Abstract

The Sustainable development strategies’ focus is on five dimensions: economic

sustainability, social sustainability, ecological sustainability, sustainable
spatial development, and cultural continuity. Thus, sustainable housing is one
of the fundamental pillars of sustainable development, and sustainable urban
development can be discussed in this context. The target of sustainable urban
development process is to achieve the status of "sustainability" in urban
communities and also to create or to strengthen the sustainability’s
characteristics of economic, social, cultural and environmental city.

This essay tries first to have a brief review on the history of sustainable
development. Then, it continues to find out how to promote that concept and
why it is necessary to be focused through different definitions.

To understand the principles and pillars of sustainable development, based on

the current worlds’ environmental, economic, social and political realities,
concepts, words and condition of the Earth Summit, the Rio Declaration and
the Works Program of 21 and the different experts and researchers’ views are
used. Then by reviewing the principles and concepts of sustainable
development (in general), a primary concept of sustainable urban
development (in particular) is achieved. Finally, some general suggestions are
made on the sustainable urban development, urban planning and the
importance of providing realization conditions of the urban sustainable
development.

What is important here is to emphasis on Physical – space considerations

which are under focus in this research too. And the most important points
which should be considered as a Physical consideration in sustainable
settlement is also mentioned in this paper.
By comparing what should be done with what is today common in urban
development planning, and according to above-mentioned comments and
topics, it can be concluded that to achieve the urban sustainability, It is
necessary to make some structural reforms and to create some deep and
fundamental changes in all levels of society, especially in the three levels of:
‘government and management’, ‘technology’ and ‘life methods’

Abstract

The ability of a community for reproduction has a great link with the
environments they live in. A plan for an urban area must achieve the
objectives and the needs of the people in the area under study. These
achievements are strongly linked with economic, environmental, and social
factors, as key elements for a sustainable development. A sustainable plan
enhances social and environmental relationship with less capital loss. This
study has focused on the impacts of transportation and land use planning in
urban planning. Transportation and land use planning are the two main
pillars of any urban plan that could map the route of how a development in an
area would take place in the future. The study has therefore tried to highlight
the critical factors for a sustainable development in urban planning, which
could guarantee a healthy growth so that the possibility of future degradation
is avoided. Keywords: urban planning, land use planning, sustainable
development.

Abstract:

Sebeta town has got a structure plan in 2007. The prepared plan was intended
to guide and fasten the economic development of the town for 10 years, 20 17.
However, the prepared structure plan has a multifaceted problem. There are
complaints from var ious stakeholders that there is poor structure plan
implementat ion in the town. As a result, the land resource of the town was
extravagantly ut ilized and exposed for wastage by the technical staff,
administrators and brokers. Furthermore, the plan was subjected to
modification before its planning period. Hence, the above mentioned problems
have prompted the researcher to make research on this topic. The ge neral
objective of this study is therefore to examine the major problems associated
with the implementation of the Sebeta structure plan and to identify the
factors that affect the proper implementation of the plan with particular
emphasis to its technical aspects. Accordingly, to look into the issue deeply,
the study used descriptive and exp lorato ry research design and qualitative
research approach. The findi ng of the study revealed that the structure plan
was not properly implemented and lacked plan evalu at ion, monitoring.
Hence, one can easily see irregular and irrational development as well as
incompatible land uses in the town. The cause for the poor plan
implementation was emanated from both the plan preparation and its
implementation. Therefore, although the municipality has taken some
measures to alleviate the poor plan implementation, it could not consider as
enough action. Up on the findings the researcher has forwarded the fo llowing
recommendations: preparing implementation guidelines, prov iding capacity
building and performing periodic monitoring and evaluatio n, preparing
action area plan, and implementation phase and etc

Keyword

The 2005 World Summit on Social Development identified sustainable

development goals, such as economic development, social development and
environmental protection. This view has been expressed as an illustration
using three overlapping ellipses indicating that the three pillars of
sustainability are not mutually exclusive and can be mutually reinforcing. In
fact, the three pillars are interdependent, and in the long run none can exist
without the others. The three pillars have served as a common ground for
numerous sustainability standards and certification systems in recent years.

Below are the factors which we are essential to examine before planning.

Take The Environment into Considering. Include the three-component

physical, social and economic. ...

Know Residents Needs. ...

Special Attention to Landmark and Provision of Facilities. ...

Keep an Eye on The Future. ...

Incorporate the Right Tools.

Key Factors of Urban Planning

Urban planning is all about developing, renovating existing cities, towns or

building them from the scratch. The urban planners has to coordinate with
the government and other organization for laying an efficient urban planning
plan.

Hence it is a complex job, and the urban planner has to do detailed research.
During research and planning phase the urban planner have to consider other
factors for sound and effective planning. Below are the factors which we are
essential to examine before planning.

1. Take The Environment into Considering

Include the three-component physical, social and economic.

The physical components are the location and climate of the city. For
example, if the city has been planned in the desert region, it has a different
need than the city plan in the green area. The planner can also obtain the
terrain map from the geology department for understanding the city’s
geography.

Socio components are the resources available to the area, such as

transportation, electricity, and other necessities. These play a vital role in the
transformation of the cities.
The economic component includes the socio status of residents. The business
they involve and the trends of employment and economy have a huge impact
on the urban planners.

2. Know Residents Needs

In old urban planning the needs of citizens are not kept into consideration.
But in today’s urban planning the residents are involved in the planning
known as participatory planning—residents are giving the chance to put their
say about development they want. For example, the rich town in history
doesn’t want big box retail stores, while rural areas may demand such stores.

3. Special Attention to Landmark and Provision of Facilities

While renovating, cities consideration should be made according to the type of

architect it holds. If the city has old buildings and landmarks, they can
preserve them in the best possible way. All the facilities are plan after
considering the historic site or building.

Moreover, other things should focus on are transportation, affordable

housing, parks and green areas, schools, mosques, shopping areas, and
grocery stores. Also, while planning, urban planning should keep the atheistic
sense alive.

4. Keep an Eye on The Future

Good urban planning not only focuses on the current needs of the residents.
But also plan about the future. They have to keep the space for the meeting
future needs; for example, there will be a need for High-rise apartments
building there will also be an increase in business, so can need more office
buildings. Similarly, more hotels also need to open for facilitating tourists,

Urban planners need to see the records of population growth in a similar area
for accurate planning.

5. Incorporate the Right Tools

Urban planners may equip with profound knowledge about using the right
tools. For example, GIS solutions incorporate a high imaginary Ariel view
that enables the user to measure and analyze objects as seen in the image. The
3D mapping can als
 file:///C:/Users/wende/Desktop/PhD%20Seminar/640px-
Nested_sustainability-v2.svg.webp
UNIT 1: URBAN PLANNING: DEFINITION AND CONCEPTS

Introduction

Urban planning is the design and control of land use in towns, cities, and other
human settlements. It continues to be a hot topic in modern-day society with
climate change, rapid population growth, and technological development. It
encompasses many different disciplines attempts to accomplish sustainable urban
environment. It has to take care of the residents’ housing, employment, recreation,
trade and business, sanitation, mobility and communication besides preserving the
natural and built heritage of the place.

Urban planning, also known as town planning, city planning, regional planning, or
rural planning, is a technical and political process that is focused on the
development and design of land use and the built environment, including air,
water, and the infrastructure passing into and out of urban areas, such as
transportation, communications, and distribution networks and their accessibility
(World Bank's Income Groups 2020).

Many professional practitioners of urban planning, especially practitioners with the

title "urban planner" study urban planning education, while some paraprofessional
practitioners are educated in urban studies. Others study and work in urban policy,
the aspect of public policy used in the public administration subfield of political
science that is most aligned with urban planning. Traditionally, urban planning
followed a top-down approach in master planning the physical layout of human
settlements. The primary concern was the public welfare, which included
considerations of efficiency, sanitation, protection and use of the environment, as
well as effects of the master plans on the social and economic activities.

Over time, urban planning has adopted a focus on the social and environmental
bottom-lines that focus on planning as a tool to improve the health and well-being
of people while maintaining sustainability standards. Sustainable development was
added as one of the main goals of all planning endeavors in the late 20th century
when the detrimental economic and the environmental impacts of the previous
models of planning had become apparent.
Urban planning answers questions about how people will live, work and play in a
given area and thus, guides orderly development in urban, suburban and rural
areas.[9] Although predominantly concerned with the planning of settlements and
communities, urban planners are also responsible for planning the efficient
transportation of goods, resources, people and waste; the distribution of basic
necessities such as water and electricity; a sense of inclusion and opportunity for
people of all kinds, culture and needs; economic growth or business development;
improving health and conserving areas of natural environmental significance that
actively contributes to reduction in carbon emissions[10] as well as protecting
heritage structures and built environments.

Urban planning is an interdisciplinary field that includes aspects of civil

engineering, architecture, geography, political science, environmental studies,
design sciences, and other sciences. Practitioners of urban planning are concerned
with research and analysis, strategic thinking, engineering architecture, urban
design, public consultation, policy recommendations, implementation and
management.[7]

Conyers, D. & Hills, P. (1984), define planning as ‘a continuous process which

involves decision and choices, about normative ways of using available resources,
with the aim of achieving particular goals at some time in future.’ There are many
other specialized streams of planning that constitute urban planning: environmental
planning; transport planning; land use planning; housing etc. Regional planning
involves planning at a larger scale, comprising of both urban and rural planning.
Integrated planning enhances economic competitiveness of cities: not only through
regulation of city infrastructure (roads and housing) and utilities (water and
electricity), but also through enhancement of investments that improve economic
growth and job creation. Local Economic Development (LED) has been conceived
as an alternative approach to bringing about sustainable and equitable economic
growth. Spatial strategies applied through urban planning and management is
among the dominant strategies that have been advocated for promotion of LED.
(Andrew Beer, Terry L. Clower. 2019).

Definitions for Local Economic Development

Urban local economic development is all about making cities more attractive,
fostering investment, and reducing environmental impact, indirectly creating jobs
and generating tax revenue that can be used to finance local government services.
The purpose of local economic development (LED) is to build up the economic
capacity of a local area to improve its economic future and the quality of life for
all. It is a process by which public, business and non-governmental sector partners
work collectively to create better conditions for economic growth and employment
generation. The success of a community today depends upon its ability to adapt to
the dynamic local, national and international market economy. Strategically
planned LED is increasingly used by communities to strengthen the local economic
capacity of an area, improve the investment climate, and increase the productivity
and competitiveness of local businesses, entrepreneurs and workers. The ability of
communities to improve the quality of life, create new economic opportunities and
fight poverty depends upon them being able to understand the processes of LED,
and act strategically in the changing and increasingly competitive market economy.

There are several definitions for Local Economic Development (LED). In one of
the early concept notes on LED, the World Bank(2000) defined LED as: LED is
the process by which public, business and non-governmental sector partners work
collectively to create better conditions for economic growth and employment
generation. The aim is to improve the quality of life for all in the community.[2]

In 2007, GTZ (now called GIZ), refined the definition of the World Bank by
describing LED as: “a process to mobilize stakeholders from the public and the
private sectors as well as from civil society, to become partners in a joint effort to
improve the economy of a defined subnational territory and thus increase its
competitiveness”.[3]

Another recent definition from Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation
SDC: “SDC Bangladesh understands LED as a broad set of activities, which aim at
creating a competitive advantage for an urban or rural territory and for the
enterprises in this territory to improve territorial attractiveness and economic
wellbeing. This definition was developed for the SDC by Mesopartner, a research
consultancy specializing in Local Economic Development that was co-founded by
the late Jörg Meyer-Stamer.

Different developmental organisations tend to emphasise elements in the

definitions that are aligned with their specific mandate. For instance, UN-Habitat
defines LED as: LED is a participatory process where local people from all sectors
work together to stimulate local commercial activity resulting in a resilient and
sustainable economy. It is an approach to help create decent jobs and improve the
quality of life for everyone, including the poor and marginalized.[4]

The ILO defined it as “LED is a participatory development process that encourages

partnership arrangements between the main private and public stakeholders of a
defined territory, enabling the joint design and implementation of a common
development strategy, by making use of the local resources and competitive
advantage in a global context, with the final objective of creating decent jobs and
stimulating economic activity”.[5]

From these different definitions of LED there are several core elements that are
common: It takes place within a defined territory; it has a strong bottom-up
orientation; it is driven by local stakeholders; it involves a range of stakeholders
from the public and private sector, as well as from civil society; it is about
improving the competitiveness and attractiveness of the location; it is undertaken
for the purpose of fostering economic well-being

With the rapid changes in global, national and local economies, increasingly
definitions of LED are adding aspects of inclusiveness, sustainability and
resilience. Many international development organizations see LED as
complementary to other support measures, such as improving governance,
reducing inward migration and improving urban development. International
development projects or national government projects can help to establish or
enhance LED locally, but should not replace or displace local effort. As a
consequence, the aim of an externally support should be to establish an effective
LED process locally, not to solve the problems of the locality with regards to its
economy. In our experience, external development projects implemented locally
often results in local stakeholders becoming bystanders to a project in their
locality. There are more definitions out there. Many countries, development
organizations and even locations have created their own definitions.

2.1 Brief History and Evolution of Urban Planning

The first towns were human settlements that were established when human society
evolved from hunting-gathering to an agricultural one. Agriculture as an
occupation required settling close to water sources that are needed for irrigation.
Thus, ancient civilizations were cities and settlements on riverbanks such as
Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa (Indus Valley); Egypt (Nile), Mesopotamia (Tigris
and Euphrates) going back to the Bronze Age i.e. 3000 BC – 150 BC.
(http://blue.utb.edu/paullgj/geog3320/lectures/origincivil.html)

As society became more complex, cities started being planned on the basis of
societal and religious hierarchies. The great cities of Rome, Athens etc. all had
hierarchical planning where the most important structures (public or religious)
occupied the center and all other functions of the town were planned concentrically
or radially around this structure with their importance decreasing as their distance
increased from the center. Similar examples are seen in many Islamic cities or
temple towns in South India where the main mosque or temple occupies the
highest or central point and the rest of the town is planned around it.

2.1.Historical Experience of Urbanization and Urban Planning in Ethiopia

The history of urban formation in Ethiopia dates back to the civilization of Axum
and Yeha (Belachew K. et al, 2003). Two factors can be cited as main reasons for
urban formation in Ethiopia, political (military) and economical. Many urban
centers in most parts of Ethiopia were established for administrative or as military
garrison towns. With urbanization, different land uses such as administration,
commercial, recreation, industrial, residential, urban agriculture, social services,
utilities and infrastructure development are created within the urban centers. These
all diversified urban specialization and residents activities need a comprehensive
plan to regulate in a maximum justice.
In connection with urban planning issues, some findings indicate that modern
urbanization of Ethiopia started at Entoto during the reign of Menelik II. In
connection with this, Addis Ababa got its first traditional plan by empress Tayitu
around the present palace to guide the early urban settlement. After the
establishment of Addis Ababa, different settlements emerged because Menelik II
granted land for ministers based on hierarchy and kinship relations. This led to the
development of hierarchy of settlement and neighborhoods around the nucleus, the
emperor and the empress (Habtamu, 2011).

Professional planning was done for Addis Ababa during the Italian period and that
shifted the city center from Piassa to National theatre and segregated the residential
area of the whites and indigenous people (Taggebe B., 1976, Amharic version).The
Italian being the first, there were a number of plans prepared for Addis Ababa that
shaped some of its development up to now. Some of the influential plans next to
the Italian include the one prepared by Sir Patrick Abercrombie, Bolton and
Hennessey partnership, Architect De Marine and the 1986 master plan prepared by
Addis Ababa Master Plan Project Office, AAMPPO. With the expansion of Addis
Ababa city, housing area development was highly facilitated by the 1986 plan of
Addis Ababa (AAMPPO, 1987). The newly revised plan of Addis Ababa in 2002
has a number of proposals on different issues like road network, urban green,
markets and urban centers, industrial development, housing, and others .

Discussing the application of these spatial strategies in Tanzanian context is the

main objective of this paper. Tanzanian context is presented as typical case in Sub-
Saharan Africa where conventional approaches of urban planning have led to
inefficient cities throughout the continent. Actually, the data used in this survey
were the results of studies in preparation of state of cities report which was also
done Ghana, Botswana and Ethiopia. Therefore, lessons from Tanzanian could be
applicable in other cities in sub-Saharan Africa and beyond. This paper undertakes
a comparative analysis of the level of adoption of these spatial strategies, and
subsequently examines the utility of these measures in bringing about desired
goals, and finally it reflects on the intuitional structures established by the
Tanzanian planning law on the requirement for LED.
Briefly, the study confirms that the performance of Tanzanian cities towards
desired developmental outcomes depends very much on the adoption of LED
strategies. Despite the variations among the cities, the study establishes that
Tanzanian cities are generally ill equipped to promote LED. The architecture of
institutional structure towards facilitating development control rather than enabling
capital attraction and nurturing is one of the root causes for the lack of
competiveness in Tanzanian cities. The paper proposes reorienting the focus and
structure of urban planning institutions to enable LED.

How Urban Planning Affect Cities’ Local Economic Development?

Integrated planning enhances economic competitiveness of cities: not only through

regulation of city infrastructure (roads and housing) and utilities (water and
electricity), but also through enhancement of investments that improve economic
growth and job creation. Effective urban planning includes providing open spaces,
parks, gardens, green roofs, tree canopies, and green streets that provide functional
benefits such as filtration of storm water runoff (rainwater) or provision of shade.
Green infrastructure can be introduced into new developments or retrofitted into
existing neighborhoods.

Planning assists the property market to work more efficiently and effectively by
improving the way we share and allocate the use of land – promoting competition
and reducing negative external effects. Poor land use decisions can restrict the
enjoyment and productive use of land for generations, while good planning can
generate spill-over benefits which can both strengthen economic output and
improve social and environmental quality. Planning has a key public interest role
preventing land market failure leading to wider community costs. Planners can
share insights into how the benefits of an intervention (e.g. an incentive or a
regulation) outweigh its costs across economic social and environmental
dimensions.

A classic example is planning for urban services. The demand for land for batching
plants, bus depots, materials recycling facilities and sub-stations is rarely strong
enough to be competitive in the market. Planning schemes enable these essential
goods to locate where they are needed rather than be marginalized to the city fringe
where they may be ineffective or incur high costs on users.

A role for planning in the public interest anticipates losers as well as beneficiaries,
while ensuring that overall community welfare is maximized. Planners understand
this and can identify the impacts on various groups and provide evidence to inform
and support the political process. Good planning ensures that the benefits and costs
of growth and investment are fairly shared across cities and regions and prevent
clusters of disadvantage.

Planning also contributes positively to wealth creation and productivity. Dr Ken

Henry (Former Secretary of the Treasury) appreciates a role for government in
“creating the conditions for integration and specialization, by getting infrastructure
and planning decisions right.” This includes making the structure and form of cities
deliver more value for business by intensifying and better connecting job
agglomerations.

What is the purpose of urban planning?

The main goal of urban planning is to make a city or town more livable by
improving the quality of life for its residents. What are the advantages of good
town planning? How does urban planning improve the quality of life?

Why town planning is necessary for urban mobility

An area of focus for urban planners is urban mobility. Vehicles are one of the main
sources of air pollution in cities. With the urban population growth, unless we plan
for more sustainable transport systems the pollution problem will worsen.

So, urban planning should decrease the number of vehicles on the road and reduce
congestion. We can increase the use of public transport, bikes, and walking, as well
as plan for the rapid expansion of electric vehicles.

The importance of urban planning for green infrastructure

Green spaces in a city can have a wide range of functions: they can be used as
communal gathering spaces for events or picnics; as the site for children’s play or
outdoor education; as a place to sit or walk on a lunch break.

Simply put, planning for green infrastructure is the integration of nature into our
cities to provide multiple benefits including climate stewardship, economic
development, food security, and public health.

Why do we need urban planning to create epicenter learning and culture?

A city or town is more than just a place with buildings and infrastructure; it is also
a hub for culture and learning, work, and recreation.

In the past, cities were organized around a church, a castle, a central marketplace,
or a colonial-era college. Today’s urban planners seek to emulate these traditional
models of urban design with walkable districts that include schools, libraries,
parks, stores, and restaurants.
Cities are also a testing ground for tolerance, diversity, and innovation. Therefore,
it is important that we design cities and towns with the goal of creating
communities that are inclusive, sustainable, livable, and thriving. The livability of
a city is not only about how it looks on the surface but also what it feels like to be
inside of it. It incorporates social justice, economic opportunity, ecological
sustainability, cultural vitality, and physical comfort.

Reducing poverty by creating affordable housing

To tackle poverty, we must focus on the root causes of poverty including

increasing wealth inequality, low wages, lack of access to quality education, and
affordable healthcare, among other things.

One way to fix these issues is by ensuring we plan our urban locations to ensure
that people have access to quality and affordable housing, so they can afford
necessities like food and clothing as well as feel safe at home with their families.

Urban planning improves the quality of life

Urban planning offers benefits to the population and the environment. When cities
plan for future needs, they can ensure that there is ample space for public transit,
parks, and buildings. This helps to reduce overcrowding and pollution.

Effective urban planning makes certain that education, work, and recreation
opportunities are created and catered for in our cities, and creates a brighter future
for the communities who live in them.

Principles for urban master planning9

Spatial planning for a city is essential so that both city authorities and private
individuals know what to expect for future development. In a number of cities,
land use regulations stem from urban spatial master plans that map out future plans
for the structure of a city. In contrast to a British style ‘development control’
system, where individual developments are subject to one-off political decisions,
these plans can provide clarity and certainty to investors on what type of
development is likely to be approved.

Economic analysis suggests five key principles in designing plans to improve the
livability and productivity of land use

1 The need to facilitate residential and commercial density

Across developed and developing cities, urban sprawl, whereby the spatial
footprint of a city increases at a higher rate than population growth, is common. At
current rates of increase in land consumption, urban footprints

2 The importance of adequate space for transport links and other public spaces

To improve productivity and liveability in cities, land use plans need to include
adequate connections between firms and workers, via roads, public transport
systems and non-motorised transport. Settlement without planning has resulted in
only 10% of urban land being devoted to roads in sub-Saharan African cities, for
example – compared to around 30% in cities in other parts of the world14.

3 Coordinating positive and negative ‘spillover’ effects

For any long-term project, investors need a view of the future of a city – and
preferably more or less the same view. At early stages of urban development,
private firms face a coordination problem: given the strong positive effects of
firm clustering for the exchange of ideas and inputs, often no one firm is willing
to make risky large-scale investments without assurance that others will do the
same. In the absence of costly infrastructure investments, credible plans –
backed by adequate implementation capacity and funding - can help to
coordinate and guide private expectations to initiate new clusters of investment
in a growing city.

4 Connecting land use planning to strategic planning

At the same time as planning for urban land use, governments often have
strategic plans that outline a broad vision or set of goals for the future
functioning of cities. Given the importance of a city’s spatial structure for a
variety of outcomes that affect efficiency, equity and sustainability, urban master
plans need to be designed keeping closely in mind these strategic plans. Without
sufficient coordination of strategic and spatial urban planning, at best, land use
planning becomes merely reactive, addressing short term land use problems
rather than facilitating long term policy goals. At worst, land use regulation is
likely to come into conflict with public urban projects.

5 The importance of proactive planning

As a result of natural population growth, rural-urban migration, and greater

demand for larger urban housing, many cities are growing rapidly in their
population and geographic area. Proactive planning for this rapid growth of
cities is particularly important; poor planning today stores up costly problems for
the future:

6. The Theory of Community Development:

This theory, developed in the 1960s, emphasizes the importance of community

involvement and empowerment in the planning process. The theory advocates for
a bottom-up approach to planning, where the needs and desires of local residents
are taken into account.
Central Place Theory

The Central Place Theory is a framework for understanding the spatial

distribution of cities and the factors that influence the location and size of urban
centers. Developed by German geographer Walter Christaller in the 1930s, the
theory proposes that cities are organized in a hierarchical pattern, with larger
cities serving as centers for the surrounding smaller towns and villages.
According to the Central Place Theory, the size and location of a city is
determined by its “market area,” or the geographical region it serves as a center
for goods and services. Larger cities are thought to have larger market areas and
to serve a greater number of smaller settlements, while smaller cities are thought
to have smaller market areas and to serve a smaller number of settlements.
 Relationship between LED and Urban Planning

Urban planning is described one of the crucial tools in attaining economic

development of a place (Fainstein, 2002; Faludi, 1994). Healey et. al. (1997: 4)
summarizes the interaction between spatial planning and socio-economic
development by explaining the double-edged interaction between spatial planning
and dynamics of economic and social change in an urban region.

They say that urban spatial planning policies, legislation and practices are a result
of socio-economic dynamics, whilst further socio-economic dynamics result from
the nature of constraints and opportunities presented by spatial organizations as
shaped by planning policies, legislation and practices.

Figure 1: Linkage between LED and Urban Spatial Planning

Development Employment promotion Higher standard of living

Goal

Goal of LED Attraction of Retaining Improve city Equity & pro-poor

capital capital livability policies

General Promoting Reducing costs Improve city Opportunities and

strategies comparative of doing environment security to the
advantages business and amenities marginalised

Spatial Resource Providing Urban resource Formalization

strategies marketing & serviced and protection, and servicing of
predictability of industrial safety & informal
locational infrastructure friendly urban businesses and
decisions design areas
Can Urban Planning Serve Local Economic Development?

By Madina M. Guloba|January 15th 2019|Economic Development, Africa,

economic development, local economic development, Uganda, urban
infrastructure, urban planning

In Kampala, Uganda, the immensely fast rate of urbanisation makes it hard for
urban planners to keep up with developments. Madina Guloba argues that this
makes it more important than ever for sustainable urban planning to keep local
economic development (LED) approaches in mind.

Over the past decades, Uganda’s capital Kampala has increasingly become the
country’s industrial hub. Its population has grown rapidly, as migrants from the
countryside seek for opportunities that rural areas do not offer. The urban
population (defined as residents of cities with a population of more than one
million) has almost doubled from 1.74 million in 2007 to 2.84 million in 2017. The
Greater Kampala Area has a population of about 3.5 million, increasing at a rate of
about 5 per cent annually, mainly because of economic growth.

Such population growth comes with pressure on public services: among others,
schools, hospitals, transport, water, electricity, sewage, and housing. Such services
need to be designed and developed in anticipation of population size and of city
dwellers’ economic situation. If urban planning fails to do so, congestion,
pollution, slums, crime, low economic productivity are bound to arise.

This article analyses urban planning in Uganda with a focus on the city of
Kampala. A core question in this regard is how an integrated plan can help
Kampala to meet SDG 11: “make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe,
resilient and sustainable”. Integrated planning enhances economic competitiveness
of cities: not only through regulation of city infrastructure (roads and housing) and
utilities (water and electricity), but also through enhancement of investments that
improve economic growth and job creation.

Public Transport in Kampala: Long Overdue

Currently, the provision of an efficient inter and intra city public transportation
system in the Kampala region is long overdue. Its lack is the cause of heavy traffic
in Kampala, which leads to time wasted in traffic jams and which constrains the
development of other growth sectors, such as tourism. The absence of physical
plans has led to violation of basic physical infrastructure such as access roads, with
some of them not even allowing for two cars to cross each other’s way because
they are not wide enough.

To put this into context: for residents of the newly built urban residential areas
such as Najeera and Nansana it is normal to leave for their workplace in the city
centre as early as 5:30am. Otherwise, if on the public roads at 6am, to spend two
hours stuck in traffic is quite common – for a distance of hardly 20 kilometres.
This is due to a lack of connectivity, inefficient public transport, and poor
maintenance of roads. Imagine the emission levels ensuing from such a practice!

In addition to functioning public transport, another approach to this problem would

be to ensure that education and health service points are accessible from any
resident’s home. This, however, is only possible where the quality of schools and
hospitals is uniform across the city. If implemented, such a practice would
immensely reduce traffic congestion and emissions caused by long distances to
health and education services.

Infrastructure Development is Key to Local Economies

A key aspect of planning is the development of infrastructure. While the Ugandan

government has achieved some objectives in the development of road and energy
infrastructure – for example the Bujagali hydro-electric plant, the Entebbe
Expressway, and the Jinja suspended bridge – it needs to put more effort into
augmenting the benefits of such newly constructed infrastructure.

Benefits include increased domestic and foreign investments, reduced cost of doing
business, increased revenue collections, reduced transportation costs due to less
time spent on the road and reduced pollution from cars caught in traffic.
Eventually, these aspects will lead to an increase in GDP growth for the local
economy, as confidence of people in future infrastructure developments increases.

Kampala’s Housing Issue

Another aspect of infrastructure deficit is the housing deficit, evident in high

prevalence of slums. Estimates suggest that Uganda needs 200,000 houses in urban
areas alone every year. However, only 60,000 housing units are built annually.
This deficit has given rise to the growth of informal housing units, which tend to
be unsafe and lack basic sanitation.

The deficit not only causes growth of informal housing, which has negative
impacts on the environment, as in the absence of physical plans the encroachment
on natural ecosystem stabilisers such as swamps, rivers, and streams is common. It
also negatively affects local economies as rents will be unnecessarily high and
unregulated. Going forward, the Kampala Capital City Authority (KCCA) should
enforce housing regulation to ensure that the economic impact of housing is more
fully considered prior to building.

Making the Most of Urbanisation

The above aspects suggest that Kampala is in dire straits. The city needs to develop
an integrated planning framework that brings together all the core facets making
cities liveable and attractive – thus ensuring spill-over benefits for the local
economy like increased incomes, employment, organised settlements, and
integration to both domestic and external markets.

Making the most of the opportunities offered by urbanisation is important to

successful green growth, and cities will play a distinctive role in Uganda’s
development trajectory. If urbanisation is to unlock true long-term economic
benefits as well as to help Uganda achieve middle income status by 2020 and to
become an industrial hub by 2040, economic planning in Uganda must consider
how development will play out spatially as part of a comprehensive green growth
assessment.

Urban economics and its role in sustainable urban planning

Response by John Henshall, Questions by Jimmy Zhang (The Urban Collective

Committee Member) ● 13 Minute Read

As urban planners we strive to produce sustainable development for cities and our
regions, however how does one plan for sustainable ‘economic growth’ in
association with urban planning?

We asked John Henshall, urban and regional economist and town planner to share
his insights.

How would you define ‘Urban economics’?

The field of ‘Urban & Regional Economics’ applies the tools of economics to
analyse and assess urban and regional issues and opportunities associated with land
use planning and development. For example:
Provision of land for economic activity (housing, retail and commercial
development, industry, tourism, etc)

Provision of transport, water supply and other infrastructure

Business growth (private and public), Employment generation, and

Local/regional/state/national development projects

Environmental planning, eg economics of solar and wind energy

Contributions to urban design and place making / place branding

Urban & Regional Economics is the study and assessment of the allocation of
scarce resources in a spatial context

In essence, Economics is about ‘Supply’ and ‘Demand’. Economics helps to

explain why cities, towns and regions develop the way they do, and how we
participate and contribute as individuals and communities to the places in which
we live, work and play…

Photo by Finn Whelen on Pexels.com

What role does urban economics play in urban planning/design? Do you think this
has been overlooked in the planning process?

Urban and Regional Economics plays an important part in the planning and design
of our cities, towns and regions. Think back in terms of early civilisation, many
millennia ago, when communities would establish their location for the exchange
of food, clothing and the like on mats spread out on the ground where tribal
pathways would cross. Today, so many of our “places of exchange” (or well-
established local shopping centres or main streets) are located at the intersection of
those main streets. It is the “economics” and “convenience” of exchange that
influenced the early locational patterns of our town centres. Today, in the 21st
Century, economics remains as a critically important consideration in the location
of our centres, whether we’re planning for growth areas or planning for the
rejuvenation of existing centres. In this context, and building on the Main Street or
Town Centre example, the economic components that are taken into account
include the following:

Identify the catchment or trade area that the town centre serves for an established
centre, or will serve when planning for a new growth area.

Identify the resident population in the trade area and their annual spending
capacity.

Include an allowance for ‘passing trade’, i.e. those visitors who live beyond the
catchment or trade area but are likely to visit the centre and spend some time and
undertake some shopping etc.

Assess the share of spending the centre is likely to capture ($million) and therefore
the area of retail and commercial floorspace (in sqm) the centre can support.

Plan for the development of retail and commercial premises that the centre can
support, based on the above considerations.

Plan also for the inclusion of community and other facilities and services that the
local community will require and support (e.g. schools, health care, etc).

Once the economic fundamentals are taken into account (trade area population and
spending, etc), we then plan for the urban design, landscape and related
components. This aspect (urban design, etc) ensures the centre is attractive to
residents and visitors, and provides for public transport, bicycle paths, pedestrian
pathways, carparking, etc. In essence, the urban design components provide the
centre with an ‘identity’. Considerable detail is involved in these urban design and
related components that add value to the planned new (or replenished/upgraded)
town centre.

When planning for a new activity centre or town centre, the local authority or
developer (in a designated new centre) will firstly undertake the economic and
related retail and commercial assessments, along with traffic, services and other
technical considerations, and then identify the urban design components etc that
will be the physical embodiment of the new (or updated) town centre, and which
will provide an ‘identity’ for the centre.

However, experience shows that in many cases, the local Council will undertake
separate (and un-linked or un-coordinated) assessments of the economic
components and the urban design components. Indeed, cases exist where a major
urban design for a centre is introduced where the underlying economic
considerations are either not identified and assessed, or are simply given a brief
recognition as the urban design details are introduced.

The reverse is also noted in the design of many new activity centres where the
developer locates the major retail components in very prominent positions (e.g. a
corner site) without reference to the location and amenity of adjoining or nearby
residential areas and community amenities. The recently-published Charter 29
report is a valuable reference in this regard.

Other examples exist where those in authority who are assessing plans for a new
development do not take adequate account of economic factors when considering
the merits or otherwise of a planned development. In one case, a Planning
Advisory Committee accepted an assumption that the average floorspace per office
worker is 1.75m2 (hardly room for an office chair!); the actual figure is around
15m2 per office worker. In another case, a Committee accepted that a local activity
centre (which is even smaller than a typical ‘neighbourhood centre’) serves a trade
area population of some 26,000 residents; the typical figure is 2,500 residents!

In summary, planners and urban designers need to have a deeper appreciation of

the importance of economics in planning and design.
Photo by Ron Lach on Pexels.com

What role do you believe urban economics has in the push for sustainable cities?

Economics has a fundamentally important role in the efforts to achieve sustainable

cities. After all, Economics – in the widest sense – involves the allocation of scarce
resources through the pricing mechanism: the taxes we pay to government and the
prices we pay for public and private sector goods and services. These taxes and
prices need to focus increasingly on funding projects, infrastructure and services
that achieve environmental sustainability in our cities.

In a similar manner, the cost of urban planning and development – from roads and
bridges to residential estates and city centres – should also reflect the underlying
need to ensure that our natural resources are used in the most effective and
economic manner from an environmental perspective.

This point is highlighted by the increasing number and proportion of the world’s
population living in cities, large and small, across the globe. As these cities expand
into farmland and forested areas and so on, we need to ensure that this
‘urbanisation’ is achieved in an environmentally sustainable manner, through
appropriate pricing mechanisms and through sensible urban and regional planning
for development. We need to ensure that urban residents can be fed and clothed,
and that agriculture can continue in a sustainable manner, with other natural
resources safeguarded for future use in a sustainable manner.

Through economics we can ensure the sustainability of our cities by placing a price
on the goods and services we consume. We pay taxes to Local, State and
Commonwealth governments for the infrastructure and services they provide, and
we pay private sector providers of goods and services a price for those items we
consume. Where supply is limited, or where the potential environmental cost and
protection is high, the prices we pay will be higher.
In a day-to-day context, this is the way in which ‘economics’ plays a role in
ensuring our cities develop in a sustainable manner. Of course, the principles are
often lost on our governments and private enterprise – and by us, too, as
individuals – where a lack of consideration is evident in terms of securing a
sustainable consumption of our natural resources. We only need to look at the daily
media reports in regard to public and private sector funding priorities, and the
extent to which we have contributed in some way to the ‘throw-away consumer
society’. Hopefully, this situation will continue to be addressed in a realistic
manner as we take a more positive view on sustainability.

And for city planning, economics has a definite role to play by ensuring that the
important and expensive planning and development decisions we make are based
on a thorough assessment of the environmental costs and benefits involved, thus
ensuring that the benefits we enjoy are suitably provided in a manner that
encourages a sustainable future.

Photo by Lukas Kloeppel on Pexels.com

How can urban economics be more involved in urban resilience strategies?

An Urban Resilience Strategy is defined by the OECD as a strategy which enables

a city to absorb, recover and prepare for future shocks – economic, environmental,
social and institutional.

In this context, economics makes an important contribution to urban resilience

strategies by identifying the demand (or need) for such a development, and placing
a value on that development. Those developments we value as a society (and as
urban residents) are placed on the high priority list, while those developments we
do not value highly are not pursued. Importantly, those developments we value
highly are also the ones we are prepared to pay for; developments we don’t value,
we won’t be prepared to pay for.
The application of urban economics will assist in demonstrating that a demand (ie,
a market) exists for a particular urban development or service and that benefits will
flow from such development (e.g. jobs, incomes, improved services, etc) and that
the cost of such development/service can be suitably met through taxes or ‘user
pays’ (e.g. purchase of a ticket to travel on the subway train system once it is
constructed). The economics assessment will highlight the benefits anticipated to
flow from a planned development, including direct and indirect (or flow-on) jobs
and incomes, support to other businesses, support to particular sectors (e.g.
tourism), community access to new and improved services, and so on.

In summary, where an Urban Resilience Strategy is to be prepared for a city, it will

be necessary, through Economics, to identify:

the extent of residents’ demand for developments and/or services to be provided in

the Strategy (for example, is it a development or service that the majority of
residents will support?);

the benefits such development or service will bring to the city and its community
(and, where appropriate, to the wider national interest);

the preparedness of the city residents to pay for the development or service through
their taxes and/or user pays; and

the extent to which the development reinforces the resilience of the city in meeting
existing or future ‘shocks’ of an environmental, economic, social or institutional
nature.

Photo by Finn Whelen on Pexels.com

What are some of your favorite projects you have worked upon?
Economic Assessment of potential retail and other uses for Melbourne’s
Federation Square at the Design Stage (this did not relate to the much-later
proposed Apple store!).

Economic Assessment of the Potential for Residential Development at major

development sites in central Melbourne, including Southbank, Docklands,
Fishemans Bend, and E-Gate (not yet developed), and Hotels and Retail in the
CBD.

Regional Development Plan for the Jakarta, Bogor, Tangerang and Besaki Region,
Indonesia.

Low-Cost Housing for the Urban Poor in Karachi, Pakistan.

Urban Planning Requirements in Dhaka and small cities in Bangladesh.

Downtown Revitalization and Delta Blues in Clarksdale, Mississippi.

Retail Assessment for Maling Road, Canterbury.

Growth Area planning to accommodate Melbourne’s urban growth.

Support to local community groups opposing Poker machines in local clubs and
pubs on the basis of adverse local economic impacts.

Do you have any advice for young planners entering the field of urban economics?
What should they look out for?

I would strongly suggest that young planners consider undertaking a post-grad

qualification in Urban Economics as this provides a wider perspective as we deal
with issues and opportunities in so many areas associated with urban planning and
development.

You will find new opportunities for involvement in such areas as town centre or
activity centre planning, sector planning (residential, retail, commercial, tourism,
etc), assessing the economic impacts of urban design and placemaking,
infrastructure provision, and so on.
With a background in Economics, you will be well-placed to assess if a proposed
new plan or development for (say) a town centre or the CBD actually has
community support (through demand analyses), tourism appeal, support to new
jobs, and community-wide benefits. All of these components are measurable, and
lend support to our planning for cities, towns and regions.

Also, a combination of qualifications in Planning and Economics will support your

future employment opportunities in both the Private sector (eg, consulting;
developers) and Public sector (eg, Local and State government), and will provide
opportunities for your involvement in local, state-wide, national and international
planning and development projects,

Urban planning, also known as town planning, city planning, regional planning, or
rural planning, is a technical and political process that is focused on the
development and design of land use and the built environment, including air,
water, and the infrastructure passing into and out of urban areas, such as
transportation, communications, and distribution networks and their accessibility.
[1] Many professional practitioners of urban planning, especially practitioners with
the title "urban planner" study urban planning education, while some
paraprofessional practitioners are educated in urban studies;[2][3][4] others study
and work in urban policy - the aspect of public policy used in the public
administration subfield of political science that is most aligned with urban
planning.[5][6] Traditionally, urban planning followed a top-down approach in
master planning the physical layout of human settlements.[7] The primary concern
was the public welfare,[1][7] which included considerations of efficiency,
sanitation, protection and use of the environment,[1] as well as effects of the
master plans on the social and economic activities.[8] Over time, urban planning
has adopted a focus on the social and environmental bottom-lines that focus on
planning as a tool to improve the health and well-being of people while
maintaining sustainability standards. Sustainable development was added as one of
the main goals of all planning endeavors in the late 20th century when the
detrimental economic and the environmental impacts of the previous models of
planning had become apparent.[citation needed] Similarly, in the early 21st
century, Jane Jacobs's writings on legal and political perspectives to emphasize the
interests of residents, businesses and communities effectively influenced urban
planners to take into broader consideration of resident experiences and needs while
planning.

Urban planning answers questions about how people will live, work and play in a
given area and thus, guides orderly development in urban, suburban and rural
areas.[9] Although predominantly concerned with the planning of settlements and
communities, urban planners are also responsible for planning the efficient
transportation of goods, resources, people and waste; the distribution of basic
necessities such as water and electricity; a sense of inclusion and opportunity for
people of all kinds, culture and needs; economic growth or business development;
improving health and conserving areas of natural environmental significance that
actively contributes to reduction in CO2 emissions[10] as well as protecting
heritage structures and built environments. Since most urban planning teams
consist of highly educated individuals that work for city governments,[11] recent
debates focus on how to involve more community members in city planning
processes.

Urban planning is an interdisciplinary field that includes aspects of civil

engineering, architecture, geography, political science, environmental studies,
design sciences, and other sciences. Practitioners of urban planning are concerned
with research and analysis, strategic thinking, engineering architecture, urban
design, public consultation, policy recommendations, implementation and
management.[7] It is closely related to the field of urban design and some urban
planners provide designs for streets, parks, buildings and other urban areas.[12]
Urban planners work with the cognate fields of civil engineering, landscape
architecture, architecture, and public administration - especially the urban policy
field of public administration - [5][6] to achieve strategic, policy and sustainability
goals. Early urban planners were often members of these cognate fields though
today, urban planning is a separate, independent professional discipline. The
discipline of urban planning is the broader category that includes different sub-
fields such as land-use planning, zoning, economic development, environmental
planning, and transportation planning.[13] Creating the plans requires a thorough
understanding of penal codes and zonal codes of planning.

Another important aspect of urban planning is that the range of urban planning
projects include the large-scale master planning of empty sites or Greenfield
projects as well as small-scale interventions and refurbishments of existing
structures, buildings and public spaces. Pierre Charles L'Enfant in Washington,
D.C., Daniel Burnham in Chicago, Lúcio Costa in Brasília and Georges-Eugene
Haussmann in Paris planned cities from scratch, and Robert Moses and Le
Corbusier refurbished and transformed cities and neighborhoods to meet their ideas
of urban planning.[14]

History

Further information: History of urban planning and Grid Plan

1852 city plan of Pori by G. T. von Chiewitz

Berlin - Siegessäule. August 1963. Spacious and organized city planning in

Germany was official government policy dating back to Nazi rule.[15]

There is evidence of urban planning and designed communities dating back to the
Mesopotamian, Indus Valley, Minoan, and Egyptian civilizations in the third
millennium BCE. Archaeologists studying the ruins of cities in these areas find
paved streets that were laid out at right angles in a grid pattern.[16] The idea of a
planned out urban area evolved as different civilizations adopted it. Beginning in
the 8th century BCE, Greek city states primarily used orthogonal (or grid-like)
plans.[17] Hippodamus of Miletus (498–408 BC), the ancient Greek architect and
urban planner, is considered to be "the father of European urban planning", and the
namesake of the "Hippodamian plan" (grid plan) of city layout.[18]

The ancient Romans, inspired by the Greeks, also used orthogonal plans for their
cities. City planning in the Roman world was developed for military defense and
public convenience. The spread of the Roman Empire subsequently spread the
ideas of urban planning. As the Roman Empire declined, these ideas slowly
disappeared. However, many cities in Europe still held onto the planned Roman
city center. Cities in Europe from the 9th to 14th centuries, often grew organically
and sometimes chaotically. But in the following centuries with the coming of the
Renaissance many new cities were enlarged with newly planned extensions.[19]
From the 15th century on, much more is recorded of urban design and the people
that were involved. In this period, theoretical treatises on architecture and urban
planning start to appear in which theoretical questions around planning the main
lines, ensuring plans meet the needs of the given population and so forth are
addressed and designs of towns and cities are described and depicted. During the
Enlightenment period, several European rulers ambitiously attempted to redesign
capital cities. During the Second French Empire, Baron Georges-Eugène
Haussmann, under the direction of Napoleon III, redesigned the city of Paris into a
more modern capital, with long, straight, wide boulevards.[20]

Planning and architecture went through a paradigm shift at the turn of the 20th
century. The industrialized cities of the 19th century grew at a tremendous rate.
The evils of urban life for the working poor were becoming increasingly evident as
a matter of public concern. The laissez-faire style of government management of
the economy, in fashion for most of the Victorian era, was starting to give way to a
New Liberalism that championed intervention on the part of the poor and
disadvantaged. Around 1900, theorists began developing urban planning models to
mitigate the consequences of the industrial age, by providing citizens, especially
factory workers, with healthier environments. The following century would
therefore be globally dominated by a central planning approach to urban planning,
not necessarily representing an increment in the overall quality of the urban realm.
At the beginning of the 20th century, urban planning began to be recognized as a
separate profession. The Town and Country Planning Association was founded in
1899 and the first academic course in Great Britain on urban planning was offered
by the University of Liverpool in 1909.[21] In the 1920s, the ideas of modernism
and uniformity began to surface in urban planning, and lasted until the 1970s. In
1933, Le Corbusier presented the Radiant City, a city that grows up in the form of
towers, as a solution to the problem of pollution and over-crowding. But many
planners started to believe that the ideas of modernism in urban planning led to
higher crime rates and social problems.[8][22]

In the second half of the 20th century, urban planners gradually shifted their focus
to individualism and diversity in urban centers.[23]

21st century practices

See also: Mobility transition

Urban planners studying the effects of increasing congestion in urban areas began
to address the externalities, the negative impacts caused by induced demand from
larger highway systems in western countries such as in the United States. The
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs predicted in 2018 that
around 2.5 billion more people occupy urban areas by 2050 according to
population elements of global migration. New planning theories have adopted non-
traditional concepts such as Blue Zones and Innovation Districts to incorporate
geographic areas within the city that allow for novel business development and the
prioritization of infrastructure that would assist with improving the quality of life
of citizens by extending their potential lifespan.

Planning practices have incorporated policy changes to help address

anthropocentric global climate change. London began to charge a congestion
charge for cars trying to access already crowded places in the city.[24] Cities
nowadays stress the importance of public transit and cycling by adopting such
policies.

Planning theory is the body of scientific concepts, definitions,

behavioral relationships, and assumptions that define the body of knowledge of
urban planning. There are nine procedural theories of planning that remain the
principal theories of planning procedure today: the Rational-Comprehensive
approach, the Incremental approach, the Transformative Incremental (TI)
approach, the Transactive approach, the Communicative approach, the Advocacy
approach, the Equity approach, the Radical approach, and the Humanist or
Phenomenological approach.[1]

6.4.1 National Urban Development Policy

3.2.4 Ethiopia

Ethiopia is located in the horn of Africa bordered

by Eritrea to the north, Kenya to the south,

Djibouti to the north east Somalia to the east,

South Sudan to the south west and Sudan to

the North West. It has over eighty unique ethnic,

cultural and Indigenous linguistic groups and is

the most populous land locked country in the

world. The country is one of the two in Africa

that was never colonized but became a colonizer

of Eritrea. The supremacy of the capital; Addis

Ababa is alarming as it hosts approximately half

of the country’s urban population. Addis Ababa is

more than 10 times larger than the second largest

city in Ethiopia and is the seat of the African Union

as well as the headquarters of the United Nations

of Economic Commission for Africa.

Ethiopia is a country with favourable climate, and

is endowed with water and vast land resources

and a high population growth and strong labour

force. However, Ethiopia is now recognized as the

second poorest country in the world (UNDP, 2010)

when evaluated in terms of the new international

measure of poverty, Multidimensional Poverty

Index (MPI) which employs the combination of the

three dimensions’ health, education, and standard

of living to assess the level of poverty in a country.

The country was initially considered to be

under-urbanized compared to the other African

countries and was considered a rural country.

This has been attributed by some authors to the

successful agricultural practice in rural Ethiopia.

The country has however joined the African

countries in rapid urbanization rates. The urban

population has been increasing and is projected

to reach 22million people by 2020 (Ministry of

Works and Urban Development, 2006). This rapid

urbanization, coupled with high levels of poverty,

is undoubtedly set to increase the population

of the urban poor. This of course increases the

likeliness of informal settlements arising and

approximately 70% of urban population in

Ethiopia lives in slums (UN-HABITAT, 2008). The

main challenge arising from this has been housing

and it had been approximated that there needs to

be a production of 225,000 housing units to curb

the housing crisis (Ministry of Works and Urban

Development, 2007).

The country developed an Urban Development

Policy in 2005 to interlink developed urban centres

and make them internationally competitive,

capable of serving as democracy and development

centres in their locality by ensuring efficient service

delivery, suitability for residence and adherence to

development plans. The policy has been reviewed

and now places emphasis on urban governance

as a means of implementing and incorporating

urban development in the development agenda.

The review seems to approve the contribution of

urban development policy in controlling urban

development despite raising gaps in the policy.

Ethiopia has a long history of centralisation of

decision-making and public service delivery. It has a

strong regional sphere of government, and during

the 1990s went through a process of devolution

of powers and functions to local government,

especially in Addis Ababa and Dire Dawa. Both cities

have, in a sense, been elevated to the same level of

authority of the nine Ethiopian states (UN-Habitat,

30 | NUP Regional Report: AFRICA

2014). Urban areas have only had functioning local

governments since 2000. There has also been a

parallel process of fiscal decentralization to give city

authorities more direct control over public spending.

The level of urbanization in Ethiopia is only 17%,

and the recent recognition of the importance of

cities is therefore less surprising than elsewhere.

Ethiopia has introduced several important

development programmes with an urban focus.

The Urban Local Government Development

Project (ULGP) is one of the widest in scope,

encompassing 19 different cities. Since its launch

in 2008, these cities have made improvements

in planning, budgeting, financial management,

procurement, revenue mobilization and project

execution. Cities are beginning to manage their

assets better and starting to improve their delivery

of services and infrastructure. Citizens have

also been given more scope than in the past to

influence decisions about priority services and

infrastructure in their areas of jusisdiction.

Ethiopia has an explicit NUP entitled National

Urban Development Policy (2005). The policy

was formulated in 2005 by Ministry of Urban

Development and Construction.The main theme

of the National Urban Development Policy was

founded on the Agricultural Development Led

Industrialization (ADLI), Industrial Development

Strategy, federalism, democratization and civil

service reform. Urban-rural linkages are a theme

explored in the National Urban Policy as it states

that the speed, extent and focus of urban

development is dependent on rural development

and vice versa. It emphasizes the importance of

democracy and good governance for sustainable

urban development. As per the Structure Plan

2012 some of the components of the policy are

already being implemented.

The National Urban Development Policy Framework

was approved in 2005. This policy was to be the vehicle

for the implementation of the urban component of

PASDEP (Accelerated and Sustained Development

to end Poverty 2005/06-2009/10). However,

limited resources and capacity have hampered the

implementation process. Development agency

backed projects include the City development

Strategy for Ethiopia (Addis Ababa) and the Urban

Local Government Development Project.

In addition to the urban policy, there are also other

regulations such as the Proclamation to Provide

for Urban Plans (Proclamation No. 574/ 2008,

asserting the needs to regulate and guide urban

centres with sound and visionary urban plans to

bring about balanced and integrated national,

regional and local development; to create a

favourable and an enabling environment for public

and private stakeholders to fully participate in the

process of urban plan initiation, preparation and

implementation on the basis of national standards;

to regulate the carrying out of development

undertakings in urban centres without detrimental

effects to the general well-being of the community

as well as the protection of natural environment;

and to replace existing urban planning laws with a

comprehensive legislation which takes into account

the federal structure of government and the central

role of urban centres in urban plan preparation and

implementation.

The Five Years (2011 - 2015) Growth and

Transformation Plan (GTP) is also another urban

development guiding document. It focuses on

improving capacity for the implementation of

urban planning and urban land administration

for a better urban governance. On the urban

planning side, emphasis is on the following:

promoting proper delineation of urban green

areas, beautification, landscape design and

urban design works; developing appropriate

systems for the management of solid and liquid

wastes; carrying out continuous follow up on

the control of urban land use plan; ensuring

preparation and implementation of plans based

on the urban planning law; and making urban

managers sufficiently aware of urban planning and

implementation issues.

In summary, Ethiopia has been predominantly rural

for most of its history. The result of this it is the

growth of Addis Ababa and the slower growth

of corresponding cities. Rapid urbanization is a

recent phenomenon in the country which has

resulted in several urban issues, particularly related

to housing issues. This has mainly been due to the

NUP Regional Report: africa | 31

enormous rural-urban migration that has been

occurring and the slow response towards it. The

country developed an explicit NUP in 2005; with

the main focus areas of urban rural linkages and

urban governance. A review of the national urban

policy was conducted and it was noted that such

emphasis was appropriate, though the action plan

was inadequate. There have been tremendous

successes in urban Ethiopia concerning the

provision of services such as water. The problems

in rural areas still persist which is an indication of

some of the shortcomings of the policy document.

The National Urban Development Policy was approved in 2005 (Ayenew, 2008).
It has two main packages: the Urban Development Package and the Urban Good
Governance Package. The Urban Development Package set out the answer to the
question ‘what’ was the government going to do to deliver urban-based public
services of ‘jobs, houses, roads, schools, clinics, water supply etc.’? (MWUD,
2007). The Urban Good Governance Package set out how they would deliver
these and other services with ‘efficiency, effectiveness, accountability,
transparency, participation, sustainability, the rule of law, equity, democratic
government and security’ (ibid).

The Urban Development Package includes five programmes, one of which is the
Integrated Housing Development Programme.

6.4.2 Integrated Housing Development Programme

The Integrated Housing Development Programme (IHDP) is a government-led
programme to provide new, affordable housing for low- and middle-income
people. The programme began in 2005 and has been implemented in 56 towns
across the country to date, but the greatest impact has been seen in Addis Ababa,
where new condominium blocks are springing up all over the city (Cities
Alliance, 2012) (Figure 6.7). Outside the capital the programme has since been
suspended, partly because the multi-storey condominiums were unpopular and
considered ‘an eyesore’ in smaller, low-rise towns (UN-Habitat, 2011).

Figure 6.7 Condominium blocks in Addis Ababa.

The IHDP aimed to construct 360,000 new housing units in condominium

blocks, to be built at low cost, plus 9000 commercial units, with the creation of
200,000 jobs and promotion of 10,000 small enterprises in the construction
industry (UN-Habitat, 2011).

The standard design of IHDP condominium has five storeys, with a mixture of
studios and 1-, 2- and 3-bedroom apartments. Each unit has a bathroom with
shower, flush toilet, and basin, and a separate kitchen. The units are sold, not
rented, and are transferred to owners by a computer-based lottery system.
Owners have to pay a down payment. For studios and 1-bedroom units this is
10% of the price, for 2-bedroom units it is 20%, and for 3-bedroom units 40%.
The remainder is paid by monthly mortgage payments with interest. Thirty per
cent of units are allocated to women.

By 2011, 171,000 units had been built (UN-Habitat, 2011). The programme has
been very popular and demand has exceeded supply from the outset. Its main
achievements are a dramatic increase in the number of homeowners and an
improvement in the living conditions of many thousands of people. In addition,
the programme has created 176,000 jobs, mainly for mineral extraction and
construction workers (Cities Alliance, 2012).

Despite these successes, a number of problems have arisen. Electricity and water
companies have been slow to provide essential services because they lack the
resources to meet the new demands. Approximately 50% of condominium sites
are behind schedule because of delays with the infrastructure. The absence of a
sewerage network is an obvious problem (only 3% of Addis Ababa is sewered)
(UN-Habitat, 2011). Solid waste management is a more positive story, however,
with opportunities for small enterprises to set up and organise door-to-door
collection services.

The initial designs for the condominium sites included green spaces, but this
idea was dropped when the housing density had to be increased. The sites had
allocated spaces for commercial use, such as shops, food and drink outlets.
There were also plans for communal buildings for social activities, but where
these were built, the continuing management has been problematic. On other
sites the communal buildings were not built, in order to reduce costs.

Affordability is a major issue. The costs put the units beyond the reach of many
people on low incomes. Many people who have managed to make the initial
down payment find that the monthly payments are too much, so they rent out all
or part of the unit to other people. This has the unforeseen benefit of increasing
the supply of rental housing in the city, but if people decide to share their unit
this can result in overcrowded conditions. The higher down payment for the
larger units can also cause overcrowding because families opt for a smaller unit
than they need to reduce the initial cost.

Most building so far has been on the edges of Addis Ababa in areas with little or
no employment opportunities. This forces people to travel into the city for work,
which is costly for them and adds to the pressures on the transport system. There
has also been criticism of the construction quality and the design of some of the
blocks. The ongoing management of the sites, especially the shared areas, is also
essential for the long-term sustainability of the programme (UN-Habitat, 2011).

What aspects of the IHDP’s condominium sites do and do not correspond to UN-
Habitat’s principles for sustainable neighbourhood planning (Box 6.1)?

Summary of Study Session 6

In Study Session 6, you have learned that:

Urban development causes a change in land cover with decrease in permeable

surfaces and increase in hard, impermeable surfaces. The loss of agricultural
land adds pressure on the food production system.

This change in land cover reduces infiltration of rainwater into the ground,
increases the rate and volume of surface run-off and may lead to flooding and
soil erosion. It may also lead to raised temperatures in cities.

Urban planning aims to avoid the problems of unplanned development, to design

towns and cities that meet the needs of the people who live in them, and to
provide a healthy environment.

Urban planning has complex requirements which include consideration of

housing quality and affordability; infrastructure for water, sanitation and waste
management; effective drainage systems; and green spaces.

In Ethiopia, many new condominiums have recently been built according to the
Integrated Housing Development Programme’s plans for new housing for low-
and middle-income households.

6.4.2 Integrated Housing Development Programme

6.2 What is urban planning?

Urban planning is about designing towns and cities to function effectively and
meet the needs of people living in them. This is a technical process, concerned
with bringing benefits to people, controlling the use of land and enriching the
natural environment. It requires careful assessment and planning so that
community needs such as housing, environmental protection, health care and
other infrastructure can be incorporated.

Urban planning means managing urban development so that uncontrolled and

haphazard building is prevented. Unplanned development in peri-urban areas
can lead to towns and cities spreading out and extending the impacts of change
of land use over an ever-increasing area. In central urban areas, unplanned
development gives rise to densely-packed, single-storey housing with narrow
alleys making it very difficult to provide necessary services for the inhabitants
(Figure 6.3). The negative effects of impoverished, informal settlements were
described in Study Session 5.

What are the main negative impacts of slum areas on the people who live there?

Reveal answer

Figure 6.3 Close-packed houses in Addis Ababa.

Unplanned urban development is characterised by poor housing quality and by

the lack of supporting infrastructure and services. These inadequate services can
include any or all of: electricity, water supply, sanitation, drainage, solid waste
management, roads and transport facilities, shops and schools and health care.
The lack of available space in central urban areas also results in people building
insecure homes in unsafe places, as shown in Figure 6.4. Urban planning aims
to address these problems.
Figure 6.4 Houses perched precariously close to the flooding Akaki River in
central Addis Ababa.

Historically, the concept of urban planning arose in Europe in the 19th century
(Corburn, 2005). It emerged from the awareness that public health and
infectious disease outbreaks were closely related to inadequate housing and poor
sanitation, particularly affecting the urban poor. By the 20th century, the idea of
land-use zoning was the dominant approach to urban planning. Zoning meant
the creation of defined areas within a town that were designated for different
activities such as residential, commerce, industry, etc. The aim was to improve
urban living conditions by separating people from ‘noxious land uses’ (Corburn,
2005). However, zoning also had the effect of creating a social divide by
separating areas where well-off people lived from those occupied by people with
little or no income, with increasing inequality between the services and facilities
available in different zones. Excluding people from living in central zones that
were allocated for commerce and business resulted in increasing urban sprawl,
where the effects of urbanisation and land-use change were spread over larger
areas (UN-Habitat, n.d. 1). Recommended urban planning practice has since
moved away from the zoning approach and currently adopts principles of
integrated use designed to ensure the sustainability of future towns and cities.

6.1.3 Extraction of building materials

6.3 Planning for sustainability

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6.3 Planning for sustainability

You could say that the purpose of urban planning is to manage land use so that
it is sustainable. This means it should bring economic benefits, with social equity
and without causing environmental harm. The promotion of ‘socially and
environmentally sustainable human settlements development’ is part of the
mission of UN-Habitat, the United Nations programme that is ‘working towards
a better urban future’ (UN-Habitat, n.d. 2). They set out five principles for urban
planning, shown in Box 6.1 (UN-Habitat, n.d. 1).

Box 6.1 UN-Habitat’s five principles for sustainable neighbourhood planning

The UN-Habitat approach to urban planning is based on three key features of

sustainable neighbourhoods and cities, which are that they should be compact,
integrated and connected. Five principles support these three features:

Adequate space for streets and an efficient street network.

High density of people: at least 15,000 people per km2.

Mixed land use: housing mixed with business and other economic uses.

Social mix: houses in different price ranges and tenures (rented, owned etc.) in
any given area.

Limited land-use specialisation: large areas should not be allocated for a single
function.

In contrast with the zoning approach, these five principles emphasise the need
for mixed land use developments that integrate different functions of residential,
commercial and business together. Ideally, urban plans should mix housing with
employment opportunities and include schools, shops and health care facilities.
An adequate street network will allow access for cars, public transport and
service vehicles. Plans should also consider the need for space for places of
worship and for entertainment and leisure. Incorporating this diverse range of
requirements for the urban environment is challenging. To be successful and
sustainable, urban plans should ideally be developed with the participation of the
people who will be living and working in the area. Meeting these expectations
also requires significant economic resources, an effective decision-making and
regulatory framework, and good governance.

We will now consider in a little more detail some aspects of sustainable urban
planning that are particularly relevant to WASH, the environment and health,
but are typically absent from unplanned developments. These are: housing
quality; the infrastructure related to water, sanitation and solid wastes
management; drainage systems; and green spaces.
 1. Introduction

Urban areas, mainly of developing countries, are growing largely at

unprecedented and exciting speedwhich in turn induces remarkable challenges
in urban localities and surrounding peripheries. Most ofthe time, urban areas
are places where both challenges and opportunities of development meet
morethan anywhere else. To overweigh the opportunity of urban area than its
dares, urban areas need to beadequately planned and effectively guided by these
plans which in turn enable urban area expansion,functional specialization and
cultural expression and above all sustainability (Devas & Rakodi, 1993).Hence,
urban planning is one of the foremost important tools to guide the growth of
urban areas towardsopportunity than defies elsewhere. However, despite of
owning urban planning, challenges of planningand its implementation practices
are very momentous.The urban planning tradition of most of African countries
followed the Western tradition owing to thepast colonial history of the continent
(Devas, 1993). The relatively long tradition of urban planningpractice in Eastern
Africa indicates that there is an understanding of physical land use planning
whichmainly comprised of master planning and building standard and
regulation. Master plans, sometimes

named ‘blueprint’ plans, refer to the physical plans that depict on a map the
future scenario of the town

when the plan is fully implemented (Hirasskar, 2007). However, master plans
have been critiqued byscholars and practitioners for the fact that they are rigid,
top-down, professional and technocraticexercises with little or no participation
of masses. Hence, structure planning preferred to masterplanning, this is more
flexible than that of master planning. Yet, master planning practice tends
todominate the planning practice of developing countries and that of East Africa
in particular. Whatevermaybe the case, master plans help guide urban
development and expansion (ibid).Recently, Ethiopian urbanization is taking
place at a much faster pace than population growth. Now

days, though Ethiopia’s urbanization rate is the highest from among African
countries; Ethiopians are
among the least urbanized and at the same time most of its urban centers are
predominantly unplannedi.e mostly they came into existence by historical
accident. This prevalence of spontaneous nature ofurban areas in Ethiopia has
been posing a substantial need for eloquent planning intervention for
urbancenters of Ethiopia (Birke, 1997). Therefore, it is apparent that main
planning is very vital for urbandevelopment and management in Ethiopian
towns/cities elsewhere.Urban planning is designed to regulate the use of land
and other physical resources for public interestwith objective of increasing the
quality of life and wellbeing of people living in cities. In most countries,urban or
spatial planning refers to the planning of the physical structure of development
or land use

planning. Historically, master plans have played a central role in urban

planning process. Masterplanning approach has been improved but this remains
the initial urban planning point for manycountries yet.The plan is vision of the
future, but not a blue print; a policy statement, but not a program of action;
aformulation of goals, but not schedules, priorities, or cost estimates (David R.
Godschalk, 1995).

1.1.Rationales of urban planning

Urban planning is a valuable force for city leaders to achieve sustainable

development. It is a means tobring about a difference. According to Kent (1964),
plan should emphasize policy with the followingfunctions:

Policy determination

- to provide a process for a community to debate/decide on policy,

Policy communication

- to inform those concerned with development (officials, developers, citizens,the

courts, and others) and educate them about future possibilities,

Policy effectuation
- to serve asgeneral reference for officials deciding on projects that gave chance
for community participation in theurban land use plan.From the above
development of planning processes it can be understood that planning is no
longerperceived as a random set of activities brought together to achieve some
blue print for the future.Planning is rather the interconnectedness of decision
areas explicitly recognized in a cyclical processto enable planners to address new
problems as and when they arise at different stages of planning.There is
integration in all of the three planning processes. Planning starts by identifying
actual problemsand definition of objectives related to goals in the process of
solving problems. Then, strategies andpolicies are generated to achieve goals
and objectives to address problems. By testing and evaluationof strategies and
policy packages, implementation and monitoring of the planning process
continues.In general, this planning process steps provides an opportunity to
reiterate the ongoing undertakingsand reshape to bring about the difference as
per the interests of the urban residents by regulating andimplementing
anticipated solutions. Thus, it creates a framework for collaboration among the
actors ofurban development which in turn helps to balance demand for growth
with the need to protectenvironment by fairly distributing economic
developments

1.2.Objectives of the Paper

The general objective of this paper was to assess the practices and challenges of
urban planning inNekemte Town of Oromia Region.More specifically, the paper
was intended to:

Review the extent to which Nekemte town master plans were practiced and its
consequences.


Identify land use plan and management challenges of the Nekemte town.

To analyze the existing plan implementation situation of Nekemte town.

Recommend necessary remedies to have and implement sound urban plan.

1.3.Conceptual framework of Urban Planning

Urban Planning can be considered as a cyclical process that begins with the
identification of problemsin urban area or peri-urban and leads to generation of
plans in an attempt to solve identified problems.The cyclical process nature
implies that Urban Planning is subject to change based on the impacts
ofproposed land uses to overall development of the town and the neighborhood
as well as compatibilityof land uses to one another.

1.4.Limitations of the Paper

There were a number of factors which I projected they might bias my review and
analysis and whichmight in turn negatively affect the assessment. These include:

Time constraint.

Absence of the research literatures conducted in the targeted area of focus to

know the actualand practical challenges identified by researchers in near past
practices.

1.5.Significance of the Paper

The paper will contribute a paramount importance;

Understand the urban planning challenges and practices from the practitioners
and scholarspoint of view that might in turn helps to plan directives and
initiatives to effectively andefficiently respond towards the identified urban
planning problems & challenges with necessarysolution recommendations.

Convey practice and learning for future researchers in the area; on how the way
scientificallythe knowledge of sociology is applied to investigate the realities in
the condition of urbanplanning and development.

1.6.Organization of the Paper

This paper is organized in to four foremost sections. The first section is

concerned with introductionwhich is aimed to introduce the general impression
of the paper and its objectives that the paper isgoing to seek at the end of the
paper task, and dealt with the limitations in addition to its importance.The
literatures related to areas of the title were revised under section two of the
paper. Themethodology and discussion of findings of the paper was dealt under
section three of the paper. And atthe last section of the paper, the summary of
the paper and necessary recommendations were covered

2.
Review of Related Literatures2.1.Historical Experience of Urbanization and
Urban Planning in Ethiopia

The history of urban formation in Ethiopia dates back to the civilization of

Axum and Yeha (BelachewK et al, 2003). Two factors can be cited as main
reasons for urban formation in Ethiopia, political(military) and economical.
Many urban centers in most parts of Ethiopia were established foradministrative
or as military garrison towns. With urbanization, different land uses such
asadministration, commercial, recreation, industrial, residential, urban
agriculture, social services,utilities and infrastructure development are created
within the urban centers. These all diversified urbanspecialization and residents
activities need a comprehensive plan to regulate in a maximum justice.In
connection with urban planning issues, some findings indicate that modern
urbanization of Ethiopiastarted at Entoto during the reign of Menelik II. In
connection with this, Addis Ababa got its firsttraditional plan by empress Tayitu
around the present palace to guide the early urban settlement. Afterthe
establishment of Addis Ababa, different settlements emerged because Menelik II
granted land forministers based on hierarchy and kinship relations. This led to
the development of hierarchy ofsettlement and neighborhoods around the
nucleus, the emperor and the empress (Habtamu, 2011).Professional planning
was done for Addis Ababa during the Italian period and that shifted the
citycenter from Piassa to National theatre and segregated the residential area of
the whites and indigenouspeople (Taggebe B., 1976, Amharic version).The
Italian being the first, there were a number of plans prepared for Addis Ababa
that shaped someof its development up to now. Some of the influential plans next
to the Italian include the one preparedby Sir Patrick Abercrombie, Bolton and
Hennessey partnership, Architect De Marine and the 1986master plan prepared
by Addis Ababa Master Plan Project Office, AAMPPO.With the expansion of
Addis Ababa city, housing area development was highly facilitated by the
1986plan of Addis Ababa (AAMPPO, 1987). The newly revised plan of Addis
Ababa in 2002 has a numberof proposals on different issues like road network,
urban green, markets and urban centers, industrialdevelopment, housing, etc.

2.2.Description of the Nekemte Town

Nekemte is one of the Oromia regional state towns found in East Wollega zone
with a total planningarea of 53.8 KM

or 5380 hectares. It is located at 328kms in western direction from the center

statecapital_ Addis Ababa. The town altitude ranges in between 1960 meter to
2170 meter from the lowestgorge area of the town through to the maximum hill
point of the town area respectively. The annuarainfall average of the town
ranges in between 1500mm-2200mm. The town is structured into six subcities.
The current boundary of Nekemte town is surrounded by rural peasant
association villages in alldirections. For further explanation of surroundings, it
was shown by map below in the next section.

2.3.Physical Characteristics of Nekemte Town

Topography of Nekemte is almost all declines from the center to outwards of the
surrounding watercatchment and flow areas of the town, except a few gorge
parts of the town locality. This allows surfaceand rain water of the town center
flow to the rounding rivers. In which from among 5480 hectares ofthe town
coverage, 27% is plane, 66.6% is ups and down, 0.33% is swamp land, and
5.76% is coveredby water surfaces. (Source: Nekemte town communication
office journal published in 2007 EC

2.4.Population of Nekemte Town

There are currently 6 sub cities in the town of Nekemte. These include Cheleleki,
Burka Jato, BakanisaKase, Kaso, Derge, and Bake Jama. According to Oromia
CSA of 1999 EC depicted, the totalpopulation of Nekemte town is 76,917 in
whom 39,167 were females and 36,650 were males. But, nowdays the population
of Nekemte town is estimated as more than 120 thousands.

2.5.Historical Origin of Nekemte Town Urbanization and Urban Planning

According to Tesema Ta’a (1994) assertion, in Western Oromia, the major

factors for the developmentof towns in the first half of the nineteenth century
were “further consolidation and centralization of the
administration, extension of resource base, increase in agricultural production
and the flourishing of

trade.” The development of settled agriculture and the production of surplus

food and other materialsand trade networks “release a portion of the people
from tasks of providing the elemental necessiti

es

of life”

In the case of Nekemte town from among the mass Western Oromia towns, the
hereditary Leeqaa

kingdoms “developed and consolidated their political power using better military
organization, forging

elective alliances, controlling local economic resources and dominating the long-
distance trade as well

as the main market villages.”

The town of Nekemte emerged in this process by early of 1830

th

by Dejazmach Moroda Bakare of thethen monarchical emperor. Before the

emergence of Nekemte, the Gadaa government was centered inKomtoo_ now the
village adjacent to Nekemte in the North East parts. At that time Nekemte was
aqabiiyyee (occupant) of the Kolobo clan. Bakare acquired Handaq when he was
elected as the Abbaa

Duulaa (war leader) of the Mananya’a an

d moved his residence to Waachaa (now located in Nekemtetown around the

northern part of the town in cheleleki sub city), close to his new estate after
dislodgingFido Bokisa.Nekemte grew around this locale. Nekemte gradually
developed into a central marketplace where thepeople would exchange their
products. Long distance caravan merchants frequently traveled toNekemte in
search of gold and ivory. The monarchical leader of the Leeqaa Nekemte,
Bakare Godanaestablished a hereditary local Oromo kingdom of Leeqaa, ruling
approximately between 1841 and

1868, by destroying the Oromo democratic system of administration. It was

during Kumsa’s

administration that European travelers, merchants, and a few Ethiopians visited

Nekemte and providedeyewitness accounts on the town. This city had
commercial networks with Gojjam, Shawa, Beni

Shangul, Sudan, and Dembi Dollo, Indians, Greeks, Lebanese, Armenians,

Americans, and Arabs andhad developed into an important and prosperous
city.Swedish Evangelical Missionaries also opened a church, a hospital, and an
elementary school in thecity. However, Nekemte town got its first municipal style
administration in 1942 EC and first masterplan in 1967 EC.Nevertheless, these
all above mentioned factors contributed for the emergence of Nekemte town at
thethen time, the town was suffered for a long back years from nonexistence and
malfunctioning ofcomprehensive master plan governing the demands of these all
immigrants from different backgroundfor different purposes and to maintain the
compatibility of the changing needs of the original residentswith dynamism of
urbanism brought about through urbanization. Besides, Nekemte town
governorshad attempted to formulate policies and accommodative plan to
manage the adverse effects arisingfrom rapid urbanization and demands of
urban dwellers for better services in urban locality startingfrom time of
monarchical leaders through to contemporary municipal system administration
of thetown.

2.6.Contemporary Urban Challenges

The Third World will continue to see increasing rates of urbanization, and cities
will continue toexperience the stress of facing increased demands to provide
infrastructure and create jobs withoutmuch of the needed resources and/or
capacity. The main challenges include (a) the need to keep urbanplanning and
management flexible and ready to adapt to new developments in the economic or
socialfront; (b) getting the best possible technical analysis; (c) pushing the
agenda of excellence; (d) thinkingbig and long-term; (e) looking at the big
picture

overall competitiveness, labor market, environmentalquality, and standing as

regards capital and human capital; (f) engaging the private sector;
(g)understanding and discussion with community leaders of how much limited-
resource localgovernments can offer; (h) establishing contracts vertically with
the central government andhorizontally with other municipalities (Mila Freire,
2006).In Africa, the dramatic effects of rapid urbanization are very strong in the
cities and suburban areas.As cities expand, the main zone of direct impact is the
peri-urban area and those living in the peri-

urban interface. Although, cities serve as ‘engines’ of growth in most developing

countries by

providing opportunities for employment, education, knowledge and technology

transfer and readymarkets for industrial and agricultural products, high urban
populations place enormous stress on

natural resources and imposes ‘ecological footprints’ on the peri

-urban areas (Rees, 1992; Rees and

Wackernagel, 1994). The conversion of farmlands and watersheds for residential

purposes has negativeimpacts on food security, water supply and the health of
people.The quality of several watercourses is poor, with pollutant levels higher
than the standards of WHO.Pesticide contamination from urban agriculture,
residues from sawmills and manufacturing industries,wastewater from urban
drains and municipal dumping of waste especially human excreta
pollutedrinking water sources that affect the health of the urban and peri-urban
populations. In the long-term,treatment of sewage would be required for
reducing water pollution and increase safer vegetableproduction from small plot
of land.

2.7.Challenges of Urban Planning in Context of Nekemte Town

A pool of developing countries urban areas face almost similar challenges in
which the magnitude andnature of challenges differ from one area to the other
based on how they are treated and intended to besolved. From among the course
of urban planning challenges facing Nekemte town, these belowmentioned are
the foremost ones:

2.7.1.

Physical Difficulties

The very nature of Nekemte town topography is one of the most potential
challenges to formulate anddesign the town master plan. The Nekemte town land
scape is relatively ups and down which poseslarge amount of budget to plan for
the provision of necessary urban services in relation to the capacityof the nation
as a general and the town municipal income affordability.

2.7.2.

Social Difficulties

The limitations imposed on the mobility of people, goods and ideas by the
physical conditions reflectedstrongly on the social outlooks and attitudes of the
people. Occupational groups such as blacksmiths,weavers, potters and
merchants together with whatever skills they possessed were despised. It is
notonly peoples wrong outlook against the skills of doing something but also the
lesser struggle and effortto work to change oneself is one of the major challenge
in which almost everyone is waiting areadymade life than striving to make a
living with a larger income. In turn, this increased burden anddecreased income
of the town residents and government to cope up with the changing and full
ofcompetition nature of urban life

10

2.7.3.
Political Difficulties

The political condition in Ethiopia was very crumbly. Peace was rare and seldom
desired across theentire state regions by the political elites though conspirators
promote in another side. In another hand,the ethnic based federalism politics of
the country induced a meaningful bias against those who arepoorly represented
in the decisive political powers to materialize the needs of their locality residents
inwhich Nekemte town as a specific and Oromia region in general are suffering
for a decades from lossof powerful political representative at decision maker
level. This induced upon Nekemte towngovernors to perform poor plan and
inability to implement what they have been planned. The decisionsof whether to
plan or to implement were directed at one direction from top to down all the time
withoutincorporating the voice of local stakeholders and community.It is not
only direction of plan and implementation, but also the modification or replacing
need of thetown plan was initiated by the top political elites by calculating their
personal/group benefits thancalculating the benefits it provide for the town
residents. In turn, this paved favorable way for localgovernors to engage in
corruption in the name of changing plan and decision of the town
concerninstead of serving the town residents.

2.7.4.

Economic Difficulties

The low income of the residents leads to low income of the town municipal. This
low income of townmunicipal posed the nonexistence of big push investments
and capital incentive activities of the towndwellers. This all induced the shortage
of exposure to international experiences and information, andblocked the
powerful investors and wealth owners from investing in and around the town
which in turnposes the bilateral facilitation in between the government and the
investors that may create a favorableconditions for the preparation and
implementation of the town plan. This is simply all about theaftermaths of
poverty inducing poor economic contribution participation of the residents and
the misuseof existing finance for the personal shortage of plan developers and
implementers.
2.7.5.

Capacity Difficulties

The existing government competent agency granted with official and legal
authority to plan andimplement the plan for the good of the town residents does
not have that much execution ability ratherthan simply formulating a
manipulative plan and putting at shelf. This capacity shortage paved the wayfor
speculators and illegal land catchers which significantly harmed the goal of the
plan to achieve

11

In addition to

the above mentioned challenges category, the major challenges of Nekemte town
urbanplanning is linked with negative interactions between the surrounding
farmers and urban residentsbecause of the unknown boundary of the town
identifying from the peasant associations surroundingthe town. This paves a way
for illegal urbanization and construction of housings with poor quality andat
irrelevant places which does not match with locality clustering as per the town
master plan. This inturn created poor supply of basic services for the area. On
the other hand, agricultural areas are desirablelocations for new houses because
farmland is relatively inexpensive and it has visual and other openspace
amenities, which attracts the illegal housing land catchers.

12

3.

Methodology and Discussion of Findings3.1.Method and Data

In order to know and describe the practices and challenges of urban planning in
Nekemte town, Ireviewed a number of related literatures from the works of
scholars and researchers. These relatedliteratures were captured from secondary
data sources like published books, reports and journalsstarting from hard copy
through to electronics books from the internet. In addition to reviewing
relatedliteratures, the Nekemte town published & unpublished documents were
examined, personalobservation of the town urban planning performance and
status was analyzed to consider the practicesand challenges of planning and
management of urban land in Nekemte town.

3.2.Discussion of Findings and Implications

In the developing world, cities are growing much more rapidly than in developed
countries. Basicchallenges of urban growth involve the expansion and
management of services, the collection andallocation of sufficient revenues to
create infrastructure and to operate services in an adequate fashion,and the
creation of a coherent planning framework for the city so that increasingly
diverse populationscan live together respectfully and productively.Modern
urbanization, though recent in Ethiopia, is one of the fastest growing
phenomena in thecountry. To manage the outward expansion of urban areas
and to supply better services for the townresidents in accordance to their
demands needs formulation of comprehensive plan. The difference ofservice
quality provided by towns from one city to other is resulted from the difference of
ability oftowns to formulate comprehensive plan and capacity to righteously
implement its plan.The concept of city planning came into being, while trying to
find solutions for the problems of 19thcentury cities (Campbell S .et al, 1996).
The all-inclusive approach can be a tool for planning the futuregrowth or
decline of a local community by establishing guidelines for the process.To
enhance appropriate uses of land and deliver quality services by making the
town attractive to theinner and outer communities, Nekemte town prepared plans
at different time for a number of years agoto address compatibility issues
between various uses of land, management and preservation of naturalresources,
identification and preservation of historically significant lands and structures,
and planningfor infrastructure needs.Despite of these above said intentions, land
use patterns, housing conditions, population management,roadways, and other
infrastructure issues are usually the principal problems unsolved yet in
Nekemtetown. Comprehensive planning is important in that it considers the
overall development of community

13

by solving or reducing the problems of the community. In this regard, it aims at

satisfying thecommunity by appropriately using land and avoiding
incompatibilities of urban centers.Urban planning process takes considerable
time to progress from beginning to implementation. Forinstance, in the
horizontal expansion of the town, landowners and speculators can make
planimplementation difficult by subdividing and selling land in the area after
once the area is identified andplanned for particular use. This may leads the new
land parcels to incompatible pattern with future usesin size, shape or ownership.
And thus, this will potentially contributes to weak implementation andpower of
urban plan to solve the identified problems and bring about the intended goals of
providingquality basic services for its dwellers.

14

4.

Summary and Recommendations4.1.Summary

The main objectives of city planning are to find solutions for industrial and non-
industrial citiesdifficulties to alleviate unnecessary inequalities and put in place
accommodative range for any residentsas per their relative needs. In this context,
urban planning is a policy guide and deals with appropriateuse of land, and both
physical and social resources to bring about future growth of community.In
contemporary world, uncertainty about the future necessitated contingency-
based planning toaccommodate problems of future conditions. This urban plan
is a more structurally generalizedframework to guide development in a
particular area by defining land use patterns, areas of open space,layout and
nature of infrastructure in consideration of its future benefits and adverse
effects. UrbanPlanning can be considered as a cyclical process that begins with
the identification of problems andgoes through interconnected processes until
problems are solved or significantly reduced.The history of urban formation and
planning in Ethiopia dates back to the civilization of Axum andYeha (Belachew
K et al, 2003) to regulate overall development of urban centers and the
hinterland.The current urban development policy of Ethiopia implies that urban
centers should develop with thesurrounding hinterlands by providing
agricultural tools, services, improved seeds and technicalassistance for more
productivity of farmers to solve the unnecessary conflict and disputes arise from

the neighboring peasant farmers’ dem

ands of joining the urban locality. And also the contemporarypolicy of

participating town representatives as per their diversified life mood with
diversified demandsis encouraged by the Ethiopian government policy even
though its materialization is under questionyet.In Ethiopian context, urban plan
is aimed at long-term frames to address major development issues inurban and
surrounding peripheries. Nekemte town is running almost all a derivative of the
nationalgovernment urban policy though a little bit contextualized by the
regional state governments at Oromialevel. Nevertheless, Nekemte town
practiced urban planning for a long back years to make the townattractive and
better basic service provider in the country, a number of challenges prohibited
fromreaching the anticipated destination. From among the various challenges
hindered the town fromreaching projected goal, physical obstacles, political
obstacles, social obstacles, economic obstaclesand capacity obstacles were the
foremost ones.In general, the study finding showed that; even though the
physical nature of the town is challengingto meet the aim of its urban plan, the
peoples are constructing houses at all challenging locations ( even

15

at where the slope of land is quite difficult and unallowable to construct houses).
On the other hand,though the low income of the town resident is one of the
challenge hindering the municipal incomeimprovement which in turn improves
the role of the municipal to deliver standardized infrastructures,the study finding
shows that, the engagement of residents and new comers in constructing legal
and/orillegal housings in the town are increasing from time to time. Lastly, the
absence of peace and stabilityin and around Nekemte city was one of the
challenge which hindered the government to prepareexhaustive plan and
implement accordingly for the good of the mass community, but the study
findingrevealed that many people use lack of peace and stability as a golden
opportunity to construct house inthe town, even when instability occur in the
city, construction of illegal houses seems like campaignworks.

4.2.Recommendations

To alleviate and/or reduce these above identified challenges of Nekemte town

planning, localgovernments need to follow some basic principles:

Promote arrangements and facilitations to improve and diversify the town

income and financialaccess.

Decentralize legal authority to the local level and harness the voice of any
concernedindividuals/groups to enhance the flow of ideas both from top-down
and bottom-up.

Install independent and powerful institution operating and regularly monitoring

personnel totimely cope up the plan with necessary changing demands and
accelerate its actual timelyimplementation.

Formulate all-inclusive policies to deal with surrounding rural land conversion

and losses offarmland happened during urban expansion which is probably the
most important and urgentissue facing the urban planner
As cities continue to grow, so do their challenges and complexities. Urban
planning presents an all-encompassing solution to those challenges.

Developing urban areas require a great deal of forward-thinking and thorough

planning. The growth of cities and towns should happen in accordance with
specific objectives that a state or territory defines, with local councils playing a
significant role in it.

Cities rely on urban planning to remain functional, grow in population, and

attract businesses. Every crucial aspect of an urban environment is under the
effect of how its layout is planned. This includes key infrastructure,
transportation, and city area layout and density.

In Australia, urban planning is of immense importance since over 80% of

Australians are either city residents or work in urban areas, or both. The main
aspect that attracts such a large number of people to Australian cities has to do
with the quality of life, which is based on infrastructure and easy access to vital
institutions and services, such as healthcare and education.

Highly developed cities largely contribute to the economic health and

productivity of society. On the other hand, poor urban planning can bring on
opposite, harmful effects like constant heavy traffic, insufficient infrastructure,
inadequate housing options. Such areas can also become exposed to a number of
natural hazards, including fires, flooding, and climate change.

Urban planning also influences property development since the city’s

sustainability depends on following the state-set objectives.
The way our cities grow undoubtedly has a massive impact on the economy,
ecology, and quality of life. And in this article, we’ll provide a detailed
explanation of the main reasons why urban planning matters.

The Seven Reasons

Reason #1. Planned City Growth

City development is always most efficient when it’s orderly and in line with a
specific vision. After all, it relies on a framework that takes into account the
current and future needs of the city’s population.

As opportunities for work and education keep improving, cities are rapidly
drawing in more and more people. For this reason, city growth is unavoidable
yet predictable, making plans for future expansions a necessity.

Since the core idea behind urban growth is to improve on the benefits of city
living, many factors go into proper city planning. These factors include public
welfare, equity, efficient emergency measures, and community participation. A
planned city will take all this into consideration and transform its environment
so that it can accommodate the growing number of residents.

Planned city growth can create a strong relationship between local leaders,
various departments, and citizens. And as a result, the entire community can
pursue a common goal of productivity and better and safer living.

Reason #2. Improved Health and Quality of Life

When it comes to concerns that most city dwellers share, quality of life is among
the greatest. It’s true that greater opportunities can attract people to urban
environments. But once they settle in a city, they’re faced with higher costs of
living that have a significant impact on their quality of life.

And as vehicles keep growing in number, city traffic also becomes a key factor
for the quality of life, requiring continuous updates to traffic infrastructure and
regulations. With urban planning, the concern about the quality of life will be
taken into account and make the infrastructure and public spaces regulated and
properly distributed.

With a thoroughly planned layout, a city can provide its residents with access to
all essential services, points of interest, and amenities. At the same time, the
unfavourable aspects of urban life are reduced, leading to an overall healthier
lifestyle and improved quality of life.

Reason #3. Less Environmental Impact

As the entire planet faces issues caused by global warming, cities are starting to
adapt more and more to environmental considerations. In fact, the United
Nations recently issued a list of development goals with the purpose of reaching
sustainability, making impact assessments mandatory for development projects
in cities.
City planning is a key element in this regard, as it allows for proper handling of
waste, a level of control over greenhouse gas emissions, and a more rational
utilisation and distribution of resources.

Planting trees, emphasising public transport to reduce fuel consumption, and

raising public awareness about the environmental impact are all measures that
could slow down and reduce the ecological harm that cities inevitably cause.

Reason #4. Better Economy and Resource Utilisation

Well-developed cities have sprawling markets with plenty of job opportunities.

Naturally, this boosts the city economy and impacts every aspect of urban life.
However, cities still need investments to keep their economies growing and they
are always competing for financial input.

Urban planning can ensure that more jobs are available while living costs
decrease. This can happen through expanding nearby rural areas into urban
environments and distributing economic activity in a coordinated fashion.

Without economic considerations in city development, the living standard of city

residents could be jeopardised.

Today, many cities are experiencing considerable migration due to a decrease in

work opportunities and rising costs of living. And the only way to prevent these
negative changes and the economic decline that follows them is through proper
urban planning.
Reason #5. National Development

Urban areas have always been the centres of development and growth, often
leading the nation into progress. That situation remains the same today and the
critical role cities play in national development will likely become even more
pronounced.

Why?

According to the United Nations’ estimate, over 3 billion people will live in cities
by the year 2050. This means that, in the near future, the impact cities will have
on regional and national development will become the primary factor.

As cities continue to grow, their economies, social conditions, and environmental

concerns scale along. Well-planned cities will therefore become their nation’s
driving forces, while urban areas that lack such planning might prove highly
detrimental.

Reason #6. Disaster Prevention and Greater Credibility

Urban planning can allow for better predictions and reactions to natural
disasters. With sound strategies reinforced by the rational placement of
infrastructure, cities can prevent most calamities or, at the very least, reduce
their harmful effects.
The better a city is planned, the more prepared it will be for any future events.
The urban area will become a safer place for numerous residents, visitors, and
tourists alike.

As cities reach continuity regarding safety and access to crucial infrastructure,

they build more credibility due to predictable, favourable conditions they
nurture. And the credibility of a city reflects on its growth, economic stability,
and community engagement.

In light of this potential, building credibility becomes a long-term investment.

Cities that reach stability in this regard find great success and disregard political
changes in their plans. They remain safe and prosperous environments that
attract more new residents, investments, and opportunities. Well-planned cities
are also less prone to loss of property or lives and more resilient against all types
of disasters.

Reason #7. More Efficient Problem Solving

Problem-solving doesn’t necessarily mean reacting when an issue appears.

Instead, a more efficient way to resolve issues is through anticipation. If a
problem is anticipated, it can be secured against from the start or, in the worst
case, would require less effort to solve.

Sufficient urban planning allows cities to deal with potential challenges quickly
and more easily through anticipation and the utilisation of thought-out spatial
patterns and infrastructure. This means that in a properly planned city, all areas
will be made as efficient as possible and accessible for maintenance. In the event
a swift reaction is needed, unhindered communication flow and readiness of city
services will be precious.

Through good planning, cities can decrease or remove the possibility of

significant issues. And if problems arise, they can be dealt with promptly with
minimal cost or damage.

Planning for Better Life in Urban Areas

Urban planning encompasses and influences many aspects of city life.

From matters of economy, through social and environmental concerns, to safety

and wellbeing, a thorough, consistent plan can make life in urban areas almost
idyllic. On the other hand, a lack of such plans can turn a city into an unlivable
environment.

In modern times, more cities are turning towards sustainable solutions that
require urban planning, which affects urban development to a large extent.

Archistar can be used by town planners to aid them in making optimal planning
and development decisions. They can discover the highest and best use of any
site, saving time whilst also bringing certainty and transparency to the
development process.

The major cause of poor plan implementation in the country includes lack of
accountability, lack of skills, commitment, technical and material capacity of the
municipalities, lack of transparency, and lack of awareness at community level.
Summary

Urban planning is a design to order the use of land and other physical resources
for public interest with objective of increasing the quality of life and well-being
of people living in cities. It is a design and regulation of the uses of space that
focuses on the physical form, economic functions, and social impacts of the
urban environment and on the location of different activities within it.

In most countries, urban planning refers to the planning of the physical

structure of development or land use planning. It is a technical and political
process concerned with the development and use of land, protection and use of
the environment, public welfare, and the design of the urban environment,
including air, water, and the infrastructure passing into and out of urban areas
such as transportation, communications, and distribution networks.

Rapid urban explosion is agreed to be the most complex and important

socioeconomic and environmental phenomenon that has emerged between the
twentieth and twenty-first centuries, and urban planning emerged as a scholarly
discipline in the 1900s in Great Britain for the first time as academic planning
program.

Modern-day urban planning in Africa can be traced back to colonial roots. The
long tradition of urban planning practice in Eastern Africa indicates that there
is an understanding of physical land use planning, which mainly comprised of
master planning and a system of development control. Master plan is a tool to
guide and manage the growth of cities in a planned manner.

Urban planning and its implementation experience in Ethiopia has a short

history. Review of urban planning practice in the country indicated that less than
a quarter of the recognized urban centers have no plans to guide their spatial
development. The first urban planning practice that was traditional in nature is
known to be started in Ethiopia at Entoto during the reign of Menelik II.

Regarding its importance, the main importance of urban planning is division of

a city into specialized functional quarters; development of commanding central
sites for palaces, temples, and civic buildings; and advanced systems of
fortification, water supply, and drainage. But urban planning implementation is
found at low stage of development in developing countries including Ethiopia.
The major cause of poor plan implementation in the country includes lack of
accountability, lack of skills, commitment, technical and material capacity of the
municipalities, lack of transparency, and lack of awareness at community level
which bottle neck the growth of urban economy and local economic
development.
2. Urban plan and plan implementation challenges

There are many challenges of plan implementation. In line with this, a study
conducted by Slaev and Nedovic-Budic [13] in Sofia’s master plan in Bulgaria
reviled that large inconsistencies exist between the plan’s overall goals and some
of its measures and implementation tools. Among the various challenges the
most common are high crime level, unemployment, health issues, poverty,
overstretched public facilities/infrastructures, high population density, and poor
planning and implementation policies.

Urban plan is a means of smart, liveable, and inclusive development of urban

areas for better urban life. It promotes planned development through allocation
of plots for various land uses functions in an orderly and rational manner. This
helps to make sure efficient utilization of scarce land resource. Because
allocation of plots for various land use function is one among the ultimate goals
of urban plan preparation and implementation [14].

Studies [15] within the challenges of urban plan implementation indicated that
the process of plan implementation effort in Ethiopia is observed to be at its
infancy. However, a study conducted by Simie [11] and Jillo [16] indicated that
though urban plan is often viewed as positive, it lacks proper implementation.
The main cause of poor plan implementation in the country includes lack of
accountability, lack of skills (converting map in to the ground), commitment,
technical and material capacity of the municipalities, lack of transparency, and
lack of awareness at community level. In the same line, Dube [4] conducted
study on urban planning and land management challenges in Arba Minch town
acknowledged that archaic land information management system, informal land
acquisition, corruption, land speculation, and land-related conflicts became the
challenges of land management and plan implementation in the town.

Concerning implementation efforts of urban plans within the Oromia region,

most urban centers have faced difficulty in implementing the proposed land use
plan. Consistent with the implementation report of the OUPI, most of the
prepared structure plans for urban centers are failed to transfer graphics into
the ground. As a result, most urban plans are left aside or outdated before their
implementation [17]. The above-mentioned problems of plan implementation
also are true in Babich town. Like most towns of Ethiopia Babich is found at
very infancy stage of urbanization. Babich town got the primary basic plan
preparation in 2009. The second revised basic plan was done in 2019, when the
town is that the capital of newly emerged woreda called Liban-Jawi [18].

Even though some empirical studies are available on urban planning and land
management, there is no sufficient study regarding the challenges of urban plan
implementation in small towns in Ethiopia in general and in West Showa Zone,
Oromia Regional State in particular. Thus, this study contributes to the existing
gaps in the study area.

Many small towns in Ethiopia grew without having available urban plan. Like
many other small towns in Ethiopia, Babichi town faced difficulty in
implementing the basic plan because the town was established before without the
basic plan. On the opposite hand, the basic plan by itself has problem, because it
fails to include design for social service institutions, which was previously
occupied by residential area, This was happened due to unprofessional personnel
in municipality who lacks appropriate skill to transfer graphics into the ground.
A study by Mulugeta [10] about existing structural plan implementation
situation in Injibara town indicates that the main factors that have had impact
on the preparation and implementation of urban plans are lack of qualified
personnel to prepare and implement urban plans and lack of budget to pay
compensation for nearby farmers, which will result in illegal housing practice.
Therefore, the main objective of this study was to investigate the challenges of
urban plan implementation in small towns of Ethiopia in the case of Babich
town, West Shawa Zone, Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia.
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