, transformer monitoring sensors, flux
and phase sensors, pressure sensor, frequency sensors, power quality
Table 1
transducers, vibration sensors, and weather condition monitoring sen-
Commonly used acronyms in the paper.
sors, which are widely located in the smart home management system
and distribution, transmission, and generation levels of the power grid. Acronym Meaning

The data captured by the sensors is transmitted directly, or after the 3GPP 3rd Generation Partnership Project
initial analysis, to a controlling center [3]. In recent years, extensive ADMS Advanced Distribution Management System
AI Artificial Intelligence
research has been conducted to optimize and upgrade the traditional
AMR Automatic Meter Reading
power grid and change it to the SG [4,7,8]. However, the most important API Application Programming Interface
issues for adopting proper ICT in the SG are reducing the overheads of BDA Big Data Analytic
communication protocols and improving near real-time processing of the BLE Bluetooth Low Energy
large volumes of data in the power grid. Besides, it is predicted in Ref. [9] CIS Customer Information System
CPU Central Processing Unit
that an investment of 11.7 trillion in the energy sector is required to meet
CoAP Constrained Application Protocol
the conventional energy demand in the 2010–2035 period. These issues DDS Data Distribution Service
motivate the power grid stakeholders to proceed to find a light, DL Deep Learning
comprehensive, low-cost, and efficient solution toward the fast transition DMS Distribution Management System
DRMS Demand Response Management System
to the SG. To this end, the Internet of Things (IoT) and its corresponding
DSP Digital Signal Processing
technologies have been developed as a reliable solution [5,10–13]. EMS Energy Management System
IoT is a paradigm that introduces the connectivity between huge FPGA Field-Programmable Gate Array
objects/things through wired and wireless technologies to create new GIS Geographic Information Systems
services/applications. Using IoT, it is possible to connect virtual and GPS Global Positioning System
HAN Home Area Network
physical things anywhere and anytime via the existing and evolving
ICT Information & Communication Technologies
interoperable ICT [14,15]. IoT resolves some challenges in the realization IaaS Infrastructure as a Service
of the SG, like tracking and connectivity of a large number of SG devices IIoT Industrial IoT
and the collaboration between SG devices through ubiquitous, distrib- IoT Internet of Things
IEC International Electrotechnical Commission
uted, and autonomous communications. Hence, IoT technologies would
IETF Internet Engineering Task Force
be able to create, facilitate, and accelerate the widespread advances in IIRA Industrial Internet Reference Architecture
the SG by supporting different network functions in the grid. In the IP Internet Protocol
simplest case, exploiting IoT technologies in the power industry contains LTE-M Long-Term Evolution for Machine
three basic steps, including digitizing the assets, collecting the asset data, LPWAN Low Power Wide Area Networks
LLN Low Power and Lossy Networks
and developing computational algorithms in the control systems (e.g., in
M2M Machine-to-Machine
the edge/cloud). Here, telecommunication infrastructures with a guar- MQTT Message Queuing Telemetry Transport
anteed Quality of Services (QoS) that are compatible with industrial ML Machine Learning
protocols and specific security requirements in the SG are required [16]. NAN Neighborhood Area Network
NIST National Institute of Standards and Technology
OSI Open Systems Interconnection
OPC-UA Open Platform Communications Unified Architecture
1.2. Contribution of the paper OMS Outage Management System
P2P Point-to-Point
The purpose of this paper is to provide the set of measures required P2MP Point-to-Multipoint
PaaS Platform as a Service
for the realization of IoT-enabled SG. To this end, an Industrial IoT (IIoT) PMU Phasor Measurement Unit
layered approach, i.e., IoT for industrial applications, has been applied. QoS Quality of Services
In the IIoT, industrial control systems are integrated into the organiza- RFID Radio-Frequency Identification
tional, analytical, and business processes, which leads to the improve- RPL Routing Protocol for LLNs
SaaS Software as a Service
ment in decision-making and interaction between a large number of
SDN Software Defined Networking
automated control systems. The main contribution of this survey paper SCADA Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition
can be summarized as follows: SG Smart Grid
TR Technical Report
⋅ The concept of IoT-enabled SG is presented clearly from the industrial WAN Wide Area Network
ZigBee SE ZigBee Smart Energy
point of view.

389
Z. Alavikia, M. Shabro
communications, and privacy for smart home applications are reviewed
in Refs. [17,18]. In a similar survey in Ref. [19], architectures and re-
quirements of next-generation smart building management systems using
IoT are studied. In Ref. [20], a database of smart home applications using
IoT is gathered. The roles of smart meters in the IoT-enabled SG are
reviewed in Ref. [21], where various wireless communication technol-
ogies for AMI are categorized. An overview of fog computing supports for
the basic elements of IIoT is provided in Ref. [22]. Probable cybersecurity
threads in the IoT-enabled SG and emerging measures are surveyed in
Ref. [23]. The concept of IoT and SG and their corresponding challenges
and opportunities are also reviewed separately from different perspec-
tives in survey papers. These surveys addressed various issues, such as
applications of Machine Learning (ML) and Big Data Analytics (BDA) in
the SG [24], the blockchain technology in the SG [8], smart meter evo-
lution [25], cyber-attacks in the IoT [26], deep learning analytics [27],
ML in the IoT [28], IoT applications [29], low-power wide-area tech-
nologies for the IoT [30], and IoT privacy [31].
Some surveys as [5,12,13] reviewed research work on exploiting IoT
technologies in the SG, where the existing prototypes, architectures, and
applications of the IoT in the SG are introduced. Focusing on individual
IoT-aided SG systems, these review papers are rarely able to cover all
issues originating from the inherent interdependency between various
layers of the IoT-enabled SG. In this paper, several communication and
information technologies and research work have been classified per
layer of the considered IoT-enabled SG architecture. This helps to iden-
tify current technologies and research work clearly at each layer and find
the relationship between concepts at different layers. This end-to-end
view of the IoT-enabled SG facilitates the development of a roadmap
for combining IoT with SG through a step-by-step approach. Considering
this comprehensive layered approach for implementing the IoT-enabled
Fig. 1. Organization of the paper.
390
Digital Communications and Networks 8 (2022) 388–410
SG, several key issues and corresponding research directions in each
layer of the IoT-enabled SG architecture have been precisely reviewed to
pave the way toward future academic and industrial investment.
1.4. Organization of the paper
The concept of the IoT-enabled SG is reviewed in Section 2. Section 3
is dedicated to the layered approach for the IoT-enabled SG. In this
section, different IoT technologies and their advantages for utilization in
the SG are introduced according to the layers of the IoT-enabled SG ar-
chitecture, namely, perception, connectivity-networking, analytic, and
security layers. Then in Section 4, research directions for the realization
of IoT-enabled SG are reviewed in each layer of the considered archi-
tecture. Open issues and future measures for accelerating the IoT-enabled
SG are discussed in Section 5 before a conclusion is drawn in Section 6.
The organization of the paper is summarized in Fig. 1.
2. Concept of IoT-enabled SG
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has developed
a conceptual model for the SG. According to this model: (1) there are
seven segments of production, transmission, distribution, consumer,
markets, operations, and service provider in the SG; (2) all SG stake-
holders and consumers are interacting with multiple wired and wireless
communication protocols;(3) to manage, repair, and maintain the grid,
several software modules/packages, like Distribution Management Sys-
tem (DMS), Geographic Information Systems (GIS), Outage Management
System (OMS), Customer Information System (CIS) and Supervisory
Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) are employed in the SG, among
which some, e.g., SCADA, are designed for the management and control
Z. Alavikia, M. Shabro Digital Communications and Networks 8 (2022) 388–410

of the SG. Another definition of the SG is provided by the IEEE stan- estimation techniques to optimally control the grid performance through
dardization institute wherein SG is the composition of large-scale systems data analysis [33]. The IoT-enabled SG increases the performance of
and includes power, communication, and information layers for each advanced applications of the grid. Fig. 2, illustrates a classification of
segment of the NIST model [3,32]. These conceptual models have been these applications along with the smart grid segments, including enter-
expanded without the IoT concept. By increasing the number of SG prise, generation, transmission, distribution, and consumption [34].
equipment with limited sensing coverage and processing capability, the In order to better illustrate the concept of IoT-enabled SG, we
traditional technical and management solutions cannot satisfy the re- consider an example of the wind farm monitoring and control system
quirements of the fast-evolving SG services anymore. For example, vast using IoT in Fig. 3. According to this system, a large number of turbine
implementations of smart metering technologies enhance the power sensors, including temperature, humidity, pressure, current, voltage,
grid's sensing capabilities, however, there is no standard protocol for wind speed, and direction sensors automatically measure the status of
communications among these meters with various manufacturers' con- each element of the wind turbine with a high sampling rate. Additionally,
figurations. On the other hand, smart meters and transceivers in the SG the control system adjusts the operations of wind turbines by applying
bridge communication channels between consumers and utility pro- various actuators at the edge/device level. In this system, data is trans-
viders. That is, using these devices, two-way communications are ferred using an appropriate IoT technology from condition monitoring
established between the consumers and the utility for managing
demand-response services as well as reducing the energy usage through
online monitoring of the energy consumption of the consumers. Here, in
the forward and backward directions, the information on real-time power
consumption and dynamic pricing are respectively exchanged between
the consumer side and the utility center. However. this brings new
challenges in terms of two-way digital communications. In addition, by
injecting a large number of distributed energy generation sources like the
solar panels close to the consumer's location, the two-way power flows
would emerge, which leads to prosumers. Prosumers are those consumers
who can produce electricity using small-scale energy generators installed
at their houses and then feed forward the electricity to the grid. Man-
aging the grid balance in such a situation is a noteworthy challenging
issue that needs more consideration for the two-way connectivity. IoT is
the main constituent in the formation of two-way digital communication.
It simplifies the transmission of the consumer's/prosumer's data to the
utility and vice versa through web-based applications. Not limited to
these examples, IIoT technologies bring new opportunities for the
transformation of the power grid. The IIoT supports the SG network
functionalities for connectivity and automation throughout the grid
(from the generation to the consumption). This is achieved by exploiting
IoT devices for monitoring and tracking the SG equipment, the standard
communication protocols, as well as the data analysis methods [5,6,13,
23]. Hence, the role of IoT in the SG can be categorized as: (1) digitizing
the SG equipment; (2) collecting data through sensors or smart equip-
ment and transferring them to the control center; (3) and developing Fig. 3. Wind farm monitoring and control system using IoT.

Fig. 2. A representation of IoT-enabled SG opportunities along with the smart grid segments [34].

391
Z. Alavikia, M. Shabro
sensors to an industrial cloud consisting of several data centers or control
centers to perform data analysis. It is noted that initial processing may be
performed using fog nodes located between the edge level and the cloud
to eliminate data transferred to the cloud. Finally, at the cloud level, the
decision-making process will be triggered to control the operation of each
element of the wind turbine in accordance with the analysis of a huge
volume of captured data. The considered system will facilitate the
functionality of Condition Monitoring and Diagnosis (CMD) and also
SCADA in the SG.
3. Layered approach for IoT-enabled SG
In this paper, we have integrated the SG conceptual model [3] with
the IIoT connectivity framework introduced by Industrial Internet Con-
sortium (IIC) [35] as shown in Fig. 4. It is worth pointing out that the IIoT
connectivity architecture is introduced for message transmission in in-
dustrial environments with distinct properties. This architecture consists
of five layers, namely the physical, link, network, transport, and frame-
work layers. Regarding Fig. 4, data is gathered from the IoT-enabled SG
devices at the perception layer. This layer has the responsibility of
monitoring the physical world and collecting data using sensors and
smart equipment. The IoT devices are equipped with communication
modules that connect them to the networking & connectivity layer. In
this layer, the mapping between the IoT devices and the connectivity
protocols is established. Then, the data is transmitted toward the appli-
cation layer for further analysis. The application and analysis layer's
functions process the data received from the networking & connectivity
layer to troubleshoot the fault in the SG in real-time. There are several
components in this layer, such as Application Program Interfaces (API),
content-related servers, and directories services, which promote a variety
of applications for the IoT-enabled SG. Security is investigated
throughout the IoT-enabled SG architecture from the perception layer to
the applications layer. The security of an IoT-enabled SG system is
generally defined in accordance with the objective of that system and is
evaluated in terms of potential confidentiality, integrity, and
accessibility.
To explain how the layered approach simplifies the design and
implementation of the IoT-enabled SG system, it is necessary to have a
deep inspection of the end-to-end message transmission in this system.
To this end, consider an IoT-enabled SG system in Fig. 5 where industrial
Fig. 4. IoT-enabled SG layered approach.
392
Digital Communications and Networks 8 (2022) 388–410
sensors measure various parameters of the transmission tower such as
conductor temperature and fluctuations. The operation of industrial
sensors is to gather the transmission tower's data mainly mapped into the
perception layer. Then the captured data is transferred to the condition
monitoring center for further decision making and possible operations.
To ensure fast, secure, and reliable data transmission in this scenario,
proper functions should be defined at all levels of the considered system.
Here, functions regarding physical signals exchange (optical, electric, or
other) over the wireless/wired channels, frame exchange using signaling
protocols, packet routing between non-adjacent parties, and structured
data exchange are needed. The IIoT's layered architecture lets us cate-
gorize homogeneous functions in the same layer and connect different
layers using appropriate industrial interfaces that offer certain services to
the corresponding higher layers. In this architecture, each layer's func-
tions can be independently designed without considering the details of
other layers, which simplifies the design of the system. To provide the
communication between two endpoints, e.g., between the industrial
sensors and the processing unit in the monitoring center, specific in-
dustrial protocols which coincide with the SG applications' requirements
should be introduced at the peer layers of any two adjacent entities. For
instance, in Fig. 5, the industrial sensors and the base station commu-
nicate with each other through an agreement on the physical and link
layers defined for the wireless network, while the Data Distribution
Service (DDS) protocol can be used by the peer entities at the framework
layers of the industrial sensors and the computer in the monitoring center
to settle the required policies for real-time data transfer. The entities in
the peer layers may be any processes, software, or hardware devices. In
reality, there is no direct data transfer between two entities in the peer
layers of two distinct endpoints. That is, there is virtual connectivity
between the framework layers, for example, between the industrial
sensor and the computer in the monitoring center in Fig. 5. Instead, data
is passed from each layer to the layer just below it, till the lowest layer,
i.e., the physical layer receives the data and sends it to the adjacent de-
vice via underlying media. In Fig. 5, the physical layers of the industrial
sensors and the base-station communicate the message signals through
the wireless link. Finally, when the monitoring center receives the
captured data, it performs advanced analytics to diagnose possible faults
of the transmission tower. This operation is conducted at the application
& analytics layer (see Fig. 4).
According to Fig. 5, there are several types of messaging in an IoT-
enabled SG. To determine the requirements of each traffic, the charac-
teristics of various SG applications should be examined. In this regard,
the Open Smart Grid (OpenSG) working group identifies the main use
cases of the SG applications and encodes them into a maximum latency-
minimum reliability matrix to indicate their distinct requirements. Here,
latency is defined as an end-to-end metric for measuring the time
required for message transmission between the source and the destina-
tion, which includes the total time for message processing and network
transmission. Also, reliability is considered as the probability of suc-
cessful message transmission within the defined latency. Use cases that
are originated from SG applications include: Customer Information and
Messaging (CIM); Dispatch Distributed Customer Storage (DDCS); Dis-
tribution System Demand Response- Centralized Control (DSDRC); De-
mand Response-Direct Load Control (DRDLC); Field Distribution
Automation Maintenance-Centralized Control (FDAMC); Fault Clear,
Isolation and Reconfigure (FCIR); Firmware and Program Updates (FPU);
Islanded Distributed Customer Storage (IDCS); Meter Events (ME); Meter
Reading (MR); Outage and Restoration Management (ORM); Plug-in
Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV); Premise Network Administration
(PNA); Electric Service Prepayment (EVPP)); Pricing TOU/RTP/CPP;
Utility Service Switch/Valve Operation (USS); Voltage Ampere Reactive-
Centralized Control (VAR-VVC). The requirements of these use cases
have been precisely determined in terms of reliability and latency by the
OpenSG. Generally speaking, DSDRC, FDAMC, DDCS, IDCS, VCC, and
FCIR require high reliability and low latency, namely, having high QoS;
while use cases like pricing, DRDLC, and bulk MR messages have
Z. Alavikia, M. Shabro
Fig. 5. Example of message transmission in an IoT-enabled SG system.
relatively low QoS requirements. Meanwhile, other use cases, such as
MR, ME, ORM, PNA, PHEV, and USS, have intermediate QoS re-
quirements. Because of the diverse requirements of these use cases, the
network should meet the strict and loose latency and reliability toler-
ances of the applications [36].
Considering the comprehensive layered approach for the IoT-enabled
SG in Fig. 4 and its messaging requirements, common IoT protocols and
standards applicable for different SG applications have been introduced
and classified in this paper. Then, an overview of recent research aimed
at improving or exploiting these protocols for the IoT-enabled SG ap-
plications has been provided.
3.1. Perception layer
The lowest layer of the IoT-enabled SG architecture is the perception
layer (see Fig. 4). In this layer, the SG devices gather data from the
surrounding environment. To do this, each SG device should contain
three main modules, i.e., the input/output, processing, and communi-
cation modules. In the input modules, analog or digital signals are
transmitted after initial processing. Initial processing at the SG devices
can significantly reduce the computation and communication overhead
on upstream links and systems. Here the measured data from one asset is
processed by any computing elements such as Central Processing Unit
(CPU), Graphics Processing Unit (GPU), Field-Programmable Gate Array
(FPGA), or Digital Signal Processing (DSP) on the SG devices for data
downsampling and aggregation, controlling core application, co-
processing, timing and synchronization, high-speed control and signal
processing. This initial processing just near the physical assets enables
fast error detection and maintenance for those sensitive data with low
latency requirements. To deeply analyze the measured data (almost
historical or distributed data in nature) for further predictions and
decision-making, the captured data is transferred to a central analytic
unit with higher computing capacity. For routing and transferring data to
remote computing and storage servers, the connection between any two
SG devices is then established via different functions such as data man-
agement functions, security functions, and QoS provisioning functions
[1,37,38].
In general, SG devices refer to the variety of equipment that is
393
Digital Communications and Networks 8 (2022) 388–410
spanned over power grid domains. All power grid equipment is not
currently intelligent and thus cannot be considered as IoT devices. The
digitization of all equipment is a gradual and expensive process; on the
other hand, it is practically impossible to stop the traditional power grid
evolution so that all power grid equipment will be digitized. Therefore,
the first step on the road map of this evolution would be the installation
of IoT smart devices to collect data from non-smart power grid equip-
ment. IoT smart devices mainly include a variety of wireless sensors,
Radio-Frequency Identification (RFID), cameras, infrared sensors, laser
scanners, and Global Positioning System (GPS) scanners, etc. Using these
devices, the ability to gather huge data sets from diverse equipment in
the SG would be increased [12,21].
By considering the components of the SG architecture introduced by
the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) [39], we classify
these components at all levels of the power grid domains into two cate-
gories of smart equipment and non-smart equipment, as shown in Fig. 6.
Non-smart equipment is those which require special IoT devices for
monitoring and data collection. According to Fig. 6, some equipment,
such as grid meters, Phasor Measurement Unit (PMU), and towers, are
used both in the transmission and distribution sectors of the SG. It should
be noted that this classification is based on the most relevant electric
power equipment. In this regard, some efforts have been conducted by
electric power companies to enhance the capabilities of the power grid
equipment. For example in April 2018, Siemens introduced a new smart
digital transformer called Sensformer to optimize the operations through
widespread connectivity and data utilization.
As an example of non-smart equipment here we consider the moni-
toring of distribution/transmission lines using IoT devices like condi-
tioning monitoring, weather, and temperature sensors. In recent years,
natural disasters have inflicted heavy losses on high voltage lines. In
addition, monitoring of power lines is currently performed by workforces
who do not have sufficient precision and inspection frequency to accu-
rately investigate and predict the asset performance. These problems can
be alleviated through a proper connection between installed sensors on
the power lines and any two consecutive towers. Here, some parameters
of distribution/transmission lines that can be monitored using installed
IoT devices are explained [5,12]:
Z. Alavikia, M. Shabro
Fig. 6. Classification of SG equipment into two categories of smart equipment and non-smart equipment.
⋅ Conductor fluctuations: by analyzing the accelerometer sensors' data,
we can compute the number of vertical and horizontal fluctuations of
a conductor to determine whether the conductor is at the risk of se-
vere fluctuations or not. This information can be used to prevent
electrical discharge between phases and towers.
⋅ Conductor deviation: the amount of conductor deflection can be
calculated by processing the data obtained from wind speedometers
as well as accelerometer sensors. Then, the operators perform
appropriate measures to increase the conductor's resistance against
the wind and thus find the proper discharge point.
⋅ Conductor freeze: this problem occurs when a thick layer of ice is
formed on the transmission lines. Due to the excessive load on the
tower, many towers have fallen in such a situation which causes
serious damage to the power grid. Using weather and mechanical
sensors, it is possible to monitor the situation of each transmission
line and prevent the occurrence of this event.
⋅ Conductor temperature: the conductor operating temperature can be
obtained via analyzing the data collected from the temperature sen-
sors on the cables.
⋅ Insulation pollution: dielectric on insulation may gradually increase
with the accumulation of the sediment resulting from climatic con-
ditions such as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, and dust particles. By
monitoring the environmental condition of each insulation, mathe-
matical models can be exploited to compute the equivalent salt de-
posit density followed by measures such as pollution warnings and
line cleaning.
In addition to the non-smart equipment, there is some smart equip-
ment such as the smart meter in the SG (see Fig. 6). The advent of new
technologies for data gathering and reducing the smart meter energy
consumption makes this equipment an IoT device. Using the IoT-based
smart meters, a large amount of data can be collected, stored, com-
pressed, and transmitted to the control center, or vice versa, the energy
management orders received from the control center can be applied to
control the power consumption. Also, using the smart meter for the
Automatic Meter Reading (AMR) reduces the number of costly
394
Digital Communications and Networks 8 (2022) 388–410
operations. With this advantage, the number of meter readings during a
given period would be increased, which facilitates the analysis of con-
sumers’ energy consumption patterns.
3.2. Connectivity and networking layer
With the perception of IoT-enabled SG devices, it is needed to
communicate the captured data with the remote end-point to trigger
appropriate applications at the analytic & application layer. Here, proper
connectivity and networking architecture facilitate the communications
in the IoT-enabled SG system. It is noted that in addition to the diversity
and multiplicity of the industrial devices, traffic generated by these de-
vices has specific requirements that should be taken into account for
selecting the protocol stack. That is, for establishing a connection be-
tween any two end-points in the SG, it is necessary to consider the spe-
cific requirements of these devices at all layers of the communication
protocol stack. The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model
and the Internet model do not meet all requirements of the IIoT systems.
Hence, as it is mentioned in Section 3, the IIoT reference architecture was
introduced by IIC to accelerate the design of industrial systems based on a
common framework [35].
In Table 2, different layers of the IIoT model are shown in comparison
to the layers of the OSI and Internet models [14,35]. According to
Table 2, the lowest layer of the IIoT model is the physical layer, which has
the responsibility to exchange physical signals, e.g., electrical signals,
through the wireless/wired channels established between participants.
At the top of the physical layer, the entities at the link-layer exchange
frames using signaling protocols on a common physical link between two
adjacent participants. At the third layer, i.e., at the network layer, the
packets are forwarded with a limited length in accordance with the
applied routing protocol. Then, the transport layer sets up an end to end
connection across the participants by exchanging the required messages
with a variable length. Exchanging the structured data with adjustable
QoS between end participants has been performed in the framework
layer. As it is indicated in Table 2, three lower layers of the IIoT model,
which are called networking layers, are similar to the well-known OSI
Z. Alavikia, M. Shabro
Table 2
Comparison of IIoT layers with the OSI and Internet Models.
Layers of IIoT Correspondence to OSI Correspondence to
Model Model Internet Model
Connectivity Framework Application Application
Presentation
Session
Transport Transport Transport
Networking Network Network Internet
Link Data Link Link
Physical Physical
and Internet models. While the transport and framework layers, which
are called connectivity layers, have been recently considered in the
literature to meet the requirements of the IIoT applications. By
comparing the interoperability property of the connectivity layer, it can
be concluded that the framework layer is equivalent to layers 5–7 of the
OSI model and the application layer of the Internet reference model.
In the rest of this section, the connectivity and networking protocols
are introduced. Then, the possibility of applying these protocols to
different parts of the SG is investigated.
3.2.1. Connectivity layer
In this subsection, the properties of most relevant IoT connectivity
protocols for the SG applications are reviewed. The candidate standards
for IIoT connectivity at both the framework and transport layers and their
key characteristics are shown in Table 3. At the framework layer, data
exchange can be organized as a common and integrated data format in-
dependent of the endpoints or the hardware platforms. The most effec-
tive framework standards for IIoT applications include DDS, Open
Platform Communications Unified Architecture (OPC-UA), and
OneM2M. DDS is an open framework standard that aims at connecting
components. Due to the DDS features like flexibility, reliability, and high
speed required for complex and real-time applications, this protocol is
mainly used to integrate systems or build automated systems. The OPC-
UA is exploited in the factories to enable the interoperability between
software applications mainly in the automation and SCADA systems. That
is, several clients running OPC can communicate with an installed OPC
server through a channel interfacing high-level software applications
with underlying physical devices. Here, field devices like Programmable
Logic Controllers (PLCs), Remote Terminal Units (RTUs), gateways,
controllers, and other measurement and transmission units can commu-
nicate through the OPC link in a heterogeneous environment to ensure
the effective control and monitoring of the automation systems in a
factory. The applications of OneM2M include the registration of ma-
chines and applications, service charging and billing, application man-
agement, and monitoring. OneM2M commercial version is developed for
the home automation applications [14,35,40,41].
At the transport layer of the IIoT framework, Constrained Application
Protocol (CoAP) was developed by the Internet Engineering Task Force
(IETF) to simplify the device-to-device queries using an enhanced Hy-
pertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). The focus of CoAP is on the operational
domain. Message Queuing Telemetry Transport (MQTT) is another open
standard in the transport layer, which is mainly designed for remote data
collection from massive machines in a multipoint-to-point communica-
tions model. Another transport protocol is Advanced Message Queuing
Protocol (AMQP), which is a message-oriented, publish-subscribe, and
queuing protocol for reliable and secure point-to-point messaging. Also,
Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol (XMPP) is designed for
message-centric middleware, which uses a broker-less decentralized ar-
chitecture based on the client-server model for text messaging applica-
tions. Meanwhile, Representational State Transfer (REST) is a software
395
Digital Communications and Networks 8 (2022) 388–410
Correspondence to Conceptual Interoperability Correspondence to Some IoT
Levels Standards
Different types of structured data are shared DDS
between endpoints. OPC-UA
OneM2M
Bits and Bytes are shared between endpoints. CoAP, Fieldbus
MQTT, REST
XMPP, AMQP
Packets are shared between the endpoints, which 6LoWPAN
may not be linked to a physical link. RPL
Digital frames are shared between endpoints on a 802.11ah, LoRa, Sigfox,
shared physical link. ZigBee(SE), BLE, NB-IoT,
Analog signals are modulated between endpoints LTE-M, ISA100a
on a shared infrastructure. Wirelesshart,ZWave
architectural style for designing interactive applications using web ser-
vices like HTTP to provide a lightweight client-server-based connection
between devices and also from devices to the cloud. Any web service
following REST's guidelines is named RESTful. RESTful web services are
widely exploited to publish the status of web resources under textual
representation. It should be noted that AMQP, MQTT, and REST are
message-oriented protocols that aim at transferring the message to the
destination(s) without considering the data format. However, the main
purpose of the data-oriented protocol such as CoAP and XMPP is deliv-
ering data, assuming that the data can be easily understood by the des-
tination(s) [14,18,35].
The assessment of connectivity standards in Table 2 shows that IIoT
connectivity protocols can be classified according to their key charac-
teristics for various SG applications. To this end, the DDS protocol is
appropriate for controlling the distributed systems, e.g., controlling
components of a smart wind farm, SCADA, and load balancing. MQTT
and CoAP protocols are suitable for data collection applications such as
data collection from smart meters. The AMQP protocol is commonly used
for subscribers’ billing processing. The XMPP and REST protocols are
exploited in the API of SG web-based programs such as connection with
the smart meters and remote controlling, e.g., lighting control. The ap-
plications of each connectivity protocol in the SG are illustrated in Fig. 7.
3.2.2. Networking layer
Numerous networking protocols are proposed by standardization
bodies among which some are designed according to the IoT re-
quirements and are suitable for IIoT applications. The networking layer
contains two sub-layers, namely, the network layer and the link-physical
layer (see Fig. 4). In this subsection, at first, the relevant standards of the
IIoT network layer are introduced. Then, the existing standards in the
IIoT link-physical layer are reviewed for electric power industry
applications.
3.2.2.1. Network layer. The most common issues in the network layer of
the IIoT model are addressing and routing a huge number of low-power
IIoT machines. In the context of addressing massive devices in the SG, IEC
published a Technical Report (TR) titled “Guidelines for migration from
Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) to IPv6” [42]. According to this TR,
IPv6 with 128 bits address space are adopted as a candidate in devel-
oping or revising new standards for the electric power industry since
2015. In general, the necessity of transition to IPv6 depends on the type
of applications in the SG. For example, the lack of sufficient address space
is not the main challenge in addressing the substations because sub-
stations usually use the IPv4 private addresses as described in the IEC TR
61 850–4; while other services such as smart metering, distributed gen-
eration, demand-response management, and electric vehicles will require
additional address space as in IPv6.
Another challenge at this layer is enhancing the routing protocol’s
performance for the IIoT applications in the SG. To mitigate excessive
power consumption of the routing protocols for specifically Low Power
Z. Alavikia, M. Shabro
Table 3
Candidate standards for IIoT connectivity at both framework and transport layers
and their key characteristics.
Protocols Key Characteristic
Framework DDS - Open standard
Layer - Generally used in the
control, application,
information, and
operation domains
- A data-centric middle-
ware standard
- Referred to as a data bus
- Based on the publish-
subscribe pattern
- One-to-many and many-
to-one communications
- Suitable for complex or
real-time applications
OPC-UA - Used in manufacturing
industry
- Its target is a device
interoperability
- Applications become
dependent on a
particular device that
controlled
- Generally used in the
operations,
information, and
application domains
- Based on the publish-
subscribe pattern
- Connects applications at
the factory level and
between factory and IT
cloud.
OneM2M - A common service layer
- A horizontal platform
architecture with three
layers
- Connecting many things
for horizontal
information flows
- Suitable for
interoperability across
millions of nodes
Transport CoAP - Open standard
Layer - Inspired by HTTP, but
designed to be more
lightweight
- Generally used in
operations domain.
- Based on client-server
paradigm
- Suitable for device-to-
device queries
MQTT - Open connectivity
standard
- Generally used in
information domain
- Its target is data
collection from large
networks of small
devices
- Main purpose is
telemetry or remote
monitoring
- Based on a hub-and-
spoke architecture
- Suitable for many-to-
one data collection
Potential Use Cases
- Distributed control
(e.g., controlling wind
farms)
- SCADA control
- Balance grid
- Grid control
- Asset tracking
- Data center switches
- Automotive testing
- All kinds of
manufacturing in smart
grid
- Registration and
subscription of devices
and applications
- Management and
monitoring of
applications and
devices
- Commercial
deployments in home-
automation
applications
- Large-scale consumer
IoT applications
- Collecting meter data
- Monitoring of non-
smart equipment that
requires message pass-
ing between thousands
of sensors and control
center for analysis
- Power usage
monitoring
- Lighting control
396
Digital Communications and Networks 8 (2022) 388–410
Table 3 (continued )
Protocols Key Characteristic Potential Use Cases
AMQP - Open standard for - Optimize billing
message-oriented mid-
dleware with message
delivery guarantees
- Based on publish-
subscribe pattern
- Suitable for applications
requiring fast and
reliable business
transactions
XMPP - Suitable for near-real - Device services (e.g.,
time messaging and remote control of home
request-response lights)
services - Web services in smart
- Main goal is to deliver grid
data from a large
number of devices to
many user applications
- Based on the client-
server paradigm
REST - Architectural style for
designing distributed
systems
- Based on the client-
server paradigm
- Suitable for large-grain
hypermedia data
transfer
Fieldbus - Originated with special- - Automation and
purpose hardware and control applications
protocols
- Support of request-reply
pattern with explicit
scheme
- Support of publish-
subscribe pattern with
implicit scheme
and Lossy Networks (LLN), the IETF IPv6 over Low-Power Wireless
Personal Area Networks (6LoWPAN) working group has developed a
layered model to support IPv6 over 802.15.4 based LLN [43]. In 6LoW-
PAN, some topics such as header compression and layer-2 forwarding are
enhanced to reduce the power consumption during the routing, as it is
indicated in RFC4919. Another IIoT routing protocol is the IPv6 Routing
Protocol for LLNs (RPL), which supports a variety of connections such as
Point-to-Point (P2P), Point-to-Multipoint (P2MP), and MP2P communi-
cations based on IEEE 802.15.4 [43]. These protocols facilitate the
communications of a huge number of low power devices such as smart
meters in the SG.
Another revolution at the networking layer which significantly sim-
plifies the management of IIoT devices is the advent of Software Defined
Networking (SDN). SDN is designed to separate the control and data
flows in the network. To this end, by considering the configurations
received from the application plane, the SDN controller at the control
plane manages the routing tables of the routers/switches which are
installed at the data plane [44]. This architecture can be integrated with
the SG, where the data plane includes different networking devices such
as the router and the Intelligent Electronic Device (IED). The SDN
controller updates the routing table in accordance with the SG configu-
rations; and the application plane includes the SG applications, e.g., load
balancing, fast recovery, monitoring, and management. Among various
SG applications, those which are highly correlated with the underlying
infrastructure, such as AMI, SCADA, and microgrid, have been mostly
considered for possible enhancement through the SDN. There are several
advantages of exploiting SDN in the SG among which some are listed
below [45]:
Z. Alavikia, M. Shabro
Fig. 7. Applications of connectivity protocols in the SG.
⋅ SDN provides an end-to-end view of the grid and thus facilitates the
large-scale management of a huge number of the devices in the IoT-
enabled SG.
⋅ SDN is developed based on the open standards that make it possible to
configure various elements in the grid. This is a flexible solution for
the SG with various vendor-specific products.
⋅ Hardware virtualization in the SDN increases the efficiency of
resource utilization.
⋅ Due to the comprehensive view of the network in the SDN, delays and
jitters can be measured at the higher layers, which is a critical factor
for state estimation in the SCADA systems.
3.2.2.2. Link-physical layer. Recently, new wireless technologies
devoted to IoT applications have gained attention in the electric power
industry. In this regard, IEEE developed 802.11ah (HaLow) for IoT
communications in the sub-GHz band with a longer range and lower
power consumption compared to previous 802.11 versions [46,47]. For
long-range communications, LoRa (Long Range) and Sigfox have been
proposed in unlicensed bands to simplify the connection establishment in
Low Power Wide Area Networks (LPWAN). The main features of these
technologies that perfectly serve most applications of the IoT are the long
battery life, sufficient capacity to support massive access of machines,
and low-cost sensors [48]. Other effective solutions for IoT long-range
communications proposed by 3rd Generation Partnership Project
(3GPP) working groups include Long-Term Evolution for Machine
(LTE-M) and Narrowband –LTE (NB-IoT). LTE-M is designed for low-cost
and low-power Machine-to-Machine (M2M) communications over the
LTE with 1Mbps peak data rate in both the uplink and downlink, while
NB-IoT is designed for applications with data rates up to 170kbps in the
397
Digital Communications and Networks 8 (2022) 388–410
downlink and 250kbps in the uplink [47,49]. There are also some tech-
nologies for IoT short-range communications such as ZigBee Smart En-
ergy (ZigBee SE) and Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE). ZigBee SE is designed
for low-power communications over IEEE 802.15.4. Similar to ZigBee,
the purpose of the BLE is to lessen the power consumption compared to
the classical Bluetooth standard while maintaining a similar communi-
cation range [50]. In the following subsection, the applications of these
standards for the SG are introduced after a review of the communication
requirements of the SG.
According to the U.S. Department of Energy report, the communica-
tion levels in the SG can be divided into four tiers as follows [51]. Tier 1
comprises the backbone of the SG, which encompasses endpoints of the
very high voltage power grid, i.e., the primary substation. The most
important applications of this tier include the protective functions that
require a highly reliable and real-time communication infrastructure
between the primary substation and the control center. Tier 2 compro-
mises the distribution or backhaul parts of the grid. This tier involves the
connections between endpoints at the intermediate voltage level, i.e. the
secondary substations. Due to the applications such as power grid pro-
tection, i.e., failure detection and isolation to avoid the blackouts, it is
fundamental to establish a secure, reliable, and real-time communication
infrastructure at this tier. Tier 3 covers the access part. Endpoints at the
low voltage level, e.g., smart meters and secondary substations are con-
nected at this tier. Applications of this tier are significantly less sensitive
to the underlying infrastructure compared to tiers 1 and 2. Tier 4 is called
the home network. Wireless solutions in the unlicensed band such as
Zigbee can be one of the prominent candidates for this tier. Due to the
specific characteristics of different power grid tiers, it can be concluded
that by increasing the tier number, the QoS of communication networks
Z. Alavikia, M. Shabro Digital Communications and Networks 8 (2022) 388–410

(HAN), Neighborhood Area Network (NAN), and Wide Area Network

Fig. 8. Different categories of the SG.
required for that tier is also alleviated. Therefore, from the telecom point
of view [1,5], the SG tiers can be mapped into Home Area Network
(WAN), as illustrated in Fig. 8. According to this figure, the HAN is
equivalent to tier 4 of the SG, which consists of a variety of wireless
devices including home gateways, smart meters, smart appliances, and
electric vehicles. The NAN consists of the access network and parts of the
backhaul network (tiers 2 and 3). The WAN is linking the network
gateways and industry control centers at the backhaul and core networks
[5,51].
Regarding the diverse requirements of the SG tiers, specific IoT-based
communication technologies are applied to each tier. Table 4 shows the
list of candidate technologies relevant in the IoT communications and
also the possibility of exploiting them in each tier of the SG. According to
Table 4, the IoT long-range technologies in unlicensed bands such as
Sigfox, LoRa, and 802.11ax can be employed for tiers 3 and 4. Due to the
weak QoS support of these technologies, they cannot be used for the
communications in tiers 1 and 2. Short-range networking technologies in
unlicensed bands such as ZigBee and BLE are suitable for smart home
applications in tier 4. 3GPP networking technologies for the IoT, LTE-M,
NB IoT, and 5G can be used in tiers 2, 3 or 4. Some potential use cases of

Table 4
Common use cases of IoT communications standards in the SG.
Tech. Key characteristics Applicability Potential Use Cases

IoT Communications Technologies for Licensed LTE-MTC Range: Equivalent to LTE Tiers 1,2,3,4 - Meter reading
smart grid Technologies Rate: - Pricing
DL: 1Mbps, - Industrial automation
UL: 1Mbps - Smart lightning
Bandwidth: 1.08 MHz - Distribution automation
- Monitoring of non-smart equipment
- Demand Response
- Distribution Flexible AC Transmission
system (D-FACT)
- Enhanced automatic voltage control
- Fault current limiters
- Real time thermal rating
- Electric energy storage
- Generation constraint management
- Monitoring & management of SCADA and
DERs
- Controlling & management of EVs
NB-IoT Range: Equivalent to LTE Tiers 2,3,4 - Meter reading
Rate: DL:170 kbps, UL:250 - Pricing
kbps - Industrial automation
Bandwidth: 180 kHz - Smart lightning
Unlicensed LoRa Range: 15 kmþ - Demand response
Technologies Rate: 50 kbps - Real time thermal rating
Bandwidth:125, 250 or - Monitoring of non-smart equipment
500Hz - Monitoring & management of DERs
Sigfox Range: 20 kmþ - Controlling & management of EVs
Rate: 100 bps
Bandwidth:100 Hz
WiFi Range:1 km Tiers 3,4 - Meter reading
(802.11ah) Rate: 347 Mbps - Pricing
Bandwidth: 2 MHz - Distribution automation
- Monitoring & management of DERs
- Controlling & management of EVs
- Industrial automation
- Smart lightning
Bluetooth Range: 400 m Tier 4 - Meter reading
(BLE) Rate: 1Mbps - Pricing
Bandwidth: 2 MHz - Building management system
ZigBee (SE) Range: 10–100 m - Home automation
Rate: 250 kbps - Industrial automation
Bandwidth: 2 MHz - Smart lightning
Z-Wave Range: 10–100 m
Rate: 100 kbps
Bandwidth:300–400 kHz
Wirelesshart Range: 10–100 m
Rate: 250 kbps
Bandwidth: 2 MHz
ISA100a Range: 10–100 m
Rate: 100 kbps
Bandwidth: 2 MHz

398
Z. Alavikia, M. Shabro
employing licensed and unlicensed IoT networking technologies at the
SG tiers have been highlighted in Table 4. For example, LPWAN tech-
nologies in licensed bands, i.e., NB-IoT, and un-licensed bands, i.e., LoRa
and Sigfox, can be used for low-or moderate critical applications
including asset management and preventative maintenance [47,52].
3.3. Analytics & application layer
According to Fig. 4, the last step for the realization of an IoT-enabled
system is exploiting proper applications at the end point, e.g., running the
condition monitoring application at the monitoring center (see Fig. 5),
and using data analysis methods to create value from the received data.
Advanced analytics are the core of IIoT evolution that provides new
insight and intelligence for optimizing the decision-making process in the
SG. Assuming data as a new fuel, data analysis is considered as an
effective engine for accelerating the development of an IoT-enabled SG
system. In this regard, the applications of BDA, cloud computing, and
Artificial Intelligence (AI), i.e., ML and Deep Learning (DL) for the SG
have attracted significant attention recently. In this section, we explain
the role of various data analysis methods in the realization of IoT-enabled
SG.
There are three levels of data flow in the SG. At the first level, data are
gathered from different sub-systems such as sensors, smart equipment,
remote data centers, GIS databases, field forces, or remote databases (see
Fig. 9). These data mainly include subscribers’ demands, energy con-
sumption, billing and energy pricing, the status of grid components,
power lines failure, and outage management in the format of pictures,
video, audio, text, and many others. Here, major data collected from
different information sources in the SG are transferred through proper
communications networks to store in servers, data lakes, etc. At the
second level, various types of data management processes such as inte-
grating, aggregating, cleaning, and decoding/encoding methods are
exploited to prepare captured data for further analysis. Finally, data
analytics approaches such as feature selection and extraction, along with
clustering, ML, DL, or other methods are used to extract valuable infor-
mation and knowledge from the raw data. Then the information is shown
via different visualization techniques to the corresponding department to
enhance the grid and enterprise operations and customer experience. Due
to the high sampling rate of the huge number of sensors/equipment in an
IoT-enabled SG, the size of the gathered data is significantly greater than
that of the traditional power grid. Also, different types of sensors collect
diverse sets of data. Besides, the speed required for data collection and
processing in an IoT-enabled SG is the highest. Hence, data gathered from
an IoT-enabled SG system can be considered as big data, which makes it
Fig. 9. Feedback system of data analytic in the SG.
399
Digital Communications and Networks 8 (2022) 388–410
possible to exploit BDA methods.
BDA methods deal with three basic types of data namely, unstruc-
tured, semi-structured, and structured data. Structured data is the data
with predefined formats which are easy to analyze and search. Some
examples of this type of data in the SG include spreadsheets' data, rela-
tional databases storing customer information, power consumption data,
smart meters’ data, marketing data, parameters of different SG equip-
ment (equipped with sensors) and any kind of data in strings, numbers, or
relational format. Semi-structured data have some perceptible structural
properties in the format of JSON, CSV, and XML that cannot be organized
into the format of a relational database. In this regard, a few examples
include self-describing structures like data coming from web services,
power quality, and load monitoring in the SG. Unstructured data contains
data with no predefined models such as video, images, audio, text, etc.
Videos of distributed generation systems, economy data of various re-
gions, and data related to customer services are some kinds of unstruc-
tured data in the SG. Since data coming from diverse sources have
various formats, semi-structured and unstructured data are converted
into a structured format in the BDA to reduce data barriers [53,54].
Regardless of SG's data types, three main categories of industrial
analytics, including descriptive, predictive, and prescriptive analytics,
can be conducted by BDA methods. In descriptive analytics, current or
historical data is analyzed to detect the data patterns in applications like
usage and status monitoring, or anomaly detection. The results are shown
in an easily understandable form. Predictive analysis is usually per-
formed to identify expected events or behaviors of a component or sys-
tem in the future using ML and statistical techniques. Here, predictive
modeling can be exploited to predict the demand, energy consumption,
and any fault in the SG. Prescriptive analytics is used to avoid similar
failures in the future and to optimize processes based on the results ob-
tained from predictive analytics. It applies analytics techniques to
develop strategies against similar incidents in the future. These strategies
can be automatically added to machines or used by human for decision-
making in the SG. From another point of view, BDA can also be classified
as batch and stream analytics methods. In batch analytics, the input is a
chunk of data of a known finite size, which is processed in intervals
almost greater than 20 min. While in the stream processing, streams of
data of an unknown size are analyzed in time intervals of orders of sec-
onds or milliseconds. A few examples of batch data processing in the SG
include model training using batch data for applications such as predic-
tive maintenance, topology estimation, and energy usage prediction.
Also, aggregation, stateless filtering and conversion are examples of
stream analytics [38,53].
Generally, the applications of BDA in the SG can be classified into four
main categories. The first category is the organizational analysis, which
includes the organizational applications of BDA, i.e., load prediction,
asset management, demand response, and dynamic pricing. The second
category includes the application of BDA in the operation mainly for
decision-making and integrated distribution automation. The third
category deals with the analysis of customer-added services, e.g.,
advanced customer classification, and services for the customers, e.g.,
advanced billing, web portals, and home energy management. The fourth
category is the BDA for cyber-security, including prediction, protection,
and cyber-security programs [55]. To support various scenarios of each
category, BDA needs to be executed based on: (1) complex aggregation
analysis for accessing the data profile at different times or locations, (2)
multidimensional analysis for testing the machine's data from different
aspects, (3) log data analysis for monitoring the system operational
health, (4) window-based data analysis for identifying the transient
behavior of the system, and (5) analyzing the complex events for
detecting the patterns and anomalies of the system. The main part of each
analysis is based on ML and DL algorithms for the BDA as it is highlighted
in numerous research efforts recently (some works in this era have been
reviewed in Section 4.3). A common application of these algorithms, e.g.,
the Gaussian Mixture model, is to estimate the density function of the
asset normal operation. In this case, the model is learned based on the
Z. Alavikia, M. Shabro
data obtained from the normal operation of the asset. After that, the asset
health can be determined by calculating the distance of the estimated
density function from the given normal conditions of the asset [56].
To reduce the storage and processing cost of the big data and provide
real-time processing as a service for the endpoints, cloud computing and
its corresponding services, i.e., Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS), Plat-
form as a Service (PaaS), and Software as a Service (SaaS), have been
considered for the IoT-enabled SG. In this regard, power grid companies
can completely transfer, for example, their SCADA system to an appro-
priate cloud to enhance the performance of data-processing. It should be
noted that exploiting a public cloud for sensitive systems such as SCADA
brings high-security risks due to the shared resources available among
multiple users in the public cloud. To alleviate the potential risks of the
public cloud, the private cloud has been investigated for high critical SG
services in the literature, where cloud services are exclusively dedicated
to an organization's services [5,57]. Besides cloud computing, fog
computing is also proposed to reduce delay and create a distributed
model at the edges of the network. In fog computing, there is no need to
transfer information to the cloud and it is processed locally by the
equipment on the edge. Depending on the SG's application requirements
such as response time, connectivity reliability and bandwidth, storage
and computing capacity, data security, events correlation, data prove-
nance, and regulatory compliance, the data analyses can be performed on
the cloud or in the fog [38,56]. Using cloud computing more storage
capacity will be available and the costs will be reduced which is a
prominent feature in applications like AMI. However, some applications
such as fault detection require fast response time and thus, the analysis
should be conducted locally. Also, for transferring raw data to the cloud,
some issues such as security and associated costs should be considered. In
some cases, certain analyses are performed locally and only a summary of
the results will be shared with other domains. Another important
requirement for the IoT-enabled SG is the correlation between various
sensors' data. Transferring all data to the upper layers without conducting
any analysis at the lower layers may increase the burden of the analysis.
This problem can be partially solved by performing analysis in the lower
layers and near where the data is produced. In addition, from the national
security point of view, there are some restrictions on how to manage
Fig. 10. Different subsystems of the ADMS analytic system.
400
Digital Communications and Networks 8 (2022) 388–410
sensitive data and share them with other organizations. Hence, it may not
be practically possible to transfer such data to the public cloud to reduce
the cost.
In order to better illustrate how to deploy industrial analytics in an
IoT-enabled SG, we consider different subsystems of the Advanced Dis-
tribution Management System (ADMS) from the data analytics point of
view in Fig. 10 (ADMS subsystems have been extracted from the IEC SG
standard map [39]). In this figure, ADMS subsystems have been divided
into five functional domains named control, operation, information,
application, and business domains according to the Industrial Internet
Reference Architecture (IIRA) [38,56]. Here, industrial analysis can be
carried out in each of these functional domains. The control domain in-
cludes sensing and actuating functions which are mainly located in the
internal control loops. From this subsystem, we can refer to the grid
meter, digital sensor, fault detector, relay, RTU, and also some functions
such as DER and feeder controller. An example of industrial analyses in
the control domain is fog computing (edge analysis), which leads to the
real-time results (milliseconds or less) at the machine level. Analytics in
the machine level is automatically applied as a stream type. The infor-
mation domain consists of a set of functions for collecting, transforming,
and analyzing data through both stream and batch analytics. Data related
to the faults, operational procedures, and work history can be exploited
in this domain to accelerate various analytics like baselines, descriptive,
diagnostic, and prognostic analytics. The outcomes of this domain are
sent back directly or indirectly to other domains. The operation domain
includes functions such as Energy Management System (EMS), SCADA,
OMS, Demand Response Management System (DRMS), and condition
monitoring for management and maintenance of the control systems and
assets. The purpose of the application domain is to optimize the perfor-
mance of business and operation domains through implementing the
models which are designed based on the knowledge obtained from the
information domain. As shown in Fig. 10, energy trading applications
such as CIS and customer portal systems can be categorized in this
domain. In the operation and application domains, industrial analysis
results can be used to perform advanced maintenance such as automatic
failure identification and preventive maintenance or to optimize the
performance of the assets and machines. Finally, the purpose of industrial
Z. Alavikia, M. Shabro Digital Communications and Networks 8 (2022) 388–410

analyses in the business domain, e.g., in scheduling and grid balance for Table 5
retailers, is to increase the intelligence in the business process. Summary of Main Proposed Solutions in each Layer of IoT-enabled SG Model.
Perception Layer Managing massive data generated by PMUs [65–68]
3.4. Security layer Establishing resilient two-way communication links among
PMUs [65–68]
Designing low-cost smart power meter with enhanced
Integrating IoT with the SG will motivate attackers to spoof or tamper
characteristics [69,70]
with the information because of the higher degree of potential inter- Developing IoT smart sensors for monitoring GIS in substations
connection between SG components and hence a larger attack surface. [71]
Pervasive cyber-space allows attackers to access the critical infrastruc- Monitoring transformer healthiness by evaluating its vibration
ture from anywhere at any time. Also, due to the limited resources of a signals [72]
Developing a modular gateway for IoT applications in critical
huge number of IoT devices, it is not beneficial to apply the traditional SG infrastructure [73]
security policies to secure a heterogeneous IoT-enabled SG. Hence, the Connectivity and Connectivity Developing an IoT testbed for smart home
security management functions should be distributed among various el- Networking Layer energy management using XMPP protocol
ements to facilitate the scalability in the industrial environments. In this Layer [74]
Designing an IoT platform for smart home
regard, distributed technologies and techniques are developed to
energy management using RESTful based
improve the security of IIoT, such as: system [75]
Developing monitoring architecture for
⋅ Using SDN, different parts of the grid can be separated from each managing large-scale photovoltaic via MQTT
other to prevent data packet transfer between them and thus enhance protocol [76]
Suggesting an SDN-CoAP system for large-
the security of the system [58]. scale and resource-constrained AMI devices
⋅ Software-defined platforms and virtual machines allow the separation [77]
of computer systems and thereby reduce hazards resulting from an Combining DNP3.0 with the CoAP and
attack on a system [58,59]. RESTful protocols for distribution automation
in the SG [78]
⋅ Empowering edge devices for automated decision-making increases the
Mapping IEC 61 850 to the CoAP according to
responsiveness to the events occurred at the edge. By protecting edge the CBOR format for IoT-enabled SG
devices, a distributed architecture for security can be applied [60]. applications [79]
⋅ Privacy can be increased by employing technologies such as homo- Configuring DDS under various computing
morphic encryption that allows computations to be performed on capabilities of IIoT devices in the SG [40]
Networking Network Adapting RPL to the unique
encrypted text. Homomorphic encryption can be securely exploited
Layer Layer requirements of the SG
for the SCADA cloud computing services without the need to expose applications [81,82]
sensitive data [61]. Proposing a cognitive RPL
⋅ The blockchain is a distributed database that is resistant to manipula- scheme for low latency and
high reliable routing in the
tion and used to maintain a large number of data records in the form of
AMI [84,85]
data blocks. Blocks are defined as small sets of transactions within a Introducing an SDN
system. Each new block comprises a hash function of the previous infrastructure for inter-and
transactions, which chains it to all other blocks. The blockchain is intra-communications
usually used for the registration of sensitive transactions in the IIoT [8]. between substations [87,88]
Developing a multi-rate
⋅ Using technologies such as Physical Unclonable Function (PUF), the
multicast method for
endpoints can exchange data without storing private keys. This causes collecting data in an SDN-
hazards associated with the hardware attacks to retrieve the stored based SG [89]
keys to be decreased [62]. Evaluating the performance of
IEC 61 850 using an SDN
⋅ Power grid behavior upon failures or security risks can be exactly
framework [81,90]
studied using complex network theory. Here a comprehensive model Optimizing demand response
that precisely reflects the relationship between distributed compo- in the SG using a developed
nents at layers of the IoT-enabled SG is the best way to estimate any SDN architecture [92]
abnormality or failure propagation in the grid [63]. Link & Configuring coding and
Physical modulation schemes of the
Layers LTE for various smart meters
4. Research directions for the realization of IoT-enabled SG and WAMS traffics [97]
Enhancing LTE throughput for
In this section, recent studies for developing IoT-enabled SG are time-critical message
dissemination in industrial
reviewed. To better illustrate various works, we compare and classify
applications [95,96]
them according to the layered IoT-enabled SG framework introduced in Evaluating LTE reliability for
Section 3. The taxonomy of this classification is shown in Table 5 in URLL communications in
summary. industrial applications [98]
Evaluating the performance of
NB-IoT for SG applications
4.1. Research regarding perception layer [99]
Investigating LoRaWAN
As discussed in Section 3.1, the first step toward the realization of IoT- capacity for AMI application
enabled SG is developing sensing, processing, communicating, and [101,102]
Enhancing 802.15.4-TSCH
actuating capabilities of the power grid equipment. One of the most
performance for time sensitive
prominent power grid equipment numerously considered in the litera- applications [104]
ture for launching the IoT-enabled SG is PMU. In the IoT, huge data Analytic Layer Improving the smart meter operation using a data-driven
measured by these devices can be directly transferred to the information decision support system [106]
systems using the underlying communication infrastructure [64]. Up- Proposing a cloud-based IoT architecture to estimate the state of
distribution systems [108]
coming applications of PMU in the SG are surveyed in several works such
(continued on next page)
as [65–68]. Among them, some issues such as managing and analyzing

401
Z. Alavikia, M. Shabro
Table 5 (continued )
Predicting the transient stability status of power system using a
learning method [107]
Analyzing large scale datasets of power grid via deep learning
methods [109]
Exploiting MapReduce processing over stored data block in the
SG [111]
Designing an IoT platform to manage diverse sets of power usage
data [114]
Designing an asset analytic platform for distributed electric
utility assets [115]
Security Layer Incorporating AES and ECC to secure a large number of smart
meters [116]
Authenticating aggregators and smart meters using weak PUFs
[118]
Protecting user privacy in an IoT-based AMI network via
Homomorphic encryption [119] and certificate-less consumer's
data aggregation [117]
Encrypting SG data using Homomorphic asymmetric [121] and
hyperelliptic curve [122] in cloud-assisted SG system
Exploiting attribute-based access control for securing publish-
subscribe architecture in the SG [123,124]
Evaluating the risk propagation threshold in a power system
using percolation theory [63]
Using an energy block-chain system to enhance the security of
distributed energy trading market in IoT-enabled SG [125–127]
massive data generated by PMUs, providing resilient and scalable
two-way communication links among diverse sets of PMUs, and
cyber-security threats are of more interest. Another widely used device in
the power grid is the smart meter. A prototype of a low-cost smart power
meter for deployment in the IoT scenarios is proposed in Ref. [69]. The
main features of this smart meter include low implementation cost, high
accuracy in measuring power consumption, ensuring bidirectional com-
munications through a single-chip transceiver, and real-time processing.
In another work in Ref. [70], an IoT based sensing solution to monitoring
the energy flow in the SG is introduced. Indeed, the proposed solution
includes software algorithms as well as hardware architecture of a smart
power meter with enhanced characteristics compared to previous com-
mercial power meters; some main features are remotely controllable
capabilities, real-time decision-making algorithms, and new embedded
metrics for managing energy among several nodes.
In addition to enhancing the capabilities of power equipment, we can
exploit IoT smart devices to collect the required information from non-
smart equipment like substations. To this end, an IoT-enabled system
using Raspberry Pi and micro-cantilever sensors is proposed in Ref. [71]
to remotely and continuously monitor the moisture in SF6 Gas Insulated
Switchgear (GIS) in the substation. The considered micro-cantilever
sensor in Ref. [71] causes the sensitivity and accuracy of the measure-
ment to be increased while keeping the overall size of the measurement
system small. By focusing on prognosis instead of diagnosis methods, the
operating conditions of the transformer are explored in Ref. [72] by
evaluating the transformer vibration signals. To this end, the authors in
Ref. [72] used signal processing as well as ML techniques to develop an
efficient prognosis model based on gathered data from vibration sensors.
To provide more situational awareness, an Agile IoT scheme (an Adaptive
and modular gateway for the IoT) is developed in Ref. [73] for the critical
structure. In this scheme, sensors designed for measuring a particular
parameter are instead used to measure another parameter which leads to
the additional situational awareness and the sensor's modality shifts. For
example, to determine the icing in transmission lines and hence increase
resiliency, authors exploited already deployed temperature sensors to
sense parameters like line sagging and pole tilting.
4.2. Research regarding connectivity and networking layers
4.2.1. Research regarding connectivity layer
Considering IoT protocols at the connectivity layer, the main research
issue in this regard is how to design an appropriate interface for various
402
Digital Communications and Networks 8 (2022) 388–410
interactions in an IoT-enabled SG. To this end, the authors in Ref. [74]
compared the IoT connectivity protocols such as CoAP, XMPP, and
RESTful, and highlighted the salient features of these protocols like la-
tency, scalability, and interoperability that can be customized for SG ap-
plications. They also developed an IoT testbed for smart home energy
management by using the XMPP protocol to connect the IoT home gateway
to the back-end cloud server. In a similar work [75], an interoperable IoT
platform for smart home energy management is introduced. To provide a
proper access interface to each home device/sensor and reduce the pro-
cessing overhead on the web-server, a RESTful based system is proposed in
Ref. [75]. Communications between web-servers in the cloud and the web
clients in Ref. [75] are conducted through the HTTP protocol. This plat-
form is examined for various functionality of smart home applications. In
Ref. [76], a real-time monitoring architecture for managing the large-scale
photovoltaic system is proposed, where different environmental factors
such as soiling, weather, and air quality are evaluated using the MQTT
protocol to facilitate real-time communication. Low latency with the
minimum required CPU capacity makes the proposed architecture best
suited for the cheap and resource-constrained edge devices. A novel design
of the SDN system based on the CoAP protocol is suggested by the authors
in Ref. [77] to optimize SDN for large-scale and resource-constrained AMI
devices. The authors in Ref. [78] proposed a method to combine Distrib-
uted Network Protocol 3.0 (DNP3.0), DNP3.0 is the SCADA system stan-
dard that has been exploited for data collection or device control in the
substations and distributed automation systems, with the CoAP and
RESTful protocols in an M2M gateway developed for flexible distribution
automation in the SG. Using the proposed method, diverse sets of electric
power services can be defined. In Ref. [79], the authors mapped IEC
61 850 to the CoAP according to the Concise Binary Object Representation
(CBOR) format. This improves the performance of the systems in com-
parison with the existing alternatives such as JSON, XML, and HTTP.
Mostly focused on the data-centric publish-subscribe layer, DDS features
are configured in Ref. [40] under various computing capabilities of the
IIoT devices in the SG. From the connectivity point of view, also,
communication and interoperability between automation systems using an
OPC architecture are investigated in Ref. [41]. The performance of archi-
tecture is examined via developing four use cases, including the automa-
tion of energy systems like photobioreactor facilities and microgrids. In
this regard, the authors in Ref. [80] designed an experimental setup to
measure the performance of different implementations of the OPC-UA
protocol stack in a distributed IIoT measurement system.
4.2.2. Research regarding networking layer
As it is mentioned in Section 3.2.2, the networking layer consists of
two sub-layers named the network layer and the link-physical layer. In
this subsection, research directions in recent years for enhancing pro-
tocols of these two sub-layers for IoT-enabled SG applications are
reviewed.
4.2.2.1. Network layer. Some research at this layer is dedicated to
adapting RPL. RPL is a routing protocol defined for the IoT/IIoT
networking (see Section 3.2.2), to the unique requirements of the SG
applications [81,82]. In this regard, the authors in Ref. [83] introduced a
cognitive and opportunistic RPL scheme to adapt RPL for low latency and
high reliable routing in the AMI. In this scheme, the advantages of the
RPL structure in the backup set are exploited to modify the RPL MAC
protocol for selecting a set of forwarding nodes in the AMI. The simu-
lation results show that the packet delivery rate is enhanced compared to
the traditional RPL, especially in lossy networks with poor channel
conditions. The authors of [84] made a thorough evaluation of the RPL to
distinguish its potential advantages and limits for the AMI applications.
Evaluation results revealed that the density of the flows and the network
scale have a significant effect on the AMI performance. The authors made
another study using both the network simulator and the test-bed in
Ref. [85] to demonstrate how the data rate in the RPL protocol could be
Z. Alavikia, M. Shabro
dropped down in large-scale deployments. They exploited an indepen-
dent link estimation technique to optimize the routing and efficiently
manage the neighbors’ tables. Routing in the AMI is also investigated by
IETF working groups via introducing the Ad-hoc On-demand Distance
Vector (AODV)-RPL protocol [86]. AODV-RPL combines the normal RPL
with the reactive nature of the AODV protocol to provide bidirectional
paths between the origin and target nodes in the AMI network when the
RPL paths are not reliable enough or are not available.
The SDN advantages have been recently investigated for the SG ap-
plications to increase the reliability and efficiency of the grid. In this
regard in Ref. [87], an SDN infrastructure for inter-and intra--
communications between substations is proposed, where each substation
is equipped with an SDN gateway switch controlled by a global SDN
controller at the power industry control center. The global SDN controller
manages the traffic flow between substations, while the local controller
manages the traffic in a substation. In another study in Ref. [88], sub-
station automation and virtualization using SDN are considered. In this
work, the possibility of SDN for substation automation and thus
self-configuration is investigated, which reduced several challenges
posed by the management of substations. In Ref. [89], the wireless PMU
is exploited to find the architecture of the SDN-based SG. Using this ar-
chitecture, remote network management is simplified compared to the
traditional grid. A framework based on the SDN protocols including
OpenFlow, sFlow, and OVSDB, is proposed in Ref. [90] to manage the
performance of the IEC 61 850-based grid at the substations. The inte-
gration of data and communication models of IEC 61 850 is performed
through a programmable OpenFlow interface. In Ref. [91], a reliable
SDN-based communication network that is robust against failure is pro-
posed. For the validation of the proposed scheme, it is examined how to
support the QoS requirements of various traffic between IEDs including
the IEC 61 850 based Generic Object Oriented Substation Event (GOOSE)
traffic. The authors in Ref. [92] introduced a reliable demand response
optimization scheme for the IoT-enabled SG where different consumers,
utility, smart devices are connected using a developed SDN architecture.
As shown in Fig. 11, different zones in the SDN network are virtually
controlled by the SDN controllers where data forwarding is performed
based on a flow entry matching algorithm. By virtualizing the switches in
Ref. [92], network resources are shared between different zones. In the
Fig. 11. A representation of SDN-based flow control scheme for IoT-enabled
SG [92].
403
Digital Communications and Networks 8 (2022) 388–410
IoT application plane of this scheme, various functions, such as network
virtualization, load balancing, interoperability, and routing, have been
hosted to provide proper feedbacks to the control plane regarding the
optimization of the demand response. This scheme is evaluated using a
real testbed where data is collected from Haryana State Electricity De-
partments in India.
4.2.2.2. Link-physical layer. There is a rich literature on considering the
IoT link-physical layer standards for the SG applications which can be
found in some survey papers such as [93]. Here, to highlight the most
important directions in this era, we briefly review some of these works.
LTE-M and NB-IoT are the main candidates in the licensed bands for
transferring the traffic originating from the MTC devices in the SG.
Typically, there are two types of MTC, namely, massive MTC (mMTC)
and ultra-reliable and low-latency MTC (URLL-MTC). The first one in-
cludes applications that require communications with a huge number of
devices [94]. From this type of application, we can refer to measuring
power consumption by a vast number of smart meters installed in
different parts of the SG. Regarding mMTC, the connection establishment
delay of massive smart meters in the SG is reduced in Ref. [95] and its
enhanced version in Ref. [96] uses an appropriate access control scheme.
The authors in Ref. [97] proposed an adaptive scheduling scheme that
depends on the SINR level, the appropriate coding and modulation
schemes selected for transmitting the traffic of WAMS and smart meters.
URLL-MTC includes the communications of the mission-critical MTC in
the SG like protection relays which requires the trigger signal to be
received at the protection relays with a high probability and a guaranteed
delay within milliseconds [94]. To determine the reliability of the LTE
uplink and downlink channels for URLL communications, a general
communication model based on the data and control channel errors is
developed in Ref. [98]. Applications of NB-IoT in the SG are introduced
and compared with other cellular technologies in Ref. [99] in terms of
latency, coverage and data rate. Because of the likely high interference
resulted from crowded unlicensed bands, the authors in Ref. [99]
emphasized the use of NB-IoT instead of LPWAN for reliable communi-
cation in the mission-critical SG environment. In another work [100],
latency, energy consumption, and scalability of LTE-M and NB-IoT are
compared. The results showed that NB-IoT outperforms LTE-M in terms
of coverage and energy consumption; however, using LTE-M, more MTC
devices can be served in a cell with a much lower delay compared to
NB-IoT.
The main long-range communication technology that is gaining mo-
mentum in the unlicensed bands for the IoT applications in the SG is
LoRa. In Ref. [101], a LoRa network simulator including both the
downlink and uplink is developed to analyze the limitation of LoRaWAN
capacity for transferring smart meters’ data. The simulation results
showed that in a dense urban where meters are located indoors, the ca-
pacity of the LoRa network is enough for an average QoS. In a similar
work [102], the capacity of a predefined LoRaWAN network in a rural
environment is experimentally assessed at both link and system levels
considering LoRaWAN specifications. To achieve a high capacity, a
certain LoRaWAN configuration was preferable in Ref. [102]. One result,
for example, showed that larger values of spreading factors are required
to cover far devices.
In the context of low-range IoT technologies, the applications of
IEEE802.15.4 protocols for the industrial IoT and supposing M2M com-
munications in IEC61850 are investigated in Ref. [103]. The authors in
Ref. [104] exploited the packet redundancy to increase the spatial di-
versity and thus increase the successful packet transmission in a lossy
wireless network of IEEE 802.15.4-Time slotted Channel Hopping
(TSCH). This concept is adopted by IEC for time-sensitive applications,
e.g., substations monitoring [105]. Generally speaking, such methods can
be useful to guarantee a constant delay in the deterministic industrial
networking and improve the forwarding methods in an RPL-based
network.
Z. Alavikia, M. Shabro
4.3. Research regarding analytic layer
The main objective of studies targeted at the analytic layer of the IoT-
enabled SG architecture is applying an intelligent, agile, and precise
analytic tool to effectively analyze the large volume of SG data. The
authors in Ref. [106] proposed and empirically validated a generalized
data-driven decision support system based on the Bayesian network and
ML models to predict and thus optimize the operation and maintenance
of an electric smart meter within the IoT network. That is, using this
model, it can be argued whether to resolve an electric smart meter failure
remotely or to send a technician to the customer location to fix the failure
so as to reduce the traveling expenses. To predict the transient stability
status in a complex power system, the authors in Ref. [107] proposed a
pattern recognition scheme based on an ensemble of the OS-extreme
learning machine. They used a binary Jaya-based feature selection
method to choose a subset of features extracted from the PMU data.
Taking into account the advantages of cloud computing for the SG ap-
plications, a cloud-based IoT architecture is proposed in Ref. [108] to
monitor and estimate the state of distribution systems. The authors in
Ref. [108] exploited the advantages of IoT visualizations and cloud
computing to flexibility monitor the system using a PMU-based WAMS.
To handle the complicated properties of the large scale datasets captured
from smart meters and thus estimate the future load status, the authors in
Ref. [109] introduced an IoT-based deep learning scheme. Using the
proposed scheme, it is possible to quantitatively evaluate the effects of
some parameters like climate variables.
The productivity of applying BDA for the SG has been discussed in
Section 3.3. Generally speaking, BDA methods simplify the complexity
imposed by the processing of large datasets in a distributed parallel
environment like SG. Some well-known dataset management systems are
MapR, Cloudera, and Hadoop [110]. Many SG platforms adapt the
MapReduce paradigm for managing large datasets at distributed IoT edge
devices. That is, the MapReduce agent analyzes the edge node dataset
and stores the output into the grid storage centers, enabling aggregated
data analytics among SG components, thereby reducing the resource
consumption in the SG. However, in some cases, transferring the aggre-
gated large datasets to the IoT edge devices for MapReduce processing
may increase the operational latency in the SG. To resolve this problem,
an IoT edge-enabled block replica strategy is introduced in Ref. [111]. In
this strategy, the aggregate MapReduce processing is performed over the
stored data block replicas at the IoT edge devices that decrease the
network workload and operational latency in the SG.
Data-driven analytics operations in the SG can also be performed
using the designed platforms. The properties of these open-source IoT-
based platforms are reviewed in several survey papers in the literature as
in Refs. [112,113]. Most of the existing platforms like what is introduced
in Ref. [114] rely on a centralized open-source approach supported by
numerous heterogeneous sensors. The main objective behind [114] is to
design an IoT platform specifically oriented to the processing and man-
agement of diverse sets of large power usage data in the buildings. In
Ref. [115], an asset monitoring platform is designed to connect the
distributed electric utility assets at the last mile by incorporating relay
devices at the grid-edge that function autonomously without needing
back-haul infrastructure. This platform is operated based on a Bluetooth
transceiver which brings up appropriate compatibility for deploying the
asset monitoring and management applications on smartphones. The
viability of this platform is shown through field tests presented for
monitoring AMI and transformers.
4.4. Research regarding security layer
Numerous attempts have been conducted in the literature to enhance
IoT security for the SG applications. In this part, the most relevant topics
in this regard have been reviewed. To secure AMI for a large number of
smart meters, the authors in Ref. [116] incorporated a scalable sym-
metric and public-key encryption using Advanced Encryption Scheme
404
Digital Communications and Networks 8 (2022) 388–410
(AES) and Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC). ECC enhances security
with lower computational cost compared to other asymmetric cryptog-
raphy methods. Protecting both integrity and confidentiality of the
consumer's identity and electricity consumption data can guarantee the
consumer's privacy, resist attacks, and track malicious behaviors. To this
end, a certificate-less consumer's data aggregation scheme has been
investigated in Ref. [117] to preserve the consumer's privacy in an
IoT-enabled SG. In Ref. [118], a primitive hardware-based security
model using weak PUFs is proposed to authenticate aggregators and
smart meters. As it is discussed in Ref. [119], user privacy in the
IoT-based AMI network can also be protected using Homomorphic
encryption applied in the data aggregation. In this regard, fully Homo-
morphic encryption may be a feasible solution to supporting the large
size aggregated data in the IoT-enabled SG. To address the authentication
weaknesses of the IIoT devices, e.g., authentication of a smart meter, a
robust and energy-efficient authentication protocol is proposed and
exactly analyzed in Ref. [120]. Since the IoT smart meters have limited
computing capacity, exploiting the cloud storage and computing capacity
would be an extra choice for complex computing processes such as data
analysis and billings. To secure such infrastructure, the SG data is
encrypted using Homomorphic asymmetric methods before transmitting
data to the cloud for further processing [121]. This causes most of the
computing tasks in the cloud to be performed on the encrypted data. In a
similar work in Ref. [122], the authors introduced a certificate-based
signcryption along with a proxy re-encryption technique to secure and
authenticate data communication between data owners (e.g., power
generation monitoring, power line monitoring, and power consumption
monitoring centers) and cloud servers (e.g., proxy and database) as a
third-party service provider, considering the communication and
computation costs. A lightweight hyperelliptic curve cryptosystem with a
small key size has been exploited in Ref. [122], which allows the
third-party service provider to alter a ciphertext without seeing the
message content.
Due to the high degree of security dependency in the power cyber-
physical system, studying the security risk propagation in the network
topology using the complex network theory is one of the prominent
concerns in the power grid. In a cyber-physical system, a small failure
caused by a cyber system risk may rapidly propagate through the power
grid and lead to a power outage. To estimate the risk propagation
thresholds and thus predict the critical risk explosion points in the
network topology, the authors in Ref. [63] introduced a quantitative
method based on the percolation theory to evaluate the risk propagation
threshold in an established dynamic model of the power cyber-physical
system. In the proposed method, the probability of failure propagation
from the cyber nodes to the physical nodes has been investigated through
the coupling relationship lines in the considered model.
Interactions among various SG services such as event analyzing, agent
controlling, and resource modeling are another key vulnerability of the
IoT-enabled SG. Among different vulnerabilities, two main security flaws
have been mostly considered in the literature: (1) eavesdropping the
published events through interactions among pervasive IoT services; (2)
disclosing the privacy information during the SG service collaborations.
To resolve these problems, access control, and especially attributed-
based access control have been introduced, which allows the pub-
lishers to define some policies for assessing the subscribers [123].
Attribute-based access control is a form of authentication method, which
does not disclose any additional information about an IoT node. For
exploiting publish-subscribe IoT services in the SG, an access control
framework based on the bi-directional policy matching method is
investigated in Ref. [124], which allows the network broker to check the
attributes of both the published data and the subscriber to satisfy their
corresponding subscription policies. In this framework, a fully Homo-
morphic encryption scheme was also applied to support data confiden-
tiality on the encrypted data.
In order to secure an energy transaction without employing the
trusted agents, the block-chain technology has been exploited. The block-
Z. Alavikia, M. Shabro
chain is explored for the SG applications where the energy trading
market needs decentralized control and privacy. In the blockchain, each
agent executes a predefined consensus protocol to validate the trans-
action and generate blocks and the corresponding hash chain. In this era,
the authors in Ref. [125] formulated an energy block-chain system based
on the consortium method to increase the security of the distributed
energy trading market in the IIoT. Also, a token-based energy trading
system based on the multi-signature methods is introduced in Ref. [126]
to enable the customers and energy providers to perform the transaction
anonymously and securely. To boost anonymity in the transactions, the
authors in Ref. [126] updated addresses using a context-aware method.
In Ref. [127] an EV charging system based on a contract theory is
exploited, which is secured by the permission blockchain technologies.
The system model of [127] is shown in Fig. 12, where an optimal contract
is designed and analyzed by the monopolistic operator to guarantee the
individual energy demand of each EV.
5. Future research directions and measures
 Connectivity & networking layer
In this section, open challenges and future research opportunities, as
well as fundamental measures required for the realization of IoT-enabled
SG will be highlighted according to the considered layered approach (See
Fig. 4). It should be noted that before any implementations, under-
standing the concept of IoT-enabled SG, i.e., implications phase, is the
main part of the realization of this system.
5.1. Challenges and future research directions
In the following subsections, upcoming research domains at different
layers of the IoT-enabled SG are clearly explained based on the previous
research findings.
 Perception layer
– Managing the energy usage of various sensors and devices: Many
sensors and devices in the IoT-enabled SG normally work based on
the batteries. For example, power line monitoring sensors or video
cameras should transfer the captured data to long-distance nodes in
near real-time, which imposes excessive power consumption.
Thereby, power management is a challenging issue for the reali-
zation of this system in the future. To this end, developing efficient
power supply products or energy harvesting equipment that are
properly coupled with IIoT devices are examples of open issues in
this regard [5,13,128].
 Analytics & application layer
Fig. 12. A representation of securing EV charging system using block-chain
technology in an IoT-enabled SG scenario [127].
405
Digital Communications and Networks 8 (2022) 388–410
– Interoperability of IIoT devices: There are several types of hetero-
geneous devices, sensors, and subsystems (varying in resources,
operation, communication properties, and so on) in an IoT-enabled
SG which should work together. Hence, designing seamless and
high-performance interoperability mechanisms for integrating de-
vices and systems would be more important for the IoT-enabled SG
development. The interoperability issues are addressed at different
layers, including perception, networking, and application layers [4,
18,41,75].
– Designing IIoT devices for adverse environmental conditions of the
SG: Monitoring the harsh and diverse environmental conditions of
the SG like monitoring the power plant or power lines requires
devices that can guarantee availability and compatibility in such
severe conditions. Also, these devices may be equipped with some
light processing units that enable them for emergency analytics
under network outages. Furthermore, the lifetime of IIoT devices is
expected to be relatively long. These properties make the designing
of IoT-enabled SG devices a major issue [5,70,71,73].
– Enhancing communication algorithms for energy saving: Because
of a large number of devices, numerous data packets are required to
exchange for the purpose of synchronization. This volume of data
transmissions leads to more energy consumption. To best deal with
the trade-off between energy consumption and time synchroniza-
tion, optimizing communications algorithms are more appropriate
for scalable IoT-enabled SG [22,43].
– Automated fault detection algorithms: By exploiting more hetero-
geneous devices, the chances of failures in connectivity and devices
would increase. Therefore, the IoT-enabled SG should be designed
such that it is robust against several failures and is also capable to
detect faults timely and fix them if possible. To this end, an
advanced failure detection algorithm can be developed at the
gateway, switch, middleware, and so on to coordinate various
machines in the case of fault. Because of vast connectivity through
the IoT-enabled SG, any faults should be detected accurately and
timely to prevent fault propagation in the grid. In addition, the
faulty grid should automatically reconfigure itself to keep working.
Using self-healing capability, for example, an alternative route may
be selected to bypass the failed IoT devices in the SG [22,81,82,88,
91].
– Improving communication networks for massive SG data: In the
IoT-enabled SG, a large number of IoT-based sensors and smart
meters transmit a huge amount of data. The underlying commu-
nication networks should be properly configured to handle the
burst traffic of smart meters. Another issue that should be consid-
ered is the hybrid combination of various communication networks
throughout the grid from short to large range access. Considering
the special properties of SG traffics, numerous researchers are
working on enhancing the wireless communication candidates for
transferring IoT-enabled SG traffic. Several issues of communica-
tions networks for handling SG traffic such as congestion (in the
case of massive access), reliability, data rate, limited radio re-
sources, coverage, and network design are being studied [76,77,94,
97,99,101,103].
– Providing context-aware services: Due to the dynamic environment
in the SG, discovering context-aware web services for creating
extended business is primary. One example of this type of service is
setting parameters as the temperature in a power plant according to
different systems and devices available there [12,22,114,126].
– User-friendly interfaces for IIoT products: Because of the varying
experiences and backgrounds of SG's workers, they may not be well
familiar with IIoT technologies for the SG. This makes it difficult to
create user interfaces for IoT-enabled SG products. Developing
seamless user-friendly interfaces would facilitate the acceptance of
IoT-enabled SG [5,17,22,75].
Z. Alavikia, M. Shabro
– Efficient computing of huge data: Analyzing a huge amount of IoT-
enabled SG data requires large data processing and storage systems
and thus high computing costs. The possibility of exploiting fog and
cloud computing as an alternative way of saving processing costs in
the SG is a new research hotspot that brings some challenges in
terms of network architecture, QoS requirements, standardization,
and risk analysis. For example, how to structure customer services
and the core network of the SG to completely benefit from the
advantages of fog/cloud computing is a challenging issue for
investigation [13,23,56,57,108].
– Lightweight algorithm for local processing: Developing lightweight
algorithms for local processing at end devices helps to decrease the
number of transmissions in the IoT-enabled SG systems. Also, ML
algorithms can be embedded in SG devices for health monitoring,
which reduces the time of condition monitoring in addition to the
number of transmitted packets [18,56,106].
– Managing big data: To alleviate data congestion in the IoT-enabled
SG, proper big data management schemes are primary [21,109,
111].
 Security layer
– Detection of cybersecurity threats: Using the open Internet (which
is far more susceptible to cyber attacks) for controlling and moni-
toring different physical assets and systems is the source of different
security vulnerabilities. By increasing the IoT-enabled SG applica-
tions, more efforts are required to prevent various cyber attacks. To
detect malicious activities in these systems, exploiting advanced
analytics techniques like ML and DL is an open research field. To do
this, analytics techniques are used to find correlations among un-
authorized accesses and a reference pattern in the considered
complex network [5,23].
– Data security and privacy: Many connections in the IoT-enabled SG
generate more data and thus are susceptible to more data misuse
and theft. Moreover, combining different systems' resources
because of interoperability may increase the risk of data tampering.
These problems may happen for data in rest and data in motion. For
example, cyber-attackers may alter the smart meter's data to modify
it to less energy consumption for lower pricing. They can even alter
the data related to the management of the IoT-enabled SG, which
may lead to financial losses or severe damage to the power grid
assets and utility. Also, the customers' consumption data can be
misused by burglaries to infer whether the customers are away
from home or not. Besides, IoT-enable SG devices suffer from
limited storage and computational capacities, which limit them to
run complex and time-consuming classical security algorithms.
Therefore, to preserve data secrecy and privacy, current solutions
should be enhanced such that they are scalable for a large number
of IoT devices scattered in the SG and also can be accommodated by
resource-constrained IIoT devices. In addition, the utilities must
ensure the privacy of consumers' data that such data is only
accessible by customer approval [5,22,116,117,119,122].
– Authentication schemes: To protect communications without add-
ing extra overhead, robust and light authentication schemes are
required for resource-constrained IoT-based SG devices. Using
these schemes, only authenticated devices or users are allowed to
access the resources or accomplish a specific task according to their
privilege access level. However, the reliability and simplicity of
these schemes are still a challenging research area for the IoT-
enabled SG systems. In this era, the blockchain technology is
considered as an effective way for tamper-proof authentication,
authorization, and accounting in the SG by removing the need for
the third party to approve transactions [5,23,120,125].
 Other issues
– Service Level Agreement (SLA) and interoperability: Besides the
interoperability of IIoT devices, interoperability of services, espe-
cially SLA monitoring and matching, are the main factors for scal-
able IoT-enabled SG. For example, the key concern for cloud-based
406
Digital Communications and Networks 8 (2022) 388–410
IoT services in the SG is delivering services with a high performance
considering the security and delay requirements of various IIoT
applications. Hence, Conducting a meaningful, controllable,
measurable, affordable, and acceptable SLA between involved
parties in an IoT-enabled SG ecosystem is an open issue [22].
– Comprehensive standards for the IoT-enabled SG: Since there are
several issues regarding the implementation of IoT technologies in
the SG, it needs to shift focus from developing IoT and SG standards
separately to the comprehensive IoT-enabled SG standards. These
standards are specifically developed for the IoT-enabled SG and
open new opportunities both for power consumers and power
providers [5,13].
5.2. Future measures
For the IoT to be able to accommodate the SG requirements, some
fundamental measures should be scheduled for the implementations. A
summary of these measures at each layer of the IoT-enabled SG model is
given in Fig. 13. At the perception layer, the intelligence of power
equipment should be increased by designing new equipment or adding
IoT devices to them to enhance their sensing, processing, and commu-
nication capabilities. This gathers more data with a high frequency,
which increases the accuracy of decision-making processes. For example,
an old gas turbine in a power plant can be digitized or equipped with
different sensors for remote performance measurements and fast failure
detection. In addition to gathering data from smart equipment in the
power grid, field workers can be equipped with proper digital monitoring
tools such as smart helmets to automatically record their movements or
speeches during field operations. The recorded data from field workers’
sensors and cameras are then transferred to a central control unit for
online assistance or decision-making during maintenance and repair
works.
Measures at the networking & connectivity layers deal with
enhancing the capabilities of various hardware and software used at
these layers for the IoT-enabled SG. As it is mentioned in Section 3.2,
several protocols have been defined for the IoT-enable SG connectivity
and networking, which guarantee the required QoS for each specific SG
application. Exploiting and developing these protocols or defining new
protocols for the SG would be the most important measures at this stage.
For example, interoperability issues between multiple IoT in-
frastructures, inhomogeneous devices, data formats, and APIs can be
alleviated using the federation of IoT-enabled SG standardization or
platforms. In this regard, defining a new message exchange standard for
seamless communications in building and home energy management
systems can be beneficial. As an instance of enhancing the networking
layer, we can refer to developing a proper routing protocol for commu-
nications and routing of massive smart meters’ packets. Here, several
proposals can be defined for facilitating IoT-enabled SG networking and
connectivity at framework, transport, network, and link-physical layers
as explained in Section 3.2. Besides, advanced hardware is required to
accommodate the requirements of the IoT-enabled SG protocols at these
layers such as industrial routers at the network layer or low-power pro-
cessing modules at the physical layer.
Different applications and digital innovations in the SG can be created
by analyzing data captured from the IoT-enabled SG devices. According
to Fig. 13, these innovations are defined in the analytics & application
layer and are categorized into managing asset lifecycle, optimizing grid &
aggregation, and integrating customer services. Asset lifecycle manage-
ment includes asset performance management and digital field workers
programs. In asset performance management solutions, predictive and
preventive operations using AI and ML algorithms are used to boost the
asset lifecycle and performance. By combining data from enterprise
systems and SG assets, an IoT-based operating platform can be developed
to create productive business opportunities using advanced analytics.
The focus of digital field workers is on exploiting AI analytics tools along
with the visualization technologies like virtual/augmented reality to
Z. Alavikia, M. Shabro
Fig. 13. Fundamental measures for accelerating IoT-enabled SG.
train and assist field workers remotely just-in-time and in location.
Another fundamental measure of the analytics & application layer in-
cludes optimizing grid & aggregation. This measure addresses the in-
efficiency of transmission and distribution networks through innovative
digital projects like energy aggregation. In energy aggregation, multiple
generated electricity loads for purchase or sale are combined in the
electricity market to increase flexibility for different generators and
customers. Grid optimization also depends on the proper supply and
demand management scheme to monitor supply and demand relation-
ships based on a pricing framework. The implementation of these ap-
plications relies on advanced analytics tools to predict and optimize the
electricity market and supply and demand management. Another set of
measures can be summarized as integrated customer services. Analyzing
the customers' data and identifying their consumption behavior enables
power companies to shift from energy-driven to customer-centering
services. Customer services include home energy management, energy
market integration, and digital customer models. Energy management
407
Digital Communications and Networks 8 (2022) 388–410
solutions, such as digital energy management platforms, provide new
services for the customers to optimize their energy production and con-
sumption while giving them greater control and saving costs. For inte-
grating energy, electricity service providers offer online solutions, for
example, on mobile or social media to purchase or monitor the customer's
electricity. Through this opportunity, consumers have the flexibility to
monitor, control, and switch between various energy sources and thus
optimize their energy generation and usage. With the digital customer
model, customers increasingly interact with electricity providers in a
variety of ways, including web, mobile, and social networks. This inter-
action accelerates the realization of the IoT-enabled SG and improves
customer engagement.
The security of the IoT-enabled SG system should be considered
throughout the system from the IoT endpoint to the monitoring stations.
To this end, security measures can be categorized into the measures
required for protecting the data, endpoints, and communications;
securing analysis and monitoring process; and securing configuration and
Z. Alavikia, M. Shabro
management functions. The endpoint protection should include capa-
bilities such as physical security, cybersecurity methods, and authorita-
tive identifiers which can be implemented on the edge or cloud devices.
As is mentioned in Section 3.4, in the IoT-enabled SG, endpoints need to
communicate with each other and this communication is the source of
vulnerability. Hence, focusing only on endpoint security is not sufficient
for the IIoT. Through communications and connectivity protection
functions, a valid identity can be used to authenticate and authorize the
endpoints for the communications. Also, various cryptography methods
can be exploited for these functions to ensure the integrity and confi-
dentiality of the communications. After protecting endpoints and their
required communication links, it is necessary to monitor the system state
through security monitoring, analysis, configuration, and management
functions. These functions should be supported by a common data pro-
tection function that deals with the data at rest and data in motion
models mainly generated at the endpoint and during the communica-
tions, respectively. The data protection function also includes protecting
all data stored in the analysis and monitoring parts and the data associ-
ated with the management and configuration of the system. The role of
the policy and security model in this regard is to monitor the secure
implementation of confidentiality, integrity, and availability of the sys-
tem during its life-cycle. Also, it defines the cooperation between various
operational elements to achieve a coherent end-to-end security scheme.
To achieve all these functions and properly implement them, digital
technologies introduced in Section 3.4 are useful.
6. Conclusion
Integrating the electric power grid with the IoT is the best choice for
the fast realization of the SG. The main idea behind IoT is to provide
pervasive connectivity for a large number of devices around the world.
This idea can considerably enhance condition monitoring and asset
management in the SG by installing IoT devices and smart equipment like
advanced sensors, video cameras, and smart meters throughout the grid
and then analyzing their data. Analyzing the huge amount of grid data
enhances the SG performance and creates new functionalities for further
operational and business improvement. Also, connectivity that comes
from IoT enhances the customer interaction in the SG. However, imple-
menting a large number of IIoT devices in the SG brings some challenges
in terms of designing long lifetime physical equipment compatible with
the SG environments, transferring and analyzing a huge amount of
gathered data, and developing cybersecurity schemes for pervasive
cyber-space of IoT-enabled SG and resource-constrained IIoT devices.
In this paper, we explain how IoT technologies would facilitate
the realization of SG goals. To this end, the IoT-enabled SG concept is
defined from a comprehensive layered approach including perception,
networking, analytic, and security layers. Considering this model and its
layers, various technologies and their potential advantages in the SG are
investigated. Then, recent research efforts at each layer of the IoT-
enabled SG model are reviewed to classify the innovative solutions to
adopting IoT-based technologies in the SG. The paper is concluded by
discussing the future research directions and the most important steps
needed to realize the IoT-enabled SG. Based on the vision of IoT-enabled
SG, open directions for upcoming research have been classified in each
layer of the considered model. An in-depth analysis of research works
indicated that the first step towards the realization of IoT-enabled SG is
concentrated on digitizing SG equipment or empowering them with IIoT
devices. For designing these devices, primary concerns such as compat-
ibility with SG environmental conditions, low-power consumption, and
interoperability with other devices and systems are more important.
Next, IIoT-based networking and connectivity algorithms should be
developed considering energy-saving, automated fault detection, and
massive SG data management properties. Besides, analytics techniques
are exploited for asset life cycle management, optimizing grid perfor-
mance, and integrating customer service. In this era, issues like context-
aware services, user-friendly interfaces, cloud computing, local
408
Digital Communications and Networks 8 (2022) 388–410
processing, and big data management are more challenging. Another
important aspect of the realization of IoT-enabled SG is developing se-
curity and authentication schemes for protecting data, endpoint, and
communication links as well as securing monitoring, configuration, and
management operations.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgement
Support provided by the digital transformation center of Niroo
Research Institute (NRI) in Iran is gratefully acknowledged.
References
[1] S.F. Bush, Smart Grid: Communication-Enabled Intelligence for the Electric Power
Grid, first ed., Wiley-IEEE, USA, New York, 2014.
[2] Y. Xiao, Communication and Networking in Smart Grids, first ed., CRC Press,
2012.
[3] E. Kabalci, Y. Kabalci, Smart Grids and Their Communication Systems, first ed.,
Springer, Germany, 2019.
[4] IEEE Std 2030™, IEEE Guide for Smart Grid Interoperability of Energy
Technology and Information Technology Operation with the Electric Power
System (EPS), End-Use Applications, and Loads.
https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/6018239 2011 (accessed June 2021).
[5] Y. Saleem, N. Crespi, M.H. Rehmani, R. Copeland, Internet of things-aided smart
grid: technologies, architectures, applications, prototypes, and future research
directions, IEEE Access 7 (2019) 62962–63003.
[6] IEC TS (Technical Specification) 63353 ED1: IIoT applications in power
distribution systems management: architecture and functional requirements,
International Electrotechnical Commission Proposal. https://www.iec.ch/ords/f?
p¼103:38:521654520828156:FSP_ORG_ID,FSP_APEX_PAGE,FSP_PROJECT_ID:
1273,23,104350, 2020 (accessed: June 2021).
[7] H.A. Gabbar, Smart Energy Grid Engineering, first ed., Academic Press, 2016.
[8] M. Andonia, V. Robua, D. Flynna, S. Abramb, D. Geachc, D. Jenkinsd,
P. McCallumd, A. Peacockd, Blockchain technology in the energy sector: a
systematic review of challenges and opportunities, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev.
100 (2019) 143–174.
[9] A. Ramamurthy, P. Jain, The Internet of Things in the Power Sector, Opportunities
in Asia and the Pacific, Asian Development Bank (ADB), 2017.
[10] G. Knieps, Internet of things and the economics of microgrids, in: F.P. Sioshansi
(Ed.), Innovation and Disruption at the Grid's Edge, Academic Press, 2017,
pp. 241–258.
[11] Q. Yang, Internet of things application in smart grid: a brief overview of
challenges, opportunities, and future trends, in: Q. Yang, T. Yang, W. Li (Eds.),
Smart Power Distribution Systems Control, Communication, and Optimization,
Academic Press, 2019, pp. 267–283.
[12] G. Bedi, G.K. Venayagamoorthy, R. Singh, R. Brooks, K. Wang, Review of internet
of things (IoT) in electric power and energy systems, IEEE Internet Things J. 5 (2)
(2018) 847–870.
[13] S.S. Rekaa, T. Dragicevicb, Future effectual role of energy delivery: a
comprehensive review of Internet of Things and smart grid, Renew. Sustain.
Energy Rev. 91 (2018) 90–108.
[14] O. Vermesan, P. Friess, Internet of Things-From Research and Innovation to
Market Deployment, first ed., River Publishers, Aalborg, Denmark, 2014.
[15] Recommendation ITU-T Y.2060, Global Information Infrastructure, Internet
Protocol Aspects, and Next-Generation Networks: Overview of the Internet of
Things, International Telecommunication Union, 2012. https://www.itu.
int/rec/T-REC-Y.2060-201206-I. (Accessed June 2021).
[16] World Economic Forum White Paper, Digital Transformation of Industries-
Electricity Industry, 2016. https://reports.weforum.org/digital-transformation/.
(Accessed March 2020).
[17] B.L. Stojkoska, K.V. Trivodaliev, A review of Internet of Things for smart home;
challenges and solutions, J. Clean. Prod. 140 (3) (2017) 1454–1464.
[18] D. Mocrii, Y. Chen, P. Musilek, IoT-based Smart Homes: A Review of System
Architecture, Software, Communications, Privacy and Security, vols. 1–2, Elsevier
Internet of Things, 2018, pp. 81–98.
[19] D. Minoli, K. Sohraby, B. Occhiogrosso, IoT considerations, requirements, and
architectures for smart buildings – energy optimization and next generation
building management systems, IEEE Internet Things J. 4 (1) (2017) 269–283.
[20] M. Alaa, A.A. Zaidan, B.B. Zaidan, M. Talal, M.L.M. Kiah, A review of smart home
applications based on internet of things, J. Netw. Comput. Appl. 97 (2017) 48–65.
[21] F. Al-Turjman, M. Abujubbeh, IoT-enabled smart grid via SM: an overview, Future
Generat. Comput. Syst. 96 (2019) 579–590.
[22] M. Aazam, S. Zeadally, K.A. Harras, Deploying fog computing in industrial internet
of things and industry 4.0, Trans.Ind. Inf. 14 (10) (2018) 4674–4682.
Z. Alavikia, M. Shabro
[23] A. Gupta, A. Anpalagan, G.H. Carvalho, L. Guan, I. Woungang, Prevailing and
emerging cyber threats and security practices in IoT-Enabled smart grids: a survey,
J. Netw. Comput. Appl. 132 (2019) 118–148.
[24] E. Hossain, I. Khan, F. Un-Noor, S. Sikander, M.S. Sunny, Application of big data
and machine learning in smart grid, and associated security concerns: a review,
IEEE Access 7 (2019) 13960–13988.
[25] D.B. Avancini, J.P.C. Rodrigues, S.G. Martins, R.A. Rabelo, et al., Energy meters
evolution in smart grids: a review, J. Clean. Prod. 217 (2019) 702–715.
[26] I. Stellios, P. Kotzanikolaou, M. Psarakis, C. Alcaraz, et al., A survey of IoT-enabled
cyberattacks: assessing attack paths to critical infrastructures and services,
IEEE.Commun. Surv. Tutorials 20 (4) (2018) 3453–3495.
[27] M. Mohammadi, A. Al-Fuqaha, S. Sorour, M. Guizani, Deep learning for IoT big
data and streaming analytics: a survey, IEEE.Commun. Surv. Tutorials 20 (4)
(2018) 2923–2960.
[28] F. Samie, L. Bauer, J. Henkel, From cloud down to things: an overview of machine
learning in internet of things, IEEE Internet Things J. 6 (3) (2019) 4921–4934.
[29] P. Asghari, A. Rahmani, H.S. Javadi, Internet of Things applications: a systematic
review, Comput. Network. 148 (2019) 241–261.
[30] A. Ikpehai, B. Adebisi, K. Rabie, K. Anoh, et al., Low-power wide area network
technologies for internet-of-things: a comparative review, IEEE Internet Things J.
6 (2) (2019) 2225–2240.
[31] C. Li, B. Palanisamy, Privacy in internet of things from principles to technologies,
IEEE Internet Things J. 6 (1) (2019) 488–505.
[32] National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) standards, NIST
Framework and Roadmap for Smart Grid Interoperability Standards, 2014.
Release 3.0, https://www.nist.gov/el/smart-grid. (Accessed June 2019).
[33] Electric Research Power Institute (EPRI) report, Information and Communication
Technology Roadmap, 2018. https://smartgrid.epri.com/. (Accessed June 2019).
[34] E. Kabalci, Y. Kabalci, From Smart Grid to Internet of Energy, first ed., Academic,
London, U.K., 2019.
[35] Industrial Internet Consortium (IIC) white paper, The Industrial Internet of Things
Volume G5: Connectivity Framework, 2017. https://www.iiconsortium.org/pdf/II
C_PUB_G5_V1.0_PB_20170228.pdf. (Accessed December 2019).
[36] E. Hossain, Z. Han, H.V. Poor, Smart Grid Communications and Networking, first
ed., Cambridge University Press, 2012.
[37] B. Murphy, Presentation of RTI Company, How to Architect Microgrids for the
Industrial Internet of Things, 2015. https://www.rti.com/news/how-to-architect
-microgrids-webinar. (Accessed September 2019).
[38] W. William, K. Eric, W. Sobel, The industrial internet of things volume T3:
analytics framework, industrial internet consortium technical white paper.
https://www.iiconsortium.org/, 2017. (Accessed December 2019).
[39] International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), Technical Report, IEC Smart
Grid Standardization Roadmap, 2010. http://www.itrco.jp/libraries/IEC-Smartgr
idStandardizationRoadmap.pdf. (Accessed September 2019).
[40] A. Alaerjan, D. Kim, Configuring DDS features for communicating components in
smart grids, in: IEEE International Conference on Smart Energy Grid Engineering,
2017, pp. 162–169.
[41] I. Gonz alez, A.J. Calder
on, A.J. Barragan, J.M. Andújar, Integration of sensors,
controllers and instruments using a novel OPC architecture, Sensor. J. 17 (7)
(2017) 1512–1537.
[42] C. Goursaud, J.-M. Gorce, Dedicated networks for IoT: PHY/MAC state of the art
and challenges, Eur. Alliance. Innovat.(EAI).endorsed.Trans.Internet Things 1 (1)
(2015).
[43] O. Hersent, D. Boswarthick, O. Elloumi, The Internet of Things, Applications to the
Smart Grid and Building Automation, first ed., Wiley, 2012.
[44] T. Wang, F. Liu, J. Guo, H. Xu, Dynamic SDN controller assignment in data center
networks: stable matching with transfers, in: IEEE INFOCOM 35th Annual IEEE
International Conference on Computer Communications, 2016, pp. 1–9.
[45] N. Dorsch, F. Kurtz, et al., Software-defined networking for smart grid
communications: applications, challenges and advantages, in: IEEE International
Conference on Smart Grid Communications, SmartGridComm), 2014,
pp. 422–427.
[46] A. Shreyas, Analysis of Communication Protocol for Neighborhood Area Network
for Smart Grid, M.S project at California university, 2010. https://schola
rworks.calstate.edu/downloads/kk91fk776. (Accessed March 2019).
[47] Western Power Distribution Report (NEXUS Project), Global Appraisal of Smart
Grid Telecoms Solutions, 2017. https://www.analysysmason.com/. (Accessed
March 2019).
[48] U. Raza, P. Kulkarni, Low power wide area networks: an overview, IEEE.Commun.
Surv. Tutorials 19 (2) (2017) 855–873.
[49] 4G Americas technical report, Cellular Technologies Enabling the Internet of
Things, 2015. https://www.5gamericas.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/4G_
Americas_Cellular_Technologies_Enabling_the_IoT_White_Paper_-_November_2
015.pdf. (Accessed September 2019).
[50] S. Ashton, et al., Smart Energy Profile 2 Application Protocol Standard, ZigBee
Alliance, 2013. http://splintered.net/z/Zigbee-smart-energy-profile-2.pdf.
(Accessed August 2019).
[51] M. Oldak, B. Kilbourne, Communications Requirements: Comments of Utilities
Telecom Council, Department of Energy, Washington, DC, USA, 2010. htt
p://www.energy.gov. (Accessed June 2019).
[52] P. Mulvey, ESB-public and Private Radio Solution for the Smart Grid, EPRI PDU
Advisory Meeting, 2017. https://www.esbnetworks.ie/. (Accessed February
2019).
[53] D. Syed, A. Zainab, A. Ghrayeb, et al., Smart grid big data analytics: survey of
technologies, techniques, and applications, IEEE Access 9 (2020) 59564–59585.
409
Digital Communications and Networks 8 (2022) 388–410
[54] M. Faheem, S.B.H. Shah, R.A. Butt, et al., Smart grid communication and
information technologies in the perspective of Industry 4.0: opportunities and
challenges, Sensor. J. 30 (2018) 1–30.
[55] C.L. Stimmel, Big Data Analytics Strategies for the Smart Grid, first ed., CRC Press,
2016. CRC Press.
[56] W. William, K. Eric, S.-W. Lin, W. Sobel, Industrial analytics: the engine driving
the IIoT revolution, in: Industrial Internet Consortium Technical White Paper,
2017. https://www.iiconsortium.org/. (Accessed December 2019).
[57] A. Sajid, H. Abbas, K. Saleem, Cloud-assisted IoT-based SCADA systems security: a
review of the state of the art and future challenges, IEEE Access 4 (2016)
1375–1384.
[58] H. Maziku, S. Shetty, D.M. Nicol, Security Risk Assessment for SDN-Enabled Smart
Grids, vol. 133, Elsevier Computer Communications, 2019, pp. 1–11.
[59] S. Schrecker, H. Soroush, J. Molina, et al., Industrial internet of things volume G4:
security framework, industrial internet consortium technical white paper.
https://www.iiconsortium.org/, 2016. (Accessed December 2019).
[60] H. Maziku, S. Shetty, D.M. Nicol, Querying in internet of things with privacy
preserving: challenges, solutions and opportunities, IEEE Network 32 (6) (2018)
144–151.
[61] S. Tan, D. De, W. Song, J. Yang, S. Das, Survey of security advances in smart grid: a
data driven approach, IEEE.Commun. Surv. Tutorials 19 (1) (2017) 397–422.
[62] D. Clarke, B. Gassend, D. Lim, et al., Massachusetts institute of technology (MIT):
physical unclonable functions and applications. http://people.csail.mit.edu/rud
olph/Teaching/Lectures/Security/Lecture-Security-PUFs-2.pdf, 2016. (Accessed
August 2019).
[63] Z. Qu, Y. Zhang, N. Qu, et al., Method for quantitative estimation of the risk
propagation threshold in electric power CPS based on seepage probability, IEEE
Access 6 (2018) 68813–68823.
[64] A.I. Sarwat, A. Sundararajan, I. Parvez, Trends and future directions of research
for smart grid IoT sensor networks, in: Proceedings of International Symposium on
Sensor Networks, Systems and Security, 2018, pp. 45–61.
[65] J. Sexauer, P. Javanbakht, S. Mohaghehi, Phasor measurement units for the
distribution grid: necessity and benefits, in: IEEE PES Innovative Smart Grid
Technologies Conference, ISGT), 2013, pp. 1–6.
[66] G. Sanchez-Ayala, J.R. Aguerc, D. Elizondo, M. Lelic, Current trends on
applications of PMUs in distribution systems, in: IEEE PES Innovative Smart Grid
Technologies Conference, ISGT), 2013, pp. 1–6.
[67] H. Lee, T. Tushar, B. Cui, et al., A review of synchrophasor applications in smart
electric grid, WIREs Energy and Environment 6 (3) (2017) e223.
[68] D.K. Mohanta, C. Murthy, D.S. Roy, A brief review of phasor measurement units as
sensors for smart grid, Elec. Power Compon. Syst. 44 (4) (2016) 411–425.
[69] F. Abate, M. Carratù, C. Liguori, V. Paciello, A low cost smart power meter for IoT,
Elsevier.Meas.J 136 (2019) 59–66.
[70] R. Morello, C. De Capua, G. Fulco, S.C. Mukhopadhyay, A smart power meter to
monitor energy flow in smart grids: the role of advanced sensing and IoT in the
electric grid of the future, IEEE Sensor. J. 17 (23) (2017) 7828–7837.
[71] Y. Yashdeep, G.R. Biswal, T. Choudhury, et al., Design and modeling of MEMS
based trace-level moisture measurement system for GIS applications in smart grid
environment, IEEE Sensor. J. 17 (23) (2017) 7758–7766.
[72] M. Bagheri, A. Zollanvari, S. Nezhivenko, Transformer fault condition prognosis
using vibration signals over cloud environment, IEEE Access 6 (2018) 9862–9874.
[73] L. Russell, R. Goubran, F. Kwamena, F. Knoefel, Agile IoT for critical infrastructure
resilience: cross-modal sensing as part of a situational awareness approach, IEEE
Internet Things J. 5 (6) (2018) 4454–4465.
[74] S.K. Viswanath, C. Yuen, W. Tushar, et al., System design of the internet of things
for residential smart grid, IEEE.Wireless Commun. 23 (5) (2016) 90–98.
[75] A. Iqbal, F. Ullah, H. Anwar, et al., Interoperable Internet-Of-Things Platform for
Smart Home System Using Web-Of-Objects and Cloud, vol. 38, Elsevier
Sustainable Cities and Society, 2018, pp. 636–646.
[76] S. Shapsough, M. Takrouri, R. Dhaouadi, I.A. Zualkernan, Using IoT and Smart
Monitoring Devices to Optimize the Efficiency of Large-Scale Distributed Solar
Farms, Wireless Networks, 2018, pp. 1–17.
[77] J. Kim, F. Filali, Y. Ko, A lightweight CoAP-based software defined networking for
resource constrained AMI devices, in: IEEE International Conference on Smart
Grid, SmartGridComm), 2015, pp. 719–724.
[78] I. Shin, D. Eom, B. Song, The CoAP-based M2M gateway for distribution
automation system using DNP3.0 in smart grid environment, in: IEEE
International Conference on Smart Grid (SmartGridComm), 2015, pp. 713–718.
[79] M.I. Urkia, D.C. Mansilla, S. Mayer, et al., Integrating electrical substations within
the IoT using IEC 61850, CoAP and CBOR, IEEE Internet Things J. 6 (5) (2019)
7437–7449.
[80] A. Morato, S. Vitturi, F. Tramarin, A. Cenedese, Assessment of different OPC UA
industrial IoT solutions for distributed measurement applications, in: IEEE
International Instrumentation and Measurement Technology Conference, I2MTC),
2020, pp. 1–6.
[81] A. Sabbah, A. El-Mougy, M. Ibnkahla, A survey of networking challenges and
routing protocols in smart grids, IEEE Trans. Ind. Inf. 10 (1) (2014) 210–221.
[82] A.A. Khan, M.H. Rehmani, M. Reisslein, Requirements, design challenges, and
review of routing and MAC protocols for CR-based smart grid systems, IEEE
Commun. Mag. 55 (5) (2017) 206–215.
[83] A. Aijaz, H. Su, A. Aghvami, CORPL: a routing protocol for cognitive radio enabled
AMI networks, IEEE Trans. Smart Grid 6 (1) (2015) 477–485.
[84] E. Ancillotti, R. Bruno, M. Conti, The role of the RPL routing protocol for smart
grid communications, IEEE Trans. Smart Grid 51 (1) (2013) 75–83.
Z. Alavikia, M. Shabro
[85] E. Ancillotti, R. Bruno, M. Conti, Reliable data delivery with the IETF routing
protocol for low-power and lossy networks, IEEE Trans. Ind. Inf. 10 (3) (2014)
1864–1877.
[86] S. Anamalamudi, M. Zhang, A.R. Sangi, et al., Asymmetric AODV-P2prpl in Low-
Power and Lossy Networks (LLNs), Internet Engineering Task Force, 2018. https:
//datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/draft-ietf-roll-aodv-rpl-03. (Accessed August
2019).
[87] A. Aydegar, Software Defined Networking for Smart Grid Communications,
Master’s thesis, University of Florida, 2016. https://digitalcommons.fiu.edu/etd/
2580/. (Accessed July 2019).
[88] A. Cahn, J. Hoyos, M. Hulse, E. Keller, Software-defined energy communication
networks: from substation automation to future smart grids, in: IEEE International
Conference on Smart Grid (SmartGridComm), 2013, pp. 558–563.
[89] A. Goodney, S. Kumar, A. Ravi, Y.H. Cho, Efficient PMU networking with
software-defined networks, in: IEEE International Conference on Smart Grid
Communications, SmartGridComm), 2013, pp. 378–383.
[90] E. Molina, E. Jacob, J. Matias, et al., Using Software Defined Networking to
Manage and Control IEC 61850-based Systems, vol. 43, Elsevier Computers &
Electrical Engineering, 2015, pp. 142–154.
[91] T. Pfeiffenberger, J.L. Du, Reliable and Fault Tolerant Communication in Smart
Energy Grids Based on Software-Defined Networking/OpenFlow, Presented as
Part of the Smart Grids Week Graz, 2014. https://www.salzburgresearch.at/publ
ikation/reliable-fault-tolerant-communication. (Accessed June 2019).
[92] G. Singh-Aujla, S. Garg, S. Batra, et al., DROpS: A Demand Response Optimization
Scheme in SDN-Enabled Smart Energy Ecosystem, vol. 476, Elsevier Information
Sciences, 2019, pp. 453–473.
[93] R. Ratasuk, N. Mangalvedhe, Y. Zhang, et al., Overview of narrowband IoT in LTE
Rel-13, in: IEEE Conference on Standards for Communications and Networking,
CSCN), 2016, pp. 1–7.
[94] H.T. Mouftah, M.E. Kantarci, M.H. Rehmani, 5G and cellular networks in the smart
grid, in: Transportation and Power Grid in Smart Cities, Communication Networks
and Services, 2019, pp. 69–102.
[95] Z. Alavikia, A. Ghasemi, Collision-aware resource access scheme for LTE-based
machine-to-machine communications, IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol. 67 (5) (2018)
4683–4688.
[96] Z. Alavikia, A. Ghasemi, Pool resource management based on early collision
detection in random access of massive MTC over LTE, Ad Hoc Netw. 91 (2019).
[97] L. Jorguseski, H. Zhang, S.D. Soudarissanane, M. Golinski1, LTE delay assessment
for real-time management of future smart grids, in: Mobile Networks and
Applications, 2018, pp. 204–213.
[98] H. Shariatmadari, Z. Liy, S. Iraji, et al., control channel enhancements for ultra-
reliable low-latency communications, in: IEEE International Conference on
Communications Workshops (ICC Workshops), 2017, pp. 504–509.
[99] Y. Li, X. Cheng, Y. Cao, et al., Smart choice for the smart grid: narrow band
internet of things (NB-IoT), IEEE Internet Things J. 5 (3) (2018), 1505-151.
[100] M.E. Soussi, P. Zand, F. Pasveer, G. Dolmans, Evaluating the performance of eMTC
and NB-IoT for smart city applications, in: IEEE International Conference on
Communications (ICC), 2018, pp. 1–7.
[101] N. Varsier, J. Schwoereror, Capacity limits of LoRaWAN technology for smart
metering applications, in: IEEE International Conference on Communications
(ICC), 2017, pp. 1–6.
[102] L. Feltrin, C. Buratti, E. Vinciarelli, et al., LoRaWAN: evaluation of link- and
system-level performance, IEEE Internet Things J. 5 (3) (2018) 2249–2258.
[103] M. Shabro, S. A Ghorashi, Comparison of IWSN MAC protocols for IEC 61850
applications, Int. J. Innovat.Res. Electr.Electron. Instrum.Control Eng. 3 (6) (2015)
7–11.
[104] G.Z. Papadopoulos, T. Matsui, P. Thubert, et al., Leapfrog collaboration: toward
determinism and predictability in industrial-IoT applications, in: IEEE
International Conference on Communications (ICC), 2017, pp. 1–6.
[105] IEC 62439-3, Industrial Communication Networks-High Availability Automation
Networks-Part3: Parallel Redundancy Protocol (PRP) and Highavailability
Seamless Redundancy (HSR), International Electrotechnical Commission, 2016.
https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/24447. (Accessed July 2019).
410
Digital Communications and Networks 8 (2022) 388–410
[106] J. Siryani, B. Tanju, T. Eveleigh, A machine learning decision-support system
improves the internet of things' smart meter operations, IEEE Internet Things J. 4
(4) (2018) 1056–1066.
[107] Y. Li, Z. Yang, Application of EOS-ELM with binary jaya-based feature selection to
real-time transient stability assessment using PMU data, IEEE Access 5 (2017)
23092–23101.
[108] A. Meloni, P.A. Pegoraro, L. Atzori, et al., Cloud-based IoT solution for state
estimation in smart grids: exploiting virtualization and edge-intelligence
technologies, Comput. Network. 130 (2018) 156–165.
[109] L. Li, K. Ota, M. Dong, When weather matters: IoT-based electrical load forecasting
for smart grid, IEEE Commun. Mag. 55 (10) (2017) 46–51.
[110] Apache Hadoop project. http://hadoop.apache.org/, 2020. (Accessed March
2020).
[111] N.M.F. Qureshi, I.F. Siddiqui, M.A. Unar, et al., An aggregate MapReduce data
block placement strategy for wireless IoT edge nodes in smart grid, Wireless Pers.
Commun. 106 (2019) 2225–2236.
[112] J. Mineraud, O. Mazhelis, X. Su, S. Tarkoma, A gap analysis of internet of-things
platforms, Comput. Commun. 89 (2016) 5–16.
[113] A. Botta, W. de Donato, V. Persico, A. Pescap, Integration of cloud computing and
internet of things: a survey, Future Generat. Comput. Syst. 56 (2016) 684–700.
[114] F.T. Saenz, A.G. Vidal, A.P.R. Gonzalez, A.F. Skarmeta, An open IoT platform for
the management and analysis of energy data, Future Generat. Comput. Syst. 92
(2019) 1066–1079.
[115] S. Kulkarni, Q. Gu, E. Myers, et al., Enabling a decentralized smart grid using
autonomous edge control devices, IEEE Internet Things J. 6 (5) (2019)
7406–7419.
[116] S. Khasawneh, M. Kadoch, Hybrid cryptography algorithm with precomputation
for advanced metering infrastructure networks, Mobile Network. Appl. 23 (4)
(2018) 982–993.
[117] A. Sun, A. Wu, X. Zheng, F. Ren, Efficient and privacy-preserving certificateless
data aggregation in Internet of things–enabled smart grid, Int. J. Distributed Sens.
Netw. 15 (4) (2019) 1–9.
[118] M. Nabeel, X. Seo-Sh, E. Bertino, Scalable end-to-end security for advanced
metering infrastructures, Inf. Syst. 53 (2015) 213–223.
[119] S. Tonyali, K. Akkaya, N. Saputro, A. Uluagac, A reliable data aggregation
mechanism with homomorphic encryption in smart grid AMI networks, in: 13th
IEEE Consumer Communications & Networking Conference (CCNC), 2016,
pp. 550–555.
[120] X. Li, J. Peng, J. Niu, et al., A robust and energy efficient authentication protocol
for industrial internet of things, IEEE Internet Things J. 5 (3) (2018) 1606–1615.
[121] V. Mai, I. Khalil, Design and implementation of a secure cloud-based billing model
for smart meters as an Internet of things using homomorphic cryptography, Future
Generat. Comput. Syst. 72 (2017) 327–338.
[122] S. Hussain, I. Ullah, H. Khattak, et al., A lightweight and formally secure certificate
based signcryption with proxy Re-encryption (CBSRE) for internet of things
enabled smart grid, IEEE Access 8 (2020) 93230–93248.
[123] V.C. Hu, D.R. Kuhn, D.F. Ferraiolo, Attribute-based access control, IEEE Computer
48 (2) (2015) 85–88.
[124] L. Duan, C.A. Sun, Y. Zhang, et al., A comprehensive security framework for
publish/subscribe-based IoT services communication, IEEE Access 7 (2019)
25989–26001.
[125] Z. Li, J. Kang, R. Yu, et al., Consortium blockchain for secure energy trading in
industrial internet of things, IEEE Trans. Ind. Inf. 14 (8) (2018) 3690–3700.
[126] N.Z. Aitzhan, D. Svetinovic, Security and privacy in decentralized energy trading
through multi-signatures, blockchain and anonymous messaging streams, IEEE
Trans. Dependable Secure Comput. 15 (5) (2018) 840–852.
[127] Z. Su, Y. Wang, Q. Xu, et al., A secure charging scheme for electric vehicles with
smart communities in energy blockchain, IEEE Internet Things J. 6 (3) (2019)
4601–4613.
[128] J. Steiner, M. Blakeley, A. Miller, Estimating the Battery Life of a Wireless
Occupancy Sensor, 2014. Lutron Technical Report, https://www.lutron.com/Te
chnicalDocumentLibrary/3672437_Battery_Lifetime_Whitepaper.pdf. (Accessed
June 2021).