UNIT – IV

PRODUCTION SCHEDULING

Syllabus

Production Control Systems-Loading and scheduling-Master Scheduling-Scheduling rules-Gantt charts-

Perpetual loading-Basic scheduling problems - Line of balance – Flow production scheduling-Batch
production scheduling-Product sequencing – Production Control systems-Periodic batch control-Material
requirement planning kanban – Dispatching-Progress reporting and expediting-Manufacturing lead time-
Techniques for aligning completion times and due dates.

2 Marks

1. What do you mean by loading?

Loading may be defined as the assignment of work to a facility without specifying when the work is
done and in what sequence.

2. What is scheduling? (April/May 2018) What are its objectives?

Scheduling refers to the setting of operation start dates so that jobs will be completed by
their due date.

The objectives of production scheduling are:

i) To meet due date

ii) To minimize lead time

iii) To minimize setup time or cost

iv) To minimize work-in process inventory

v) To maximize machine or labour utilization

3. What is master scheduling? (May 2012) (April/May 2019)

The master schedule, also known as master production schedule (MPS), formalize the production
plan and translates it into specific end-item requirements over a short to immediate planning
horizon.

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 4. What are Gantt charts?

Gantt charts are usual aids used to depict the sequencing, load on facilities, or progress associated
with work effort over a well defined time period.

5. What is priority sequencing?

Priority sequencing is a systematic procedure for assigning priorities to waiting jobs thereby
determining the sequence in which the jobs will be performed.

6. What are the dispatching rules?

Dispatching rules, also known as priority rules or sequencing rules or scheduling rules, are the
rules used in obtaining a job sequence.

7. What is meant by product sequencing?

Priority sequencing is a systematic procedure for assigning priorities to waiting jobs thereby
determining the sequence in which the jobs will be performed.

8. What is meant by EBQ scheduling?

EBQ scheduling is nothing but the economic batch quantity scheduling that can be performed by
using aggregate run-out method.

9. What do you mean by line-of-balance? What are its uses?

Line-of-balance is a charting technique that uses lead times and assembling sequencing to
compare planned component completion with actual component completions

10. List the various charts that are used in line-of-balance analysis.

1. Operation programme chart/ or assembly chart,

2. Objective chart

3. Progress chart

4. Line of balance chart

11. What is the use of objective chart?

The objective chart shows the contrast between expected completion schedule of production and
the actual performance.

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 12. When do you use progress chart?

The progress chart is a bar type chart which shows the actual number of items produced at each
operation stage against the quantities that should have been produced as indicated by line of
balance.

13. What is MRP? (May 2009) (Nov/ Dec 2017)

Materials requirements planning (MRP) is a computational technique that converts the master
schedule for final products into a detailed schedule for the raw materials and parts used in the final
products.

14. List the various inputs required for MRP (May 2011) (May 2009) (Nov/ Dec 2017)

1. Master production schedule

2. Bill of materials file

3. Inventory record file

15. List some commonly used forms in dispatching.

1. Material requisitions

2. Job cards/ Tickets

3. Labour cards/Tickets

4. Move cards/Tickets

5. Inspection cards/Tickets

6. Tool and gauge tickets

16. What do you mean by expediting? (May 2013)

Expediting, also known as follow-up or progressing, is a control function that keeps track of the
‘progresses’ of work in accordance with planned schedule.

17. List the various recording methods for the progressing purpose.

1. Gantt charts

2. Visual charts

3. Cumulative and weekly charts

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 18. What do you mean by dispatching? (Nov/Dec 2018)

Dispatching is the routine of setting productive activities in motion through the release of orders and
instructions, in accordance with previously planned times and sequences, embodied in route sheets
and schedule.

19. What is meant by kanban system? (May 2013) (April/ May 2017)

A Kanban is a card that is attached to a storage & transport container. It identifies the

• Part number
• Container capacity
• Other informations

20. List the functions of expediting. (May 2012)

• Status reporting
• Attending to bottle neck or holdups in production & removing the same
• Controlling variations or deviations from planned performance levels
• Following up & monitoring progress at work through all stages of production
• Co-ordinating with purchase, stores, tool room & maintenance department
• Modifying the production plan & re-plan if necessary

21. Distinguish between production planning & production control. (May 2010)

Production Planning: It means management decision to produce the product, pre production
activity

Production Control: It means implementation of production plans, control mechanism to take

corrective action to match the planned with actual

22. State the objectives of line of balancing. (May 2010)

• Comparing actual progress with a formal objective plan

• Examining only the deviations from established plants, gauging their degree of severity with
respect to their remainder of the project
• Receiving timely information concerning trouble areas & indicating the areas where
appropriate corrective action is required
• Forecasting future performance

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23. List the key functions of the production scheduling and control. (May 2009)

• To meet the due dates

• Allocating jobs to facilities
• Establishing a sets of rules of priority to sequence the activities on the facilities
• Dispatching batch orders as per the schedule to imitate loading of jobs to facilities
• Reviewing the status of jobs as their loaded & processed in the facilities i.e follow up to work
• Expediting the critical jobs

24. How do you represent the mathematically the manufacturing lead time? (May 2009)

Lead time =Servicing time + Delivery time + Receiving time

25. Compare & contrast flow production scheduling & batch production scheduling. (May
2009)

Batch Production Flow Production

Mixture of equipment Specialized equipment

Similar sequence for each batch Same sequence of operation

Line & worker machine balance Line Balancing

Change over time & cost Change over time & cost

Material & equipment problems Material shortages

Setup cost & run length Equipments break down

Inventory accumulation Quality problems, product mix &

volume

26. Distinguish between single machine scheduling & flow shop scheduling. (May 2012
Regulation 2004)

• Comparing actual progress with a formal objective plan

• Examining only the deviations from established plants, gauging their degree of severity with
respect to their remainder of the project
• Receiving timely information concerning trouble areas & indicating the areas where
appropriate corrective action is required
• Forecasting future performance
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 27. Define dispatching in the context of production planning (May 2011 Regulation 2004)?

Dispatching is the routine of setting productive activities in motion through the release of
orders and instructions, in accordance with previously planned times and sequences, embodied in
route sheets and schedule.

28. Distinguish between master scheduling & operation scheduling? (May 2011 Regulation
2004) What is master scheduling? (April/ May 2017)

Master Scheduling : The master schedule, also known as master production schedule (MPS),
formalize the production plan and translates it into specific end-item requirements over a short to
immediate planning horizon.

Operation Scheduling: It expresses the overall plan in terms of specific end item to produce and
dates to produce them. It uses information from both forecast and orders on hand & it is the major
drivers for all major products.

29. Write any two ways reducing the problems in scheduling. (May 2011)

• To assign jobs Specific work center

• Provide sequencing priority to specify the order in which jobs are to be processed
30. What are the different techniques of loading and scheduling? (Nov/Dec 2018)
Scheduling Techniques:
✓ PERT (Program Evaluation and Review Technique)
✓ CPM (Critical Path Method)
✓ GANTT charts

Loading Techniques:

✓ Capacity Requirement Planning (CRP)

✓ Material Requirements Planning (MRP)
✓ Manufacturing Resource Planning (MRP-II)
31. List out any five priority sequencing rules. (Nov/Dec 2017) (April/May 2019)
✓ FCFS (First-come first-served)
✓ SOT (Shortest time operating)
✓ Due data
✓ STR (Slack time remaining)
✓ LCFS (Last come first served)

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 16 marks

PRODUCTION CONTROL SYSTEMS:

Production control through control mechanism, tries to take corrective action to match the planned
and actual production. Thus production control reviews the progress of the work and takes corrective steps in
order to ensure that programmed production takes places.
1. List out the functions of production scheduling and control.
The six key functions of the production scheduling and the control are;
➢ Release orders to the system in accordance with the priority plan.
➢ Assign jobs to specific work centers (including machine loading, or shop loading).
➢ Provide sequencing priorities to specify the order in which jobs are to be processed.
➢ Control the manufacturing lead time by tracking and expediting jobs if necessary.
➢ Monitor the priority status of the job via summary, scrap, reworks, and other reports.
➢ Monitor the capacity status of facilities via input/output reports of the workload versus capacity.
Output plan
Master schedule
Material requirements plan

Loading
Assigning specific jobs to each work
centre for the planning period

Sequencing
Determining the order of processing
of all jobs at each work centre

Scheduling
Establishing start and finish times of
all jobs at each work centres

Expediting
Monitoring progress, taking
corrective actions to minimize
deviations

Fig 4.1: Production scheduling and control functions

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 2. Explain in detail about loading and its types. (Nov/Dec 2012)
LOADING:
➢ Loading, also known as machine loading, may be defined as the assignment of work to a
facility (facility may be machine, group of men, entire plan, etc.) without specifying when the
work is to be done and in what sequence.
➢ Loading results in a tabulated chart indicating the planned utilization of the machines or work
stations. The objective is to maintain an up-to-date picture of available capacity in the plant.
➢ Loading represents the relationship between load and capacity at the places where the work is
done.
➢ Loading provides:
i. Information to ensure the efficient utilization of the plant and labour in a factory.
ii. Information to help in setting of reliable delivery
iii. Information to assist in forward planning of purchase of the new plant.
➢ Loading can be carried out only when the available capacity of work centres is known. For
this, we should have the standard time of all the work assigned to a given work centre plus
allowances for machine idle time, ancillary time, and down time.
➢ Capacity can be defined as the time available for work at work centres expressed in machine-
hours or in man-hours.
➢ Thus the main objectives of loading are;
i. To check the feasibility of production programmes.
ii. To assist in the efficient planning of new work.
iii. To assist in balancing the plant to the existing load.
iv. To assist in fixing of reliable delivery promises.
Fig. 4.2 illustrates a typical loading chart indicating the productive capacity that has been sold
in terms of time available as productive capacity.
Fig.4.2: Loading chart
Assigned orders (hour)
Machine Daily machine capacity March
(or a group (machine-hours)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8…
of machines)
Lathe 80 80 70 62 48 52 10 - -
Milling 74 74 66 70 42 38 62 33 -
Drilling 43 38 29 42 40 28 39 16 -

➢ The above load chart should be prepared for each machine or a group of similar machines
available. However, now- a- days load charts are not commonly used since they are combined
with scheduled charts.

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 PRODUCTION SCHEDULING:
3. Discuss in detail about flow production scheduling and master production scheduling.(Nov/Dec
2012) (Nov/ Dec 2017)
A production schedule is like a time table that tells us what machine or department
should be doing what and when.
➢ The production schedule should be formulated for the method which satisfactorily matches the
systems requirements with the available resources.
SCHEDULING:
➢ Scheduling refers to the setting of operation start dates so that jobs will be completed by their
due date.
➢ Scheduling establishes the timing of productive activities that use the firm’s human and
equipment resources to serve its customers.
➢ Scheduling is used to allocate workloads to specific work-centres and to determine the sequence
in which operations are to be performed within the available capacity.
➢ Scheduling deals with:
✓ Which work centre will do which job?
✓ When should an operation/ job to be started and when should it end?
✓ On which equipment should it be done and by whom
✓ What is the sequence in which jobs/operations needed to be handled?
➢ The various functions of an effective production scheduling system includes:
i. Allocating jobs to facilities.
ii. Establishing a set of rules of priorities to sequence the activities on the facilities.
iii. Dispatching job orders as per the schedule to initiate loading of jobs to facilities.
iv. Reviewing the status of jobs as they are loaded and processed in the facilities
v. Expediting the critical jobs.
Objectives of the production scheduling;
✓ To meet the due dates
✓ To minimize lead time
✓ To minimize lead time
✓ To minimize setup time or cost
✓ To minimize work in process inventory
✓ To maximize machine or labour utilization.
Data Requirements for Scheduling
✓ The current status of jobs (what orders are in process and where);
✓ What upcoming jobs are available?
✓ The adequacy of materials and capabilities
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 ✓ Equipment and labour utilization
✓ Job progress and efficiency
In addition, the system database must contain information on current inventory levels, lot
sizes, lead times, work-center capacities, set-up and run times, scrap rates, due dates, etc.

4. Discuss in detail the method of obtaining Master production schedule for a system with
examples. Suitable assumptions can be made.(Nov/Dec 2015)
Types of scheduling tools/techniques:

Master scheduling (Master production scheduling)

➢ The master schedule also known as master production schedule (MPS), formalizes the
production plan and translates it into specific end item requirements over a short to
immediate planning horizon.
➢ Then the end items are exploded into specific material and capacity requirements by the
material requirement planning (MRP) and capacity requirement planning (CPS)
systems.
Master scheduling Vs aggregate planning:
➢ Aggregate planning is the process of planning the quantity and timing of output over the
medium range (often 3 to 18 months) by adjusting the production rate, employment, inventory
and other controllable variables.
➢ Master scheduling follows aggregate planning and expresses the overall plan in terms of
specific end items to produce and dates to produce them. It uses information from both
forecasts and orders on hand and it is the major driver of all production activities.
➢ The following figure illustrates a simplified aggregate plan and master schedule for electric
motors. Aggregate plan
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep
Number of motors 40 25 55 30 30 50 30 60 40

Mater schedule
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep
AC motors:
15 - 30 - - 30 - - 10
5 hp
AC motors:
20 25 25 15 15 15 20 30 20
25 hp
DC motors:
20 hp - - - - - - 10 10 -

WR motors:
5 - - 15 15 5 - 20
10 hp 10

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Inputs to MPS:
✓ Forecasts of demand of end items
✓ Customer orders
✓ Inventory on hand from the previous period.
Determining the Planning Horizon Length of a Master schedule:
✓ The planning horizon length (time span) of a master schedule depends on
• The type of product
• Volume of production
• Component lead times of the product being produced.
• The time horizon can be weeks, months, or some combinations, but the schedule
should encompass the lead times for all purchased and assembled components.
Functions of MPS:
▪ To translate aggregate plans into specific end items.
▪ To evaluate alternative schedules
▪ To generate material requirements
▪ To generate capacity requirements
▪ To facilitate information processing
▪ To maintain valid priorities
▪ To utilize capacity effectively
Master production scheduling process

Fig Master Production scheduling (MPS) flow chart

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GANTT CHARTS:
5. Explain in detail about Gantt charts (Nov /Dec 2009), (Nov /Dec 2012), (April/May 2018)
✓ Gantt charts are simple bar graphs that can be used to schedule any type of operation. These
charts are named after its originator HENRY L.GANTT.
✓ Gantts chart are usual (bar chart) aids to depict the sequencing, load on facilities or progress
associated with work effort over a well-defined time period.
Types of Gantt chart are
▪ Work load charts
▪ Scheduling charts
1. Gantt workload chart:
➢ A workload chart is usually used to depict workload levels for equipment, workstations or
departments.
➢ In these charts, the vertical axis usually lists different facilities used to manufacture or process
job orders. The horizontal axis usually represents time.
➢ This chart clearly depicts the timing requirements for each job.
➢ This visual allocation of job provides managers with a quick and easy way of determining the
total workload assigned to each machine. The space between jobs is idle time.
➢ Its dynamically adapt to scheduling requirement changes as they occur in the operations
management system.
➢ For example in figure we can see that most of the machines assignable time in the first two
weeks is completely scheduled.
➢ After the second week the machines are idle for periods of time. These idle periods can be
filled with other unplanned jobs while managers and workers plan their schedules around the
known job requirements.

Fig: Gantt workload chart

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 2. Gantt scheduling chart
➢ A Gantt scheduling chart is used to track the progress of jobs as they pass through
departments in an organization.
➢ The vertical axis usually represents the departments in the sequence that jobs flow, and the
horizontal axis represents time.
➢ A job cannot be started in the next department until it is finished in the previous
department.
➢ Thus the chart makes easy to see the time required for and the current status of each job.
➢ Industrial engineers should always try to minimize the unassigned periods (in figure) to
make the best use of existing capacity and improve efficiency.

Fig: Gantt scheduling chart

6. Write short notes on Perpetual Scheduling (Nov/Dec 2012)

(Scheduling by perpetual loading)
➢ A copy of every order is placed in an open file which moves with the job going to different
facilities.
➢ The copy of the order remains in the file until the job is completed.
➢ During the processing the progress is reported with the help of tickets such as inspection
ticket, material requisition ticket, rework ticket, move ticket, etc.
➢ In this file the work order specifies the facilities used to do each operation and the estimated
time for the operation. Thus it is possible to determine the total amount of work remaining
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 ahead of each facility simply by analyzing the informations available in the file. In this way
the status of current job can be determined.
Steps in Making Perpetual Scheduling
1. Preparation of load analysis sheet
2. Presentation in Gantt charts
1. Preparation of load analysis sheet
Load analysis can be prepared by posting the load information on the form (from the orders in
hands).
2. Presentation in Gantt charts
The total load against each department is added up and knowing the weekly capacity of a
department, the number of weeks load against each department is calculated. These
informations can be transferred in the form of a chart, usually on a Gantt load chart. The
shaded bar show the actual work against each department. The additional information
regarding the work load, if any, can be indicated by dotted line.
Advantages
▪ It is very simple and understandable
▪ It requires less overall cost
▪ These charts can be used for various types of work.
▪ It can be maintained by even clerical staff, who are trained to analyse the work order
file.
Disadvantages
➢ The complete information is available in gross, thus it can sometimes mislead. The
reason is that this chart indicates that a particular department has a four week ahead
load, but it does not indicate when the work will occur.
➢ It may be very likely that a particular department is idle currently because the load
shown in the chart may occur after several weeks.
7. Explain in detail about various types of scheduling systems
Explain in detail the various factors that affect scheduling (April/May 2019)
Basic Scheduling Problems (SCHEDULING SYSTEMS):
Production scheduling techniques depend upon the type of production, type and frequency of
jobs, demand pattern and flexibility offered by available processing time.
Some of the basic scheduling problems are
• Job shop scheduling
• Batch production scheduling
• Flow production scheduling
• Product sequencing
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 Characteristics of scheduling systems
Types of Job shop Batch production Flow (Continuous
production production)
system
Key ➢ General purpose ➢ Mixture of ➢ Specialized
Characteristics equipment equipment equipment
➢ Unique ➢ Similar sequence ➢ Same sequence of
sequence of for each job operations
each job
Design Concerns ➢ Worker machine ➢ Line and worker ➢ Line balancing
balance machine balance ➢ Changeover time
➢ Capacity ➢ Changeover time and cost
utilization and cost
Operational ➢ Job sequencing ➢ Material and ➢ Material shortage
Concerns ➢ Work-centre equipment ➢ Equipment
loading problems breakdowns
➢ Work flow and ➢ Set up cost and run ➢ Quality problems
work in process lengths ➢ Product mix and
➢ Inventory volume
accumulations

8. Explain in detail about scheduling rules (Nov/Dec 2009)

Explain in detail about scheduling procedure (April/May 2017)
Write short notes on types of scheduling techniques. (Nov/Dec 2018)
Job shop scheduling:
Scheduling rules
When many jobs are waiting before an operational facility, we should have some rule to
decide the priority while sequencing.
➢ Scheduling rules also known as priority rules or sequencing rules or dispatching rules are the rules
used in obtaining a job sequence.
➢ Priority sequencing is a systematic procedure for assigning priorities to waiting jobs thereby
determining the sequence in which the jobs will be performed.
Priority rules for jobs sequencing
➢ FCFS (First-come first-served) - Orders are run in the order they arrive in the department.

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 ➢ SOT (Shortest time operating) - Run the job with the shortest completion time first, next
shortest second and so on. This is identical to SPT.
➢ Due data – earliest due date first – Run the job with the earliest due date first.
➢ Start date-due date minus normal lead time –Run the job with the earliest start date first.
➢ STR (Slack time remaining) – Difference between the time remaining before the due date
minus the processing time remaining. Orders with the shortest STR are run first.
➢ STR/OR (Slack time remaining per operation) – orders with shortest STR/OP are run first.
STR/OP is calculated as follows:
𝑆𝑇𝑅 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑔 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑒 − 𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
=
𝑂𝑃 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
➢ CR(critical ratio) – Orders with the smallest CR runs first. CR is calculated as the difference
between the due date and the current date divided by the number of work days remaining.
➢ QR(queue ratio) – Orders with the smallest QR is first run. QR is calculated as the slack time
remaining in the schedule divided by the planned schedule remaining queue in time.
➢ LCFS (last come, first served) – As orders arrive, they are placed on the top of the stack, the
operator usually picks up the order on top to run first.
➢ Random order or whim – The operators usually select whichever job they feel like running.

Scheduling of n jobs on one machine (n/1 scheduling)

The problem of scheduling of n jobs on one machine is also referred as n/1 scheduling. The
theoretical difficulty of scheduling problems increases with more machines rather than with more
jobs.

9. A manufacturing facility has five jobs to be scheduled on a machine. Their sequence of arrival,
processing time, and due-date are given in the table below.

Job(sequence of arrival) Processing time Due date(i.e. days from now)

A 7 8
B 4 3
C 5 7
D 2 9
E 6 6
Schedule the jobs using (i) FCFS, (ii) SPT, (iii) DDate, (IV) LCFS, and (V) STR rules. Also compare
the results (using the performance measures of total completion time, average completion time, and
average lateness.)

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 Solution:

(i) FCFS (first-come first-served) rule: In this, the job which arrives first is scheduled first,
and so on, the FCFS rules results are shown below:
Flow time Lateness of job
Processing times Due date
Job sequence (Fi=Fi-1+ pi) Li= Fi - di ,
(pi ) days di (days)
(days) If Fi> di, otherwise zero
A 7 8 0+7=7 0
B 4 3 7+4=11 8
C 5 7 11+5=16 9
D 2 9 16+2=18 9
E 6 6 18+6=24 18
76 44
Mean flow time = 76/5 = 15.2 days

Average lateness = 44/8 = 8.8 days

ii) SPT (shortest processing time) shortest processing time rules :

This rule gives top priority to that job which has shortest processing time. The resulting flow
times are as below.

Flow time Lateness of job

Processing times Due date
Job sequence (Fi=Fi-1+ pi) Li= Fi - di ,
(pi ) days di (days)
(days) If Fi> di, otherwise zero
D 2 9 0+2=2 0
B 4 3 2+4=6 3
C 5 7 6+5=11 4
E 6 6 11+6=17 11
A 7 8 17+7=24 16
60 34
Mean flow/ completion time = 60/5= 12 days

And average job lateness = 34/5 = 6.8 days

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 iii) D Date (or earliest due- date) rule:

This rules gives top priority to the having earliest due-date as below.

Flow time Lateness of job

Processing times Due date
Job sequence (Fi=Fi-1+ pi) Li= Fi - di ,
(pi ) days di (days)
(days) If Fi> di, otherwise zero
B 4 3 0+4=4 1
E 6 6 4+6=10 4
C 5 7 10+5=15 8
A 7 8 15+7=22 14
D 2 9 22+2=24 15
75 42

Mean flow time = 75/5 = 15 days

and average job lateness = 8.4 days

iv) LCFS (last-come first-serve) rule:

This rule gives top priority to that job, which has arrived most recently, as below.

Flow time Lateness of job

Processing times Due date
Job sequence (Fi=Fi-1+ pi) Li= Fi - di ,
(pi ) days di (days)
(days) If Fi> di, otherwise zero
E 6 6 0+6=0 0
D 2 9 6+2=8 0
C 5 7 8+5=13 6
B 4 3 13+4=17 14
A 7 8 17+7=24 16
68 36
Mean flow time = 68/5 = 13.6 days

and average job lateness = 36/5 = 7.2 days

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 v) STR (Slack time remaining) rule:

We know that, STR = Due date – processing time

Orders with shortest STR are scheduled first, as shown below.

Flow time Lateness of job

Processing times Due date
Job sequence (Fi=Fi-1+ pi) Li= Fi - di ,
(pi ) days di (days)
(days) If Fi> di, otherwise zero
B 4 3 0+4=4 1
E 6 6 4+6=10 4
A 7 8 10+7=17 9
C 5 7 17+5=22 15
D 2 9 22+2=24 15
77 44

Mean flow time = 77/5 = 15.4 days

and average job lateness = 44/5 = 8.8 days

Comparison of priority rules

The following table summarizes the results for the given problem.

S.No Rule Total completion Average completion Average lateness

time (days) time (days) (days)
1 FCFS 76 15.2 8.8
2 SPT 60 12 6.8
3 DDate 75 15 8.4
4 LCFS 68 13.6 7.2
5 STR 77 15.4 8.8

It is observed mathematically that SPT rule yields an optimum solution for the n/l scheduling
problem than problem than other rules in minimizing average flow time, and average job lateness.

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 Scheduling n jobs on two machines (Johnson’s Rule)
Product sequencing
➢ Where n jobs must be processed by two machines, M1 followed by M2. The processing times
of all jobs on M1 and M2 are known and deterministic.
➢ It is required to find the sequence which minimizes the time to complete all jobs.
Johnson’s rule:
➢ The objective of Johnson’s rule is to minimize the flow time. From the beginning of the first
job until the finish of the last. In other words, this rule tries to maximize the concurrent
operating time both the machines.
Problem Content:
The n job 2 machine sequencing problem is completely described
➢ Only two machines are involved say M1, M2
➢ Each job is processed in the order M1, M2
➢ The exact or expected processing times for all jobs on both machines are known.
The problem is to determine the sequence (order) of jobs that minimizes the total completion
time.
Rules steps
➢ Step 1: List the operation time, each job on both machines
➢ Step 2: Select the shortest operations time.
➢ Step 3: If the shortest time for first machine, do the job first, if it is for second machine , do
the job last. Break any ties between jobs by sequencing the job on the first machine earliest
and that on the second machine latest. Jobs having the same time at both machines can be
assigned at either end of the available sequence.
➢ Step 4: Repeat the step 2 and 3 for each remaining job until the schedule is complete.

10. Processing time of five jobs on two machines are given below. Using Johnson’s rules, schedule
these jobs. Also find the minimum total flow time.

Time required for job (hours)

A B C D E
Machine M1 5 4 8 7 6

Machine M2 3 9 2 4 10

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 Solution: The sequence of jobs can be obtained as below.

i) The shortest time is for job c in machine M2 (2hours). So Place job C as late as possible
C

ii) The next shortest time is for job a in machine M2. So place job A as late as possible.
A C

iii) The next shortest time is a tie between jobs on the first machine M1 (job B) as early as
possible.
B A C

iv) The next shortest time is for job Din machine M2. So place the job as late as possible.
B D A C

v) Place job E in the remaining opening.

B E D A C

The sequence of job is B-E-D-A-C

We can get

Total flow/completion time = 32 hours

Idle time for machine M1 = 4 Hours

Idle time for machine M2 = 2 hours

State the steps in Johnson’s algorithm for solving sequencing problems of n jobs and 3 or 4 machines.
(April/May 2018)
Scheduling n jobs on three machines (n/3 scheduling)
Johnson’s method can be extended to yield an optimal solution for the n/3 scheduling problems.

Problem content: The n-job 3 machines sequencing problem is described as follows:

➢ Only three machines are involved M1, M2, and M3.
➢ Each job is processed in the prescribed order M1, M2, and M3.

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 ➢ No passing of jobs is permitted (the same order over each machine is maintained)
➢ The exact or expected processing times on tree machines are known.

The extended Johnson’s rules conditions

Johnson’s rule can be extended to solve the n/3 scheduling problems where either one or both of the
following conditions hold good:

1. Maximum time on machine M1 ≥ Maximum time on machine M2

2. Maximum time on machine M ≥ Maximum time on machine M2

The method consists of replacing the given problem by an equivalent problem involving n
jobs and two machines. These two hypothetical machines are denoted by G and H and their
corresponding processing times are given by

Gi = M 1 i + M 2 i
Hi = M 2i + M 3i

11. Five jobs are to be processed on three machines. The processing times in hours are given
below. Find the optimal-sequence of jobs so that total elapsed time (i.e., total flow time) is
minimised.

JOB J1 J2 J3 J4 J5
A 5 7 6 9 5
B 2 1 4 5 3
C 3 7 5 6 7

Solution: Here minimum processing time on A is 5 hours and maximum processing time on B is 5
hours. Since minimum of A ≥Maximum of B, we can proceed the extended johnson’s method.

Now let us consider two fictitious machines G and H, and the processing times on them are given
below.

PROCESSING TIMES
Job G= A+B H=B+C
J1 7 5

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 J2 8 8
J3 10 9
J4 14 11
J5 8 10

Now using the original Johnson’s rule, the optimal sequence can be obtained as

J2 J5 J4 J3 J1

Machine A Machine B Machine C

Idle time of Idle time of
Job Time in Time out Time in Time out Time in Time out
Machine B Machine C
J2 0 7 7 8 8 15 7 8
J5 7 12 12 15 15 22 4 -
J4 12 21 21 26 26 32 6 4
J3 21 27 27 31 32 37 1 -
J1 27 32 32 34 37 40 1+6 -
The time calculations are as given in table below.

The following results may be observed form the above table:

Total elapsed/flow/completion time = 40 hours

Idle time for machine A = 40 – 32 = 8 hours

Idle time for machine B = 7+4+6+1+1+6

= 25 hours

Idle time for machine C = 8 + 4

= 12 hours Ans.

Scheduling 2 Jobs in ‘m’ machines (2/m scheduling)

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 When there are two jobs each having its own processing sequence on m machines, the optimal
sequence of these jobs on the m machines to minimize the total processing time can be obtained by
using a graphical procedure.
➢ STEP 1: Construct a two – dimensional graph where x-axis represents the processing time and
the sequence of job 1 on the m machines while y-axis represents those of job 2 (use the same
scale for both x and y)
➢ STEP 2: Shade the areas where a machine would be occupied by the two jobs at the same time.
➢ STEP 3: The processing of both jobs can be represented by a continuous path which consists of
horizontal, vertical and 450 diagonal segments.

12. Two major parts P1 and P2 for a product require processing through five machine centres. The
technological sequence of these parts on the six machines and the manufacturing times on each
machine are given below:
Part P1 Part P2
Sequence of machines Times (Hours) Sequence of machines Times (Hours)
A 3 B 5
B 4 C 4
C 2 A 3
D 6 D 2
E 2 E 6
Using the graphical method, determine the optimal scheduling to minimize the total processing time
for these two parts.
Solution:

24
 1. Draw lines (horizontal and vertical) OX and OY representing the processing time of job 1 and
job 2 respectively.
2. Then mark the processing times of the jobs on the machines in the given order as shown in
figure.
3. Then draw shaded rectangular blocks corresponding to each machine.
4. Now starting from starting point O, move on doing jobs avoiding the shaded rectangular
blocks until the finish point is reached. Here it is important to note that we should try to move
as much as we can, along a line inclined at angle 450 to the horizontal, wherever movement
along this line is not possible we shall move only horizontally or vertically.

The best path is shown by arrows.

It is clear from the graph that we graph that we have processed.
Job 1 before 2 on machine A
Job 2 before 1 on machine B
Job 2 before 1 on machine C
Job 2 before 1 on machine D
Job 2 before 1 on machine E
The elapsed time = processing time of job 1 + idle time of job 1
= 17 + (2 + 3) = 22 hours
= processing time of job 2 + idle time of job 2
= 20 + 2 = 22 hours.

13. Elaborate the procedure involved in determination of quantity, machine capacity and balancing
in batch production.(Nov/Dec 2015)
How to determine the economic order quantity in batch production? (Nov/Dec 2012)
14. Explain in detail about Aggregate run out method (Nov/Dec 2009)
Batch production scheduling:
➢ Batch production is preferred when a variety of products are to be made and the volumes are
not large enough to demand a separate line for each product.
➢ In batch production output is inventoriable and be produced in sustainable volume. It is
necessary to determine the lot size for a batch to be produced at one time in addition to
scheduling the batch on the facilities.
➢ The decision to be taken in these processes
✓ The economic batch size decision
✓ The scheduling decision.(regarding when to begin the processing of the batch)
1. Determination of economic batch quantity (EBQ)
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 The concept important and expressions of economic batch quantity have been discussed already.
1. Constant costs per piece C
2. Setup costs per batch S
3. Carrying cost
4. Storage carrying cost

The EBQ formula can be reproduced as below

2 ×𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 ×𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑢𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡/𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ
Economic batch quantity = √
𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑦 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟

2. Batch scheduling
Batch scheduling, also known as EBQ scheduling, can be performed by using aggregate
run out method.
a. Aggregate run out method
➢ Aggregate run-out method also known as aggregate run-out time (AROT) can be
used to determine production runs for a group of items that requires the same
production facilities. This methods computes run out time which along with inventory
- on hand will satisfy future demand for an item.
➢ The objective of run out method is to balance the utilization of production capacity so
that run out time for all the items must be same.

Procedure:
1. Compute the aggregate run-out time (AROT) of each item required for a product.

𝑴𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔 𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒚 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒊𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒔 + 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒗𝒂𝒊𝒍𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔
AROT =
𝑴𝒂𝒄𝒉𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔 𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒂𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒊𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒔

2. Rank the items in the in the ascending order of their run-out times (ROT’S)
3. Schedule the item with the lowest ROT first, followed by the item with the next lowest
ROT.

15. The table below gives the data on the current inventory, production lot sizes, and standard
hours per unit and the forecast of demand for all items required for a product. Determine the
sequence of production (production schedule) using the aggregate run-out (AROT) method.
The available production capacity is 320 hours. Also analyse the effect of the capacity on the
schedule.
26
Item Standard Lot size Forecast Current Machine
hours per demand/week inventory hour per
unit order
A 0.20 200 70 200 40
B 0.40 300 100 240 120
C 0.30 200 80 260 60
D 0.40 400 120 160 160
Total = 380
Solution:
STEP 1: calculate AROT as shown in table below
Table: AROT determination
Standard Forecast Machine hours for Current Machine hours
Item hours demand the forecast demand inventory inventory
per unit per unit
A 0.20 70 70 × 0.2 = 14 200 0.20 × 200 =40
B 0.40 100 100 × 0.4 = 40 240 0.40 × 240= 96
C 0.30 80 80 × 0.3 = 24 260 0.30 × 260= 78
D 0.40 120 120 × 0.4 = 48 160 0.40 × 160= 64
Total = 126 hrs Total=278 hrs

278+320
AROT = = 4.746
126
STEP 2: Calculation of schedule requirements is shown below in the table
Gross requirements = forecast demand per week × AROT
Net requirements = gross requirements – current inventory
Table: schedule requirements
Item Standard Forecast AROT Gross inventory Current Net requirements
hours demand per inventory
per unit unit
A 0.20 70 4.746 4.746 × 70 = 332 200 332 – 200 =132
B 0.40 100 4.746 4.746 × 100 = 474 240 474 -240 = 234
C 0.30 80 4.746 4.746 × 380 = 380 260 380 – 260 = 120
D 0.40 120 4.746 4.746 × 570 = 570 160 570 – 160 = 410

STEP 3: Calculation of capacity requirements is shown in the table below:

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Table: Calculation of capacity requirements
Scheduled Standard hours Lot size Machine hours required Remaining capacity
sequence per unit required
A 0.20 132 0.20 × 132 = 26.40 320 – 26.4 = 293.6
B 0.40 234 0.40 × 234 = 93.60 293.6 – 93.6 = 200
C 0.30 120 0.30 × 120 = 120 200 – 36 = 164
D 0.40 410 0.40 × 410 = 164.0 164.0– 164.0 = Nil

16. Explain Line of Balance method (Nov/Dec 2012)(Nov/ Dec 2009)

Explain the various charts used in LOB. (April/May 2018)
LINE-OF-BALANCE (LOB):
Line-of-balance is a charting technique that uses lead times and assembling sequencing to
compare planned component completion with actual component completions.
The lie-of-balance is used in production scheduling and to control to determine:
i. How many (quantity) of an item should have been completed by the review date and
ii. How many should have passed through the previous operation stages by the review date so as
to ensure the completion of the required delivery schedule.
USES OF LOB
The Line-of-balance technique permits scheduling the following activities simultaneously on
one chart
1. Source of each component element (purchase, manufacture, assemble, test, etc.)
2. Sequence of assembly, including sub-assembly, testing and inspection, packaging, shipping
and related activities.
3. Comparison of scheduled versus actual finished product deliveries.
4. Comparison of scheduled versus actual component-element completions showing present and
potential shortages or delays.
The important of this technique is that it is able to focus the attention of management on those
areas which are out of control thereby allowing the practice of management by exception.
INPUT TO LOB
i. Schedule of delivery
ii. Key operation in making the product which needed to be controlled
iii. The sequence in which the key events are connected
iv. Lead times of these events

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 Various charts used in LOB
➢ Operation program chart or assembly chart
➢ Objective chart
➢ Progress chart
➢ Line of balance chart

Operation program chart

➢ Operation program chart is also known as program plan or production lead
time chart or assembly chart, is a chart that shows the lead time for each
operation stage/processing steps.
➢ It shows the operations and time requirements in completing one unit of the
end product.

➢ The network like event oriented charts indicates

✓ Latest start time of any operations
✓ Date by which it must be completed
✓ Amount of lead time by which event must precede to final
completion.
Objective chart
The objective chart shows the contrast between expected completion schedule of
production and the actual performance.
The chart shows
• The difference between the scheduled and actual deliveries
• The time lag between the scheduled and actual deliveries
Line of balance chart
Line of balance chart shows the quantity of item that should have been completed at
each operation stage in a particular time at which, the progress will be reviewed so as to meet
the delivery schedule for the finished product and to meet the completion schedule quantities
cumulatively.
Progress chart
➢ Progress chart is a bar type chart which shows the actual number of items produced at each
operation stage against the quantities that should have been produced as indicated by line of
balance.
➢ That chart clearly indicates the excess or shortage in the quantities of the items at the
operation stages.

29
 ➢ If the LOB line is higher than the progress chart, the schedule is taken as delayed; otherwise
the production is well in advanced of plan.
➢ Thus management can take corrective action based on the information from LOB chart for
those components that lagging and causing production to fall behind of schedule.

17. List out the inputs required for MRP. Also explain the concept of MRP with neat sketch.
(Nov/Dec 2012)(May/June 2012) How MRP works? (May/June 2012) (Nov/Dec 2015)(April/May
2017) What are the components of MRP? (Nov/Dec 2017)
18. What are the Inputs to MRP? Explain them. (Nov/Dec 2011)
MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS PLANNING (MRP)
➢ Material requirements planning (MRP) is a computational technique that converts the master
schedule for final products into a detailed schedule for the raw materials and parts used in the
final products.
➢ The detailed schedule identifies the quantities of each raw material and part item.
➢ It also indicates when each item must be ordered and delivered so as to meet the master
schedule for the final products.
➢ MRP is a computerized system for managing dependent-demand inventory, scheduling
replenishment orders, and meeting demand for end items as given in the master production
schedule.
Basic characteristics of MRP
Two basic characteristics of MRP are
1. MRP drives demand for components, subassemblies, materials, etc., from demand for and
production schedules of parent items.
2. MRP offsets replenishment orders (purchase orders or production schedules) relative to the
date when replenishment is needed.
Information need for MRP:
➢ Demand for all products.
➢ Lead time for all finished goods, components, parts and raw materials.
➢ Lot sizing policies for all parts.
➢ Opening inventory levels.
➢ Safety stock requirements.
➢ Any order previously placed but which have not arrived yet.

Inputs to MRP:
1. Master production schedule
2. Bill of materials file
3. Inventory record file.
30
 Structure of a material requirements planning (MRP) system
1. Master production schedule (MPS)
Master production schedule is a detailed plan that states how many end items (i.e final
product to be sold to customer) will be available for sale/distribution during specific periods.
Purpose of the master production schedule:
i. To set due dates for the availability of the end items.
ii. To provide the information regarding resources and the materials required to support
to support the aggregate plan.
iii. As an input to MRP, this will set specific production schedules for parts and
components used in end items.
Inputs to MPS
i. Market requirements.
ii. Production plan from aggregate planning.
iii. Resources available
MPS Output
The output of the MRP is the list of end items available every period that is feasible
with respect to demand and capacity.

2. Bill of materials (BOM) file

✓ The bill of material designates what items and how many of each is used to make up a specified
final product.
✓ The bill of material file is used to compute the raw material and component requirements for end
products listed in the master schedule.
31
 ✓ It provides information on the product structure by listing the components parts and
subassemblies that make up each product.

Product structure:
➢ The structure of an assembly product in the form of a pyramid can be depicted as shown in
figure
➢ It can be seen from figure that the product P1 is the parent of subassemblies S1, S2. Similarly
S1 is the parent material of components C1, C2, and C3 and so on.

Product structure for product P1

3. Inventory record file (item master file)
Inventory record file contains the following three segments
Item master data segment: It provides the items identification by part number, cost, order
quantities, lead times.
Inventory status data: It provides a time-phased record of inventory status.
Subsidiary data segment: It provides subsidiary data such as purchase orders, scrap or rejects and
engineering changes. Figure depicts the typical inventory record file showing the different types of
data contained in the inventory record file.

Working of MRP:
MPS provides a period-by-period list of final products required. The BOM defines what
materials and components are needed for each product. Then the inventory record file contains
information on the current and future inventory status of each component. By using these three
inputs, the MRP processor computes the number of each component and raw material required for the
given final product.
MRP Output reports
i. Primary outputs include:
i. Order release notice, to place orders that have been planned by the MRP system.
ii. Report of planned order releases in future periods.
iii. Rescheduling notice, to indicate the changes in due dates for open orders.

32
 iv. Cancellation notices, to indicate the cancellation of open orders because of changes in the
master schedule.
v. Reports on inventory status.
ii. Secondary outputs include:
i. Performance reports of various types, to indicate costs, item usage, etc.
ii. Expectation reports, to show deviations from schedule, orders that are overdue, scrap and so
on.
iii. Inventory forecasts, to indicate the projected inventory levels in future periods.

Benefits of MRP
➢ Reduction in inventory,
➢ Quicker response to changes in demand,
➢ Reduced setup and changeover costs,
➢ Better machine utilization,
➢ Better production scheduling,
➢ Reduce production lead time
➢ Improved product quality.
DISPATCHING AND EXPEDITING:
19. Explain in detail about dispatching (May /June 2012)
What is meant by dispatching? Enumerate and list the various functions of dispatching.
Explain the various documents raised by the dispatcher. (April/May 2019)

Dispatching
➢ Dispatching is the routine of setting productive activities in motion the through the release
order and instructions, in accordance with previously planned times and sequences, embodied
in route sheets and scheduled charts.
➢ Once the production order is complete and the schedules are planned, then it is the
responsibility of the dispatching function to trigger off the flow of information and instruction
and with them the issue of materials, tools, production aids, drawing and specifications,
inspection orders, etc.
DISPATCHING ACTIVITIES
1. Movement of material from stores to the first process and from process to process.
2. Issues of tool orders instructing the tool department to collect and make ready tools, jigs and
fixtures in advance of the time at which the operation will start.
3. Issues of job order authorizing operations, in accordance with the dates and times previously
planned and entered on the machine loading charts, route sheets and progress control boards.

33
 4. Issue of time tickets, drawings, instruction cards and other necessary information to personnel
performing the work.
5. Issue of inspection orders after each operation to determine the result in number of pieces good
and bad and the causes of spoilage.
6. Issue of move orders and collection of time tickets, drawings and instruction cards for all
completed operations.
Finally the dispatching function is responsible for keeping records of actual operations time, idle
man and machine times, length and causes of breakdowns, and any other relevant information about
reality keeping within schedule or deviating from it.

20. Explain the principal functions of dispatching(Nov/Dec 2012)

Functions of dispatching
➢ To prepare manufacturing orders (which consists of shop orders, move orders, tool orders,
etc.)
➢ Issue of materials from the stores.
➢ Issue of instructions to tool room.
➢ Issue of order authorizing the commencement of operations in accordance with the
predicated dates.
➢ Issue of time, time instruction cards, drawings
➢ Time recording
➢ Issue of the order to the inspection department.
➢ Ordering finished products to the finished stock room.Issue of time tickets to finance
department.
➢ Recording of the idle time of machines and operations.
Common forms used in dispatching
1. Material requisitions
➢ It is issued for receiving material from the store.
➢ No material may be drawn from the stores without this written requisition.
2. Job cards tickets
➢ Job card authorizes the worker to start a work on a certain material.
➢ Also it indicates what to do and serves as a means of recording production progress.
3. Labour cards/ tickets
➢ Labour cards also known as wage payment cards are used to report labour time
utilized and quantity of work performed on a lot of material and to supply other
information required in the preparation of the payroll and production reports.
➢ Usually the job and labour cards are combined into one form.
34
 4. Move tickets/cards
➢ Move card authorizes the movement of materials between operations as per
requirements of the job.
➢ It may also be used to report production progress.
5. Inspection cards/tickets
➢ Inspection cards are used to report the quantity of work passed and the quantity
rejected at each inspection operation.
6. Tool and gauge tickets
➢ Tool and gauge tickets are furnished to the tool room or gauge room as authorization
to issue such equipment.

21. Explain the procedure for dispatching and explain the dispatching rules.(April/May 2011)
Dispatching rules
1. FCFS (first-come, first-served)
2. SOT (shortest operation time)
3. Earliest due date
4. Slack time remaining (STR)
5. Critical ratio (CR)
6. Queue ratio (QR)
7. Slack time remaining per operation (STR/OR)

22. Explain in detail about expediting.

What is progressing? Explain its function. Also write short notes about recording progresses.
(Nov/Dec 2018)
Expediting or (Progressing)
➢ It is also known follow up or progressing, is a control function that keeps track of the
progress of work in accordance with planned schedule.
➢ While dispatching initiates the execution of production plans, expediting maintains the
production flows according to plan till the job is completed.
➢ This follow-up is to be done at every stage in production cycle, (follow-up of
materials, follow-up of work-in-progress and follow-up of assembly.

Functions of expediting
The various functions/activities/duties of expediting include;
▪ Status reporting
▪ Attending to bottlenecks or hold up in production

35
 ▪ Controlling the variations or deviations from planned performance
▪ Follow up and monitoring progress at work through all stage of production
▪ Coordinating with purchase, stores, and tool room and maintenance departments.
▪ Modifying the production plans and re-plans if necessary

Types of progressing
The five types of progressing are given
▪ Programmed control
▪ Order progressing
▪ Shortage chasing
▪ Daily plan progressing
▪ Departmental progress control
Programmed control
➢ It is the task of comparing the actual production output with the production programme
and reporting deviations from plan to the line management for consideration and
correction.
➢ The different recording tools used for this purpose include Gantt charts, tabulated records.
Order progressing
➢ It is concerned with the control of internal orders and purchase requisitions.
➢ The four main progress record systems used for this purpose are
i. Due date filling
ii. Order delivery records
iii. Operation progress records
iv. List orders progress
Shortage chasing
➢ It is the task of comparing the actual availability of materials and parts with the
quantities required for production and of reporting any shortages so that they can be
produced quickly.
Daily plan progressing
➢ It is the control used to ensure that the daily plans made during dispatching are
achieved
➢ The general method used for this purpose is to have daily and weekly departmental
meetings.
Departmental progress control
➢ It is s method used to access the efficiency of the different production departments in a
factory.
36
 ➢ This is calculated by recording number of failures to complete orders by due-date in
each department at regular intervals and by comparing these quantities with the
prescribed limits of performance.

Recording progress
There are many recording tools available; the most widely used progress recording methods
are as follows:
1. Gantt charts:
➢ Gantt charts are used to provide an immediate comparison between schedule and
reality.
➢ This is achieved simply by marking on the schedule the actual progress of the
work.
2. Visual charts:
➢ Visual charts are nothing but variations of the Gantt chart, for example, a visual
control chart using a pin board.
➢ These charts present a current picture of the situation but leave no record of past
events.
➢ Visual charts often make use of colored bars, strings, moveable rulers, and meters
with numbers.
3. Cumulative and weekly charts:
➢ The cumulative chart shows how much we have managed to produce so far. The
weekly output charts depict the weekly fluctuations in production.

37