Renewable Energy 142 (2019) 451e460

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Renewable Energy
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Turbines for modular tidal current energy converters

Nicholas Kaufmann a, *, Thomas Carolus a, Ralf Starzmann b
a
Institute for Fluid- and Thermodynamics, University of Siegen, 57068 Siegen, Germany
b
SCHOTTEL HYDRO GmbH, Mainzer Straße 99, 56322 Spay, Germany

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The vast potential of ocean energies is of increasing interest. Harnessing marine currents driven by the
Received 12 July 2018 tidal cycle have triggered the development of various power conversion systems. However, the
Received in revised form comparably high levelized cost of electricity is still the main hindrance for a faster market penetration.
31 January 2019
The paper describes a novel strategy to decrease the cost: A number of small prefabricated turbines of
Accepted 22 April 2019
Available online 27 April 2019
low complexity form an arbitrary scalable array of turbines; a modular design of the key unit “turbine”
allows an easy adaption to the tidal current velocity profile at a particular site; hydraulically optimized
turbine blades ensure maximum annual energy production and minimum immersion depth. Results of
Keywords:
Tidal energy
the design efforts are a 4 m and a 6.3 m diameter horizontal axis free flow turbine with an identical drive
Cost-effective turbine design train for a rated electrical power of 70 kW. Four turbines have been tested on a 30 m
26 m trimaran
Fixed-pitch tidal current turbines placed for several months near the Falls of Lora in Scotland. The power yield fully confirmed the pre-
Rotor blade optimization diction. As an example, the annual electric energy production from such a turbine, placed in the Minas
Multi-objective optimization Passage area of the Bay of Fundy in Canada - an ideal site of harnessing tidal currents, is forecasted as
Full-scale testing 230 MWh.
© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction 1.1. Tidal current energy

In the course of search for low carbon energy resources the vast
potential of ocean energies is of increasing interest. At present,
predominantly waves and marine currents driven by the tidal cycle
trigger the development of novel power conversion systems. The
comparably high cost of electricity converted from ocean energy is
the main hindrance for a faster market penetration of these tech-
nologies. Due to the harsh conditions of a maritime environment
the main cost drivers are a durable design, the installation of a
converter in a marine environment, accessibility for maintenance,
and the connection to the electric grid. This paper reports recent
efforts to cut down cost of tidal energy converters (TEC). The key
idea is utilizing scalable arrays of small prefabricated turbines of
low complexity. Special attention is given to the hydraulic design of
the turbine to maximize the energy output and - at the same time -
to minimize the forces exerted on the turbine by the flowing water
to reduce cost for the supporting structures.
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: nicholas.kaufmann@uni-siegen.de (N. Kaufmann).
Globally the periodically varying sea levels within the tidal cy-
cles and therefore the distribution of the tidal range (i.e. tidal rise
and fall) are known very accurately, HARDISTY [1]. However, the
prediction of the velocity of tidal induced currents (i.e. their kinetic
energy) as a function of tidal range is a challenge since no universal
correlation exists. Tidal currents result from a combination of the
tidal range and a specific topography such as bays or straits be-
tween islands. Other constraints such as economical (viability),
environmental (conservation) and technical (feasibility) exacerbate
the problem of a global technical resource estimate, HANNON et al.
[2]. Hence, to date the global potential of tidal current energy seems
impossible to be predicted from a practical viewpoint (CHARLIER
and FINKL [3]). However, in contrast to resources like ocean waves,
wind and solar radiation, tidal energy is more or less non-stochastic
and follows a well predictable periodic cycle. A reliable resource
characterization of a tidal site can be obtained within a short time.
As an example, we refer to a study commissioned by the Carbon
Trust in 2011 [4]. In its tidal current resource assessment in the
United Kingdom 30 most promising sites have been covered. A
technical resource of 10.3e30.0 TWh per year was identified which
equals 3%e8% of the 356.7 TWh of electric power demanded in the
United Kingdom in 2016 [5]. Interestingly, HARDISTY [1] showed

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2019.04.120
0960-1481/© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
452 N. Kaufmann et al. / Renewable Energy 142 (2019) 451e460

Nomenclature pref cavitation reference pressure [Pa]

pv vapor pressure [Pa]
A swept area of the turbine rotor [m2] r radius [m]
Cava availability rate of the tidal energy converter w weighting factor []
CCAPEX cost of investment during the life time [V] g pitch angle [ ]
COPEX,t annual operating expense [V] l tip speed ratio []
CP power coefficient [] r density [kg/m3]
Cp pressure coefficient [] s cavitation number []
CT thrust coefficient [] U angular velocity [rad/s]
Ji i-th objective function
Nh hours available within a year [h] Subscripts
P shaft power [W] crit critical value
Pel grid ready electrical power [W] hub at hub
Q torque [Nm] max maximum
T thrust [N] min minimum
U∞ inflow velocity far upstream [m/s] opt optimal operating point
Uref cavitation reference velocity [m/s] tip at blade tip
dtip rotor diameter [m]
f velocity frequency [] Abbreviations
g gravity [m/s2] AEP annual energy production
hhub hub immersion depth [m] BEM blade element momentum theory
l chord length [m] LCOE levelized costs of energy
n rotational speed [1/s] TEC tidal current energy converter
patm atmospheric pressure [Pa]

that due to the natural phase shift of the tidal cycles around the (“system complete and qualified”), but the comparably high cost is
United Kingdom, tidal current power plants at six selected sites the main hindrance for a faster market penetration. Thus, despite
could feed power to the grid at a relatively constant level. many similarities to the highly developed wind energy technology,
Wüstenhagen et al. [6] refer to three dimensions of social TECs are regarded to be in its infancy (i.e. MAGAGNA et al. [11],
acceptance of renewable energy innovation: (i) socio-political, (ii) HANNON et al. [2]).
community and (iii) market acceptance. Similarly to other renew-
able energy systems tidal current ocean energy projects are
affected by the socio-political and market acceptance. However, the
power density of tidal currents is two to three orders of magnitude 1.2. Cost of tidal current energy
larger as compared to wind resource for wind energy converters,
which enables to install smaller devices per unit power. Moreover, The major reason for the present economical disadvantages is
if a tidal energy converter is seabed mounted, the visibility would the harsh condition of a maritime environment. It requires an
be negligible. This could facilitate decisions by local stakeholders, extremely careful design of all components to minimize downtime
particularly residents and local authorities, i.e. the community and maintenance. The access to large seabed mounted units in-
acceptance. On the other hand, as summarized in a recent review volves high cost. In summary, the main cost drivers are
paper by UIHLEIN and MAGAGNA [7], the potential effects of tidal
energy converters include changes to the water flows, composition ▪ the durable design of the turbine
of substrate and sediment dynamics, mortality of fish passing ▪ the installation of the converter on the seabed or on a sub-
through turbines and the collision risk of marine mammals with merged or floating support structure
tidal stream farms, among others. In most current tidal energy ▪ access for maintenance
projects an environmental impact assessment is integrated and ▪ the electric connection.
considered to be an essential component. Some studies as e.g. by
FRID et al. [8] and LEWIS et al. [9] came to the conclusion that there In general, the levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) is the ratio of
is no evidence to date of harm from tidal current devices to marine life-time cost to energy yield:
life.
In essence, a tidal energy converter consists of an energy con- P
O
verting device, a supporting structure, and a connection to the CCAPEX þ COPEX;t
t
electric grid. Even though demonstrators of a combined installed LCOE≡ (1)
P
O
power of 17 MW proved the feasibility to produce electricity from AEPt
tidal currents using various principles for the energy conversion t

BRITO E MELO and JEFFREY [10], the favored technology has
converged towards horizontal axis free stream turbines. Approxi-
mately three-quarters of the companies in this industrial sector
concentrated on this type of device MAGAGNA et al. [11]. The
technology readiness level (TRL, according to the definition of the
European Union [12]) of the most mature systems ranges from 7
(“system prototype demonstration in relevant environment”) to 8
CCAPEX is the cost of investment during the life time, such as cost
of the TEC itself, the cost of its installation, the cost for feeding the
power into the grid as well as for decommissioning at the end of the
TEC’s life time. The total operating expense (OPEX) is the sum of all
cost COPEX,t emerging through operation and maintenance from the
beginning over O operating years. The annual energy production of
a TEC is
 N. Kaufmann et al. / Renewable Energy 142 (2019) 451e460 453

X
NB
AEPt ≡Nh Cava Pi fi : (2)
i¼1

Nh are the hours available within a year, Cava the availability rate
of the TEC during the year (Cava ¼ 1 corresponds to 100% availability
during the Nh hours). Pi is the power generated at the mean velocity
U∞,i in a velocity bin i of the velocity distribution, fi is the frequency
of U∞,i.
In 2016 MAGAGNA et al. [11] reported levelized cost of elec-
tricity LCOE of the current generation of TECs in a range between
540 V and 710 V per MWh. As compared to other renewable energy
technologies like onshore wind with 39.9e82.3 V/MWh and
offshore wind with 74.9e137.9 V/MWh in Germany - cp. KOST et al.
[13] - this is not yet competitive.
Although in the near future tidal stream energy might not
substitute the fossil fuels consumed currently in highly developed
areas, it can be an economical alternative at remote and suitable
sites. Feeding electricity into a local micro or isolated grid and
substituting conventional power systems like Diesel generators
cost can be competitive and environmental benefits are evident. As
an example, according to a report from the International Renewable
Energy Agency (IRENA 2015 [14]), the Philippines have approxi-
mately 375 MW of installed capacity in Diesel mini-grids, with a
LCOE from about 160 V/MWh to 2770 V/MWh - according to a Fig. 1. Seabed and surface platform mounted turbines in a tidal current. A large im-
report of the Philippine NATIONAL POWER CORPORATION from mersion depth hhub of the turbine to avoid cavitation is obtained either by seabed
2017 [15]. The operating capacity of an overwhelming number of mounting (critical with respect to accessibility) or platform mounting (requires a long
and expensive support arm).
these power plants is below 500 kW [14]. Nevertheless, in general
the LCOE from Diesel generators in micro grids depend largely on
the individual conditions and hence vary vastly. 2.2. Hydrodynamic rotor design

In this section we describe the methods used for the hydraulic

2. Design strategy for cost-effective tidal current energy turbine design.
converter

2.1. Increasing the market acceptance of a tidal energy converter

(TEC)
A novel strategy to decrease the cost of TECs and hence increase
their market acceptance is pursued as follows:
▪ Small turbines comprising a single turbine generator; rather
utilizing one large turbine, a number of those small pre-
fabricated turbines form an arbitrary scalable array of turbines
to adapt to different resources and support systems (“scaling
through quantity”).
▪ Modular concept: Replaceable turbine blades for the same drive
train for adaption to various semi-diurnal and annual tidal
current velocity profiles (and for easy maintenance).
▪ Reduction of turbine complexity by renunciation of a turbine
blade pitch mechanism; WILKINSON ET AL [16] investigated
more than 35,000 downtime events of 290 wind turbines and
found that pitch system failures are responsible for more than
20% of the overall downtime.
▪ Hydraulically optimized turbine blades for maximum energy
yield.
▪ Hydraulically optimized turbine blades for (i) minimum axial
thrust forces and (ii) low immersion depth hhub required by the
turbine to avoid cavitation, Fig. 1. Both measures target at
minimizing the cost of the supporting structures: The thrust
forces determine the effort to fix the TEC to the seabed via a
foundation or an anchoring system; a large immersion depth
hhub can only be achieved by seabed mounting - which is critical
with respect to accessibility -, or platform mounting with a long
and expensive support arm.
2.2.1. Non-dimensional turbine performance
Power, axial thrust and cavitation of a turbine are rated in terms
of the non-dimensional power and thrust characteristics.
- power coefficient
P
CP ≡ ; (3)
0:5rU 3∞ A
- thrust coefficient
Fax
CT ≡ : (4)
0:5rU 2∞ A
as a function of the tip speed ratio
rtip U
l≡ : (5)
U∞
P is the shaft power available from the turbine and Fax is the
thrust on the rotor. The tip speed ratio l is obtained from the inflow
velocity, the rotor diameter and its rotational speed n, rtipU ¼ p
dtipn; A ¼ p(dtip/2)2 is the swept area of the rotor and c0 the free
flow velocity far upstream of the turbine.
Cavitation, i.e. vaporization of liquid (here sea water), occurs
when the static pressure drops below the vapor pressure of the
water. In the case of a tidal turbine the pressure drop is caused by
the local acceleration of the fluid when it passes the blade surface.
Cavitation causes a loss of power, excessive noise emission and
erosion of the blade material through implosion of the vapor
bubbles. The cavitation number is defined as
454
pr  pv
s≡ : (6)
0:5rU 2ref
The fictitious flow velocity in the rotating frame of reference is
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 2ffi
Uref ;0:7 ≡ U 2∞ þ 0:7rtip U ¼ U∞ 1 þ ð0:7lÞ2
(fictitious, because c0 is not in the rotor plane but the free flow
velocity c0 far upstream). This is a customary choice e.g. by the
Potsdam Model Basin (Schiffbau-Versuchsanstalt Potsdam, SVA),
where model scale validation tests of the new turbines had been
carried out [17]. The reference pressure is chosen as
pref ¼ patm þ rghhub ;
where patm is the atmospheric pressure above water level, rghhub
the hydrostatic pressure at the immersion depth of the nacelle and
g the gravitational constant. Eventually one obtains a working
formula for the cavitation number
patm þ rghhub  pv
s0:7 ¼ 
2
:
0:5rU 2∞ 1 þ ð0:7lÞ
For each l, the value of s0.7 where cavitation inception is
observed, is called s0.7,crit. It is usually determined experimentally
in the cavitation tunnel by varying patm and presented schemati-
cally in the right diagram of Fig. 2. Fig. 2 also shows schematically
all other performance characteristics of a tidal turbine performance
in terms of the non-dimensional quantities.
In regular operation the controller of a variable-speed turbine
tries to adjust the rotational speed of the turbine such that it
operates at lopt, i.e. with its largest value of the power coefficient
CP,opt. However, to protect the drive train the power must be limited
to Prated. In case of a fixed pitch turbine the controller increases the
rotor speed and hence the tip speed ratio (overspeed) such that CP
decreases (cp. KAUFMANN et al. [18]). As a consequence, the rele-
vant operating range extends to higher tip speed ratios l > lopt. This
leads to conflicting rotor design targets for fixed-pitch turbines as
indicated in Fig. 2:
▪ maximizing CP at lopt to maximize the power output
▪ minimizing CT at the overspeed operating range l > lopt to
reduce the axial thrust force
▪ minimizing s0.7,crit at the overspeed operating range l > lopt to
enlarge the non-cavitating operating range
Most likely there is a trade-off between power output, thrust
Fig. 2. Non-dimensional turbine performance characteristics and design targets. a) Maximizing the power coefficient at the design point lopt; b) Minimizing the thrust coefficient at
overspeed, c) Minimizing the critical cavitation number at the relevant operating range (schematically).
N. Kaufmann et al. / Renewable Energy 142 (2019) 451e460
and non-cavitating operation range.
2.2.2. Turbine hydraulic design scheme
In order to maximize the energy yield of TECs using fixed-pitch
overspeed controlled horizontal axis tidal stream turbines an
optimization-based design methodology has been developed. Fig. 3
(7) shows a flow diagram of the complete design. The key ingredients
are
▪ a semi-analytical performance prediction model (blade element
momentum theory (BEM))
▪ a multi-optimization method (adaptive weighted sum
algorithm)
▪ a geometry selection method
(8)
To predict the performance characteristics including cavitation
inception of horizontal axis tidal turbines, an enhanced semi-
analytical model is used for the present work. A central compo-
nent is the well-known blade element momentum theory (BEM)
which is refined by various submodels for hydrofoil section lift and
drag. The model has been developed and validated by comparison
with comprehensive experimental data from two different tur-
(9)
bines. A detailed description of the model and its validation can be
found in KAUFMANN et al. [17]. Prior to this multi-objective opti-
mization, the hydrofoil shapes have been created via a second in-
dependent optimization similar to GRASSO [19].
Optimizing conflicting objectives results in a set of optimal so-
lutions rather than one single optimal blade geometry. A solution
set is called Pareto-optimal, if no objective of the set can be
improved without a degradation of at least one other objective (see
e.g. FONSECA and FLEMING [20]). Further information is needed,
such as specific restrictions, to identify the suitable optimal solu-
tion from the Pareto-set.
To initialize an optimization, rotor tip and hub diameter, inflow
velocity and specifications of the fixed blade parameters have to be
defined. Following the initialization, the adaptive weighted sum
algorithm (AWS) initiates a series of blade optimizations. Each
resulting blade geometry represents one optimal trade-off between
the conflicting design targets, e.g. one member of the Pareto-set. In
the present work, the optimized solutions represent compromises
between the non-dimensional turbine characteristics of power,
thrust and cavitation at intentionally chosen operating points. To
identify the rotor geometry providing the favorable compromise of
the design targets, the annual energy production for a given fre-
quency distribution of the inflow velocity is calculated for every
member of the Pareto-set. Therefore, the control strategy, re-
strictions given through drive train and support structure and a
velocity frequency distribution are taken into account.
 N. Kaufmann et al. / Renewable Energy 142 (2019) 451e460
a)
Initialization
Evolutionary Algorithm
Performance
Multi-Objective Optimization
BEM Model:
Performance Prediction
Pareto-optimal geometries
Turbine
specifications
Geometry
Selection
Velocity
Blade Design
Distribution
Fig. 3. a) Complete design scheme based on a semi-analytical performance prediction model, embedded in a multi-objective optimization algorithm. b) Optimization parameter
chord length l and twist angle g at a blade cross section (schematically).
The parameters to be varied within the multi-objective opti-
mization are the blade spanwise chord length and twist angle
distributions l(r) and g(r), respectively, cp. Fig. 3. For structural
reasons the maximum thicknesses of the hydrofoil sections were
fixed to 30% of the chord length at the hub and tapered to 13.7% at
the tip. For the hub part (r/rtip < 0.5), the hydrofoil shapes have been
optimized to provide a maximum lift to drag ratio within the ex-
pected operating range. For blade elements closer to the rotor tip,
the optimization also aimed at a reduction of the suction peaks to
enlarge the non-cavitating operating range.
Initially a design inflow velocity c0 is fixed. Each performance
characteristic is parameterized at two tip speed ratios l1 and l2. l1
is the design tip speed ratio for U∞ < U∞,rated, l2 an arbitrarily
chosen shape control parameter. The first objective function
becomes
J1 ≡CP ðl1 Þ;
that has to be maximized to find the highest possible CP at l1. It
should be mentioned, that l1 not necessarily equals lopt of the
resulting turbine due to the effect of the other objectives. The
second objective function l2 is
J2 ≡CT ðl2 Þ;
that has to be minimized in order to reduce the thrust in overspeed
operating points. Since cavitation should be avoided at any oper-
ating point, the third objective function, to be minimized as well, is
 
J3 ¼ s0:7;crit ≡0:5 s0:7;crit ðl1 Þ þ s0:7;crit ðl2 Þ :
The multi-objective problem is reduced to a scalar single
objective function Jws containing all information. Jws is formed by
multiplying the multiple objectives with a weighting factor and
finally summing up the resulting products:
X
K
Jws ¼ w1 J1 þ w2 J2 þ w3 J3  wPT PTi :
i¼1
wj are the weighting factors and constraints are included via K
penalty terms PTi. Through normalization, the objective space is
scaled into intervals between 0 and 1, i.e. max{Ji} ¼ 1 and min
455
b)
Set of Geometries
Control
Strategy
{Ji} ¼ 0 which allows an intuitive weighting from zero to one.
Setting the weighting factor of the penalty terms wPT ¼ 100 ensures
compliance with the constraints.
An evolutionary optimization algorithm is used to identify the
extrema of Jws. A detailed description of the code is given by
BAMBERGER [21]. The result of a single optimization represents one
Pareto-optimal solution depending on the chosen set of weight
factors. By varying the weight factors further members of the
Pareto-set are identified. Instead of an a priori chosen weight fac-
tors e leading to poor distribution of the Pareto-set - an adaptive
weighted-sum method (AWS) algorithm based on the work by KIM
and de WECK [22] varies the weighting factors to provide well
distributed Pareto-sets.
Based on the non-dimensional performance characteristics -
associated with each Pareto-optimal member - and the turbine
control strategy, the dimensional power and thrust as well as the
(10) minimal hub immersion depth hhub,min to avoid cavitation are
evaluated as a function of c0. This data base is used to identify
critical inflow velocities c0,brake at which the turbine has to be
stopped to prevent damages. Eventually, for a given annual velocity
frequency distribution, the power curve P(c0) associated with each
Pareto-optimal member yields the annual energy production AEP.
Finally, this Pareto-optimal member (i.e. this rotor geometry) that
(11) provides the highest AEP can be picked.
3. The family of tidal current turbines designed
Two nominal design inflow velocities which are typical for tidal
(12) currents have been chosen: c0 ¼ 3 m/s and 2 m/s. Results of the
design efforts are a 4 m and a 6.3 m diameter horizontal axis free
flow turbine with the same rated mechanical shaft and grid-ready
electrical power Prated ¼ 85 kW and Pel ¼ 70 kW, respectively. Fig. 4
shows the 4 m version. Eventually, with these two turbines a
large range of flow velocity resources can be harnessed. Special
attention was given to the hydraulic design of the turbine blades.
(13) The novel multi-objective optimizing scheme, described above, has
been developed targeting at the best compromise between
maximum power output, minimum thrust load and lowest im-
mersion depth for operation without cavitation. Prior to full-scale
manufacture and test, model-scale tests in a towing tank and
cavitation tunnel were carried out to validate the design,
456 N. Kaufmann et al. / Renewable Energy 142 (2019) 451e460
Fig. 4. CAD model of the 4 m horizontal axis free stream turbine (type SIT250 by
SCHOTTEL HYDRO, Germany).
KAUFMANN et al. [17].
The blades are made from fiber-reinforced composite. The
elasticity of these blades provides an additional load reduction at
very high inflow velocities (“passive-adaptive pitch”). A major
constraint is the omission of a blade pitch mechanism. A so called
“overspeed” strategy by the speed controller limits the power
output to rated power KAUFMANN et al. [18]. Nevertheless, a me-
chanical brake is added to stop the turbine. A two stage planetary
gearbox and an asynchronous generator complete the drive train.
The complete turbine is manufactured by SCHOTTEL HYDRO,
Germany.
3.1. The 6.3 m turbine rotor
As an example, the design of the dtip ¼ 6.3 m turbine rotor is
presented. The hub diameter is fixed to dhub ¼ 0.36 m. The design
inflow velocity is chosen as U∞ ¼ 2 m/s, the rated mechanical shaft
power Prated ¼ 85 kW. For the multi-objective optimization, the
a)
Fig. 5. Projections of the objective space and the objective values of the optimal and standard (reference) turbine.
design tip speed ratio was set to l1 ¼ 6 and the off-design point to
l2 ¼ 1.5l1 ¼ 9. The turbine is considered to be stopped at a maximal
critical rotor speed corresponding either to the maximum admitted
axial thrust force Tmax or the maximum torque Qbrake the me-
chanical brake can produce. A standard Weibull-distribution for the
annual inflow velocity was used as a generic velocity frequency
distribution and to identify that design which yields the highest
annual energy production (AEP). The thus obtained turbine is called
“optimal”.
Initialization of the optimization is done with a turbine design
utilizing the standard textbook method by GLAUERT and SCHMITZ
(see e.g. GERHARD and CAROLUS [23]). For that a design tip speed
ratio lD ¼ 6 was chosen. The same hydrofoils and blade segmen-
tation as for the optimization cases are used. The angle of attack to
each of the 19 blade elements along the span corresponds to the
maximum lift-to-drag ratio. Recall that GLAUERT and SCHMITZ’
method exclusively aims at a maximum power extraction from
each blade element. The turbine obtained is called “standard” and
serves also for comparison with the “optimal” design.
Fig. 5 shows the objective space of the Pareto-set as result of the
multi-objective optimization, projected to the CP-CT and CP-s0:7;crit
plane, respectively. While the objective space for three objectives is
in general a surface, in the CP-CT projection it collapses into a thin
band, implying that thrust reduction and cavitation avoidance can
be achieved through similar designs. The 2D view of the objective
space enables an evaluation of the trade-offs between the objec-
tives (CT and s0.7,crit) and the power coefficient CP. The steep slopes
close to the maximum of CP imply that accepting a slightly lower
power output offers a significant improvement of the other design
targets. Furthermore, the objective values of the rotor geometry
providing the highest AEP (“optimal design”) and the “standard
design” are indicated in Fig. 5. Since the objective space was
normalized for the optimization, the loci of the objective values in
Pareto-front reflect the set of the corresponding weighting factors
utilized.
Fig. 6 compares the predicted non-dimensional turbine perfor-
mance characteristics of the optimal and standard turbine.
Accepting a slightly reduced peak power (upper left) optimization
yields a turbine with a comparably very flat slope of CT as l is
increased. This was one of the crucial design targets for this fixed-
pitch turbine to reduce the axial thrust at overspeed. An even more
substantial benefit results from the optimization for the critical
cavitation number (left lower diagram.)
The effect of the optimization on the predicted turbine
b)
 N. Kaufmann et al. / Renewable Energy 142 (2019) 451e460
a)
b)
c)
Fig. 6. Turbine performance of the 6,3 m optimal and standard turbine. Left: power coefficient (a), thrust coefficient (b) and cavitation number (c); right: power output (d), thrust
load (e) and minimum immersion depth (f).
performance is seen in the right diagrams of Fig. 6. The predicted
power performance is nearly not affected by the design method
(right upper). The thrust load of the optimal design, however, is
reduced, hence the operating range of the turbine is substantially
enlarged (right middle). As a result, the annual energy production
for the generic velocity frequency distribution was raised by 26%
from 156.6 to 197.7 MWh. This corresponds to a predicted 21%
reduction of the cost of energy. Eventually, the optimal turbine
requires a significantly lower immersion depth compared to the
standard design.
3.2. Turbine performance validation at Falls of Lora in Western
Scotland
The 4 m turbine has been tested on a surface platform called
PLAT-I as depicted in Fig. 7. The 30 m
26 m trimaran design tar-
gets at minimizing the resistance while providing the required
stability. Four mooring lines are anchored to the seabed through
drilled rock anchors and emerge to a turret bearing at the bow of
the platform, Sustainable Marine Energy [24]. Through the
anchoring system the time and capital expenditure of the instal-
lation process are decreased as opposed to a gravity based foun-
dation, as CRESSWELL et al. [25] showed for a similar TEC system (£
90,000 instead of £ 900,000 and 6 days vs. 8 days). The turret
bearing allows the platform to passively align with the flow and
therefore supersede an active yaw mechanism known from modern
wind turbines. A standard container houses the control and power
457
d)
e)
f)
conversion system. Four turbines with 4 m rotor size were mounted
on rotating beams providing an easy accessibility of the turbines
above the surface of the sea. The overall rated electric power of the
complete platform is 280 kW. The platform has been designed and
built by Sustainable Marine Energy Ltd. in the United Kingdom.
The turbines and the platform have been tested near the Falls of
Lora in Western Scotland in the UK, cp. STARZMANN et al. [26]. The
main objective of the tests was the demonstration of the system’s
viability including commissioning, installation, operation, mainte-
nance and decommissioning as well as the validation of the turbine
performance. Here we focus on the turbine performance in term of
its power curve, i.e. its electrical output power as a function of the
measured inflow velocity provided by the tidal stream. The IEC/TS
62600-200:2013 (Electricity producing tidal energy converters -
Power performance assessment and characterization) [27] serves
as a guideline. Differently from the IEC the electromagnetic flow
velocity meter was installed at the platform and not on the seabed
since the platform swings to the tide. The power was measured at
the frequency converter, hence the losses caused by the drive train
(mainly gearbox and generator) are included. These losses are
quantified by an efficiency hDT ¼ 0.9 of the complete drive train. For
the tests the power output of the generator was limited to 70 kW.
The data of power and flow velocity were captured with a sampling
rate of 1 Hz.
Fig. 8 (a) shows the 1 Hz-raw data collected during 3 days and
the predicted steady-state turbine power curve. The scatter of the
measured data is considerable. It is attributed to the highly
458 N. Kaufmann et al. / Renewable Energy 142 (2019) 451e460

a)

b)

Fig. 7. Upper: CAD-model of the tidal energy converter system PLAT-I. Lower: Full scale tests near the Falls of Lora in Western Scotland, UK. (Courtesy: Sustainable Marine Energy
Ltd.)

unsteady and turbulent flow the platform faces at this test site at
Falls of Lora. Visual observations confirmed that large eddy-type
flow structures constantly approach the platform. The response of
the comparably small turbines is highly dynamic, i.e. the controller
constantly tries to adapt the rotor’s rotational speed to keep the
turbine operating at maximum power output. Moreover, the
controller correctly prevents the turbine from generating more
than 70 kW.
The IEC suggests a representation of turbine performance in
terms of a linear average of the power as a function of the cubic
mean (“power weighting”) of the inflow velocity. The data is
averaged over a time span Dt ¼ 120 s and sorted into bins similarly
as in eq. (2). The arithmetic averages of each bin are used to
determine the power curve in the right plot of Fig. 8. It is obvious
that those values fully coincide with the steady-state prediction.
This validated power curve is the prerequisite for reliably esti-
mating the revenue from such a turbine at any arbitrary site,
assuming that the resource characterization in terms of velocity
frequency is existent.
3.3. Case study: estimated energy yield from a TEC located at the
Minas Passage area of the Bay of Fundy (Canada)
Located in a region with high tidal ranges the narrow Minas
Passage area of the Bay of Fundy (Canada) provides numerous
promising deployment sites for TECs. Furthermore, in this region
the Canadian test center for in-stream tidal energy (FORCE)
currently offers the necessary infrastructure including a connection
 N. Kaufmann et al. / Renewable Energy 142 (2019) 451e460
a)
Fig. 8. Measured and predicted turbine power performance (4 m diameter turbine SIT250), mounted on the platform PLAT-I, located in the at Falls of Lora in Western Scotland, UK,
a): 1 Hz instantaneous data, b): Averaged according to IEC/TS 62600-200:2013 [27], see GOEBEL [28] and STARZMANN et al. [26].
to the public power grid. Hence, it is of interest to estimate the
power yield from the TEC described above placed on such a site.
The velocity frequency distribution used is public and shown in
Fig. 9. It has been derived from measurement data provided by the
Ocean Network Canada [29] and refers to a depth of 10 m below sea
level. For that a seabed mounted Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler
(ADCP) “Nortek AWAC 400 kHz 2226” [30] has been deployed in the
Black Rock Sound (latitude: 45 22.03230 longitude: 64 24.53740 ),
a sheltered area of the Minas Passage. The data was recorded from
29th January 2016 to the 12th of July 2016 with all larger recording
gaps being documented. The measured flow speeds were sorted
into bins of 0.05 m/s width.
Utilizing eq. (2) and considering the drive train efficiency of
hDT ¼ 0.9, the 6.3 m turbine promises an annual electric energy
production of 234.9 MWh. This is 24% higher than with the 4 m
Fig. 9. Frequency distribution of the flow velocity at 10 m below sea level in the Black
Rock Sound, Bay of Fundy, Canada [29,30]
459
b)
turbine (189.2 MWh). Thus, the 6.3 m turbine is the preferable
choice for the potential deployment site at this particular site.
However, solely increasing the diameter has its limitations. This
becomes clear when analyzing the annual energy production of the
6.3 m standard turbine, (i.e. textbook designed, cp. section 3.1). The
AEP ¼ 137.2 MWh of this 6.3 m standard turbine is 27.5% less than
the 189.2 MWh from the 4 m optimized turbine. This is due to the
fact that the standard turbine needs to be stopped at U∞ ¼ 2.2 m/s
since the maximum admitted axial thrust force Tmax is exceeded,
whereas the optimized turbine can operate up to U∞ ¼ 4.6 m/s. This
illustrates the value of the developed design method to maximize
the annual energy production of the turbine itself.
4. Conclusions
In order to reduce the levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) from
tidal energy systems one needs to increase the annual energy yield
or/and to decrease the cost per unit. The main cost drivers are the
durable design of the energy converter, here a free stream hori-
zontal axis turbine, its installation in the sea, accessibility for
maintenance and (preventive) maintenance and the electric
connection. The efforts described in this paper target on both, the
energy yield and the cost of investment and operation.
A 4 m and a 6.3 m diameter horizontal axis free flow turbine
with the same rated mechanical shaft and grid-ready electrical
power Prated ¼ 85 kW and Pel ¼ 70 kW have been designed. One
design target was to considerably reduce complexity as compared
to existing systems turbines. The blades are made from fiber-
reinforced composite and mounted with fixed pitch onto the hub.
Both blades are hydraulically design such they fit on the same drive
train, consisting of the electric generator, a gearbox and a me-
chanical break. A speed controller limits the power and hence
protects the drive train. For the hydraulic design of the turbines a
sophisticated novel multi-objective optimizing scheme has been
developed targeting at the best compromise between maximum
power output, minimum thrust load and lowest immersion depth
of the turbine for operation without cavitation. The latter aims at
low cost of the supporting structures when the turbine is placed on
a floating platform.
Four of the 4 m turbines were mounted on a new floating
460 N. Kaufmann et al. / Renewable Energy 142 (2019) 451e460
platform for sheltered inshore sites and tested for several months
in the tidal current existing near the Falls of Lora in Western
Scotland in the UK. The predicted performance of the turbines was
fully confirmed. The system also proved its low vulnerability since
in case of a single turbine failure the remaining turbines still
convert energy. This is one of the benefits of using an array of
several small turbines as compared to one single large turbine. In
the system tested each turbine was mounted on a revolving arm.
Due to their small weight the turbine can be easily lifted above sea
level for inspection or even replacement. It is worth noting that for
similar reasons this concept of scalable arrays of small pre-
fabricated turbines was used for example in the modern Ashta river
plant in Albania as well: Two dams are equipped with 45 small
propeller turbine-generator units each [31].
A frequently mentioned favorable site for tidal current energy
generation is the narrow Minas Passage area of the Bay of Fundy on
the Canadian east coast. The velocity frequency distribution has
been measured and published. The 6.3 m turbine promises an
annual electric energy production of 234.9 MWh.
Declaration of interest
We do not see any conflict of interest. The project has been
supported by the German Federal Government within the general
6. Framework Programme in Energy. Any project in this framework
is based on a link between at least one academic and one industrial
partner. A major requirement is publication of the results which is
for example done with this manuscript. The corresponding author
is Nicholas Kaufmann, who is currently compiling his PH.D. in the
field of tidal energy.
Author contributions
N. Kaufmann compiled the turbine design method, conducted
the hydraulic development of the turbines and evaluated the field
test data. R. Starzmann is the leader for the complete project. N.
Kaufmann and T. Carolus wrote the manuscript.
Acknowledgements
This work has been funded by the Federal Ministry for Economic
Affairs and Energy of Germany (BMWi) within the project TIDAL
POWER (FKZ 0325817B). Sustainable Marine Energy (SME) allow
the turbine tests providing the platform. Acoustic Doppler Current
Profiler (ADCP) data of the Black Rock Sound used in this work were
provided by Ocean Networks Canada.
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