PHYS30392 Cosmology

Week 6 Notes

6 Time, Distance and Inflation

Once the solution has been found for a(t), we can now use the FRW metric to calculate distances and ages. From a
practical perspective, we are often interested in calculating these for a light-emitting source where we have directly
measured its redshift, z (e.g. a distant galaxy, supernova, galaxy cluster or quasar). It is therefore more convenient
to use z rather than a, although the two are trivially related as a = 1/(1 + z).
We will finish with a discussion of two problems with the Big Bang model and briefly consider a possible solution,
known as inflation.

6.1 Age of the Universe and Lookback Time

The most important timescale in cosmology is the current age of the universe 1 . However, in general, we can calculate
the age of the universe at any epoch, i.e. the age as a function of the scale factor
Z a
da0
t(a) = (1)
ȧ(a0 )
Z0 a
da0
= 0 0
, (2)
0 a H(a )

where we insert the appropriate Friedmann equation for H(a), given the values of the density parameters, Ωi , in our
model. We can calculate the current age of the universe, t0 , by setting a = 1 as the upper limit in the integral. Note
that H(a) ∝ H0 so the dimensions (time) come from 1/H0 , the Hubble time.
We can also define the lookback time, t̂(z) ≡ t0 − t(z), i.e. the time that has elapsed since light was emitted by an
object with a redshift, z. The lookback time is found by changing the limits on the above integral as follows
Z 1
da0
t̂ = 0 0
(3)
a a H(a )
Z 0
dz 0
= − 0 0
(4)
z (1 + z )H(z )
Z z
dz 0
= 0 0
, (5)
0 (1 + z )H(z )

where we used da = −dz/(1 + z)2 . Note the current age of the universe is the same as the lookback time to the Big
Bang, i.e. t0 ≡ t̂(z → ∞).
Example: for the Einstein-de Sitter universe, we have H(z) = H0 (1 + z)3/2 . The lookback time to redshift, z, is
therefore
Z z
1 dz 0
t̂(z) = (6)
H0 0 (1 + z 0 )5/2
 z
2 −1
= (7)
3H0 (1 + z 0 )3/2 0
 
2 1
= 1− . (8)
3H0 (1 + z)3/2

Note that t0 = 2/(3H0 ) as expected.

1 We are using cosmic time; this is the time measured on clocks by hypothetical observers, all set to t = 0 at the Big Bang, and each

observer is at a fixed comoving position in space, so their proper position only changes due to the expansion of space itself.

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6.2 Radial Distances
In cosmology, since space is expanding, we need to be careful how we define distances to objects; specifically, the
distance between two points needs to be taken as their separation at a fixed time, i.e. the proper distance. Let’s
start by computing the comoving distance to an observed source with a measured redshift z; i.e. the proper distance
to the source today.
We can calculate such a distance by considering the radial path taken by light as it travels between the source and
observer. Firstly, we know that the space-time interval for light, ds = 0. Secondly, since light travels along a radial
path, we also have dθ = dφ = 0. The FRW metric simplifies to a relation between the time interval and the proper
radial distance interval; using χ as the radial comoving co-ordinate, we can write

c dt = a(t) dχ. (9)

Separating the variables, we can integrate from source to observer as

Z χ Z t0
dt0
dχ0 = c (10)
0 t a(t0 )
Z 1
da0
=⇒ χ(a) = c 02 0
(11)
a a H(a )
Z 0 0
dz
=⇒ χ(z) = −c (12)
H(z 0 )
Z zz
dz 0
=⇒ χ(z) = c 0
, (13)
0 H(z )

again using da = −a2 dz.

Example: Einstein-de Sitter universe with H(z) = H0 (1 + z)3/2
Z z
c dz 0
χ(z) = (14)
H0 0 (1 + z 0 )3/2
 0
2c 1
= √ (15)
H0 1 + z0 z
 
2c 1
= 1− √ . (16)
H0 1+z

Again, it should be emphasised that the radial comoving distance tells us how far away an object is today, even
though the light we observe from it was emitted in the past. By using the FRW metric we have correctly accounted
for the expansion of space between the time of emission and time of observation. If, instead, we wished to know how
far away from us the same object would have been at the time when the light was emitted (something we cannot
measure in practice) we need the proper distance at a or z, i.e. d(a) = a χ(a) or d(z) = χ(z)/(1 + z). This distance
is, of course, smaller than χ given that space between the source and observer locations had not expanded by as
much in the past as it has now.
A related distance is the horizon distance (or particle horizon), the distance light has travelled since the Big Bang.
For this, it is more instructive to work with t rather than a or z. Consider, now, light travelling since the Big Bang
(at t = 0). Again, setting ds = 0 and dθ = dφ = 0 but now integrating from t = 0 to some later time, t, we get
Z t
dt0
χH (t) = c 0
, (17)
0 a(t )

which tells us the comoving distance (i.e. present-day separation) between the point at which light started its journey
and the point it reached by time, t. To calculate the horizon distance, we need the proper distance between the two
points at t, i.e. Z t
dt0
dH (t) = c a(t) 0
. d_H = a X_H (18)
0 a(t )

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The horizon distance is the proper distance at time t that light had travelled in a vaccum since the Big Bang
(t = 0). It represents the maximum length scale in which points could come into causal contact by that time. An
interesting point here is that the horizon distance for an expanding universe will be greater than ct. This is because
the space between the source and destination has expanded in the time it has taken light to travel between the two
points.
Example: The particle horizon for a universe with scale factor a = α tβ , with constants α and β < 1, is given
by
Z t 0
β dt
dH (t) = c t 0β
(19)
0 t
 01−β t
t
= c tβ (20)
1−β 0
ct
= . (21)
1−β

Specifically, for a radiation-dominated universe we would have β = 1/2 and so dH = 2ct; for a matter-dominated
(Einstein-de Sitter) universe we have β = 2/3 and dH = 3ct.

6.3 Luminosity and Angular Diameter Distances

Cosmological distances are of practical importance when relating observed flux to intrinsic luminosity (using a stan-
dard candle) and observed angular diameter to proper length (standard ruler). Such relationships are used in cosmo-
logical tests, where we seek to e.g. constrain the parameters of our assumed cosmological model ( {Ωm , ΩΛ , H0 , ...}
for ΛCDM). We define the so-called luminosity distance and angular diameter distance for the two cases, respectively.
Both distances involve relating transverse distances on the sky to subtended angles, so, in general, the appropriate
comoving distance is not χ but the coordinate r = Sκ [χ(z)] which appears in the angular part of the FRW metric.
Specifically, the proper transverse separation of two points, ds, is obtained from

ds2 = a2 (t) r2 dθ2 + sin2 θ dφ2 ,

 
(22)

where we have set dt = dχ = 0 here. As a result, r is often referred to as the transverse comoving distance. 2 It
follows, then, that light emitted isotropically by a point source at a redshift z will be spread throughout the surface
area of a sphere at the present day
Z 2π Z π
A(r) = r2 dφ sin θ dθ = 4πr2 , (23)
0 0

where r = Sκ [χ(z)] can be determined from the comoving radial distance χ(z) for light (as above) and the specific
choice of curvature model (Ωκ ). Note, however, in a flat universe we have the (much) simpler result, A = 4πχ2 .
The observed flux from this source is then
Lem
Fobs = , (24)
4πr2 (1 + z)2
where Lem and Fobs are bolometric quantities (i.e. integrated over all frequencies). Recall that the (1 + z)2 factor is
due to the reduction in both photon energy (redshift) and arrival rate, due to the expansion of space. We now see
that the luminosity distance r
Lem
dL (z) = (1 + z) r(z) = , (25)
4πFobs
depends on the transverse comoving distance r(z); it is this function that contains the cosmological information.
The Hubble diagram used in modern cosmological tests with standard candles is a plot of the observables dL (or
equivalently the distance modulus) versus z and compared to model predictions for the dL − z relation.
2 Recall that S (χ) = R sinh(χ/R) for κ = −1; S (χ) = R sin(χ/R) for κ = +1; S (χ) = χ for κ = 0. We can write R in terms of the
κ κ κ
curvature density, R2 = −κc2 /(Ωκ H02 ).

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Example: for an Einstein-de Sitter universe we have r = χ so
2c  √ 
dL (z) = 1+z− 1+z ; (26)
H0
the only free parameter in this case is the Hubble constant, H0 .
In general, luminosity distance monotonically increases with redshift; sources with fixed Lem will always be fainter
(again assuming bolometric quantities) when placed further away (larger r or z).
To get the angular diameter distance, we again use the FRW metric and set dt = dχ = dφ = 0, so we have ds = a r dθ.
We integrate this to get the proper transverse length of an object on the sky, s, related to its subtended (measurable)
angular diameter, θ, and redshift, z, as
(1 + z)
θ= s. (27)
r
We define the angular diameter distance
r(z)
dA (z) = , (28)
1+z
to re-write the angular diameter as
s
θ= . (29)
dA (z)
As with the luminosity distance, the equation looks like the Euclidean (flat) geometric result we are used to seeing.
Angular diameter distances are used in cosmological tests with standard rulers; an important standard ruler is known
as the sound horizon and its value at a particular epoch (known as photon decoupling) can be measured from both the
CMB temperature anisotropies and the distribution of galaxies; we will look at these at the end of the course.
Example: for the Einstein-de Sitter universe, the angular diameter distance is
 
χ(z) 2c 1
dA (z) = = 1− √ . (30)
1+z H0 (1 + z) 1+z
Unlike dL , at sufficiently large z, dA starts decreasing with increasing z; distances start getting smaller and objects
appear to look larger! To understand why this is, we need to consider what is changing when we move our light
source with fixed physical size, s, to larger and larger distance (larger r and z). At nearby distances (low redshift)
the geometric effect is most important (an object further away has smaller angular diameter) and the expansion of
space can be ignored. However, at large enough distances, we must not ignore the expansion of space. Although the
object itself does not change size, the space around it, through which the light travels, expanded with time in all
directions, not just towards us but also in the transverse directions. Thus, for an object further away, we observe the
light coming from a larger (soild) angle due to space expanding more than for a nearer object, and thus the object
appears to look bigger on the sky.

6.4 Problems with the Big Bang Model and Inflation

The Big Bang model explains a wide range of observations, notably Hubble’s law, the origin of the Cosmic Microwave
Background radiation and the abundances of the light elements (Big Bang Nucleosynthesis, see later). However, it
also presents some fundamental challenges, at least in its simplest form. 3 We explain two of the most important
issues below.

6.4.1 The Horizon Problem

The Cosmic Microwave Background radiation was emitted at the time of photon decoupling, tdec (this will be
calculated later). The horizon distance at tdec is dH (tdec ) ≈ 0.4 Mpc. We can also calculate the angular diameter
distance, dA (zdec ) ≈ 13 Mpc. We therefore expect a region within causal contact at this time to have an angular
diameter
dH (tdec )
θH = ≈ 2◦ . (31)
dA (zdec )
3 Even if we ignore dark matter and dark energy for a minute, and just assume a universe containing ordinary matter and radiation,

in accordance with the standard model of particle physics.

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However, the CMB is observed to have a blackbody spectrum with a temperature that varies within 1 part in 105
across the whole sky. This, almost perfectly isotropic temperature distribution, is seemingly at odds with the small
horizon distance.

6.4.2 The Flatness Problem

Recall we can write the Friedmann equation in terms of the total density parameter at some time, t, as
κc2 κc2
Ω(t) − 1 = = . (32)
R2 a2 H 2 R2 ȧ2
Again, this just tells us that the total matter and energy density will equal the critical density for a flat universe (i.e.
Ω = 1 when κ = 0), otherwise we must have non-zero curvature. Now, let’s differentiate this equation with respect
to time
dΩ 2κc2 ä
= − (33)
dt R2 ȧ3
(Ω − 1) ä
= −2 . (34)
H a
We can write the acceleration equation as
ä 4πG
= − ρ (1 + 3w) (35)
a 3
1
= − (1 + 3w)ΩH 2 , (36)
2
assuming an effective equation of state P = wρc2 and ρ = Ω ρcr = 3 Ω H 2 /(8πG). Inserting this form of the
acceleration equation into the above equation for Ω̇ gives us
dΩ
= (1 + 3w) H(t) Ω(t) [Ω(t) − 1]. (37)
dt
In both the matter and radiation eras, we know that (1 + 3w) is positive (and H is also positive) so:
• If Ω < 1 then Ω̇ < 0;
• If Ω = 1 then Ω̇ = 0;
• If Ω > 1 then Ω̇ > 0.
In other words, a perfectly flat universe (Ω = 1) is an unstable equilibrium; any deviation from Ω = 1 will lead to
Ω being much larger or smaller than unity at the present day. However, we observe Ω ∼ 1 today so our Universe
appears to be finely-tuned to be extremely close to the Ω = 1 solution at early times. This is known as the flatness
problem.

6.4.3 Inflation
A proposed solution to the above problems is that the universe underwent a brief period of inflationary (rapid)
expansion at very early times (before the radiation era). Mathematically, it works similar to Λ; inflation allows us
to (briefly) have H constant (exponential expansion) and 1 + 3w < 0 (acceleration). During inflation:
• Ω = 1 becomes an attractive solution (stable equilibrium) so Ω → 1;
• The horizon distance increases much more rapidly (exponentially) with time, allowing a much larger volume of
the universe to be in causal contact when inflation ends than we would have otherwise.
Inflation also provides answers to other problems in cosmology, e.g. why we do not observe magnetic monopoles (if
they were rare already, inflation made them much rarer) and why the universe is not perfectly homogeneous (inflation
stretches quantum fluctuations in the energy density to cosmic scales). Inflation involves new physics beyond the
standard model; detecting any possible signatures of such an inflationary era is one of the great outstanding challenges
in cosmology. One possible signature is in the polarisation of the CMB (inflation can produce a particular type of
signal known as B modes on large angular scales).