BIOMEMBRANE

LECTURE 1
A biological membrane, biomembrane or cell
membrane is a selectively permeable membrane
that separates the interior of a cell from the
external environment or creates intracellular
compartments by serving as a boundary between
one part of the cell and another.
Biomembrane, in biology, the thin layer that forms
the outer boundary of a living cell or of an internal
cell compartment.
The outer boundary is the plasma membrane, and
the compartments enclosed by internal
membranes are called organelles.
 Types of Membranes
 Epithelial Membranes
 The epithelial membrane is composed of epithelium attached to a layer of
connective tissue, for example, your skin.
 The mucous membrane is also a composite of connective and epithelial
tissues.
 Sometimes called mucosae, these epithelial membranes line the body
cavities and hollow passageways that open to the external environment,
and include the digestive, respiratory, excretory, and reproductive tracts.
 Mucous, produced by the epithelial exocrine glands, covers the epithelial
layer.
 The underlying connective tissue, called the lamina propria (literally "own
layer"), help support the fragile epithelial layer.
 A serous membrane is an epithelial membrane. These membranes line the
coelomic cavities of the body, that is, those cavities that do not open to the
outside, and they cover the organs located within those cavities.
 They are essentially membranous bags, with mesothelium (epithelium from
the mesoderm) lining the inside and connective tissue on the outside.
 Serous fluid secreted by the cells of the thin squamous mesothelium
lubricates the membrane and reduces abrasion and friction between organs.
Serous membranes are identified according to locations.
 Three serous membranes line the thoracic cavity; the
two pleura that cover the lungs and the pericardium that
covers the heart.
 A fourth, the peritoneum, is the serous membrane in the
abdominal cavity that covers abdominal organs and forms
double sheets of connective tissue membranes called
mesenteries that suspend many of the digestive organs.
 The skin is an epithelial membrane also called
the cutaneous membrane. It is a stratified squamous
epithelial membrane resting on top of connective tissue.
 The apical surface of this membrane is exposed to the
external environment and is covered with dead,
keratinized cells that help protect the body from
desiccation and pathogens.
 Connective Tissue Membranes
 The connective tissue membrane is formed solely from
connective tissue.
 These membranes encapsulate organs, such as the kidneys,
and line our movable joints.
 A synovial membrane is a type of connective tissue
membrane that lines the cavity of a freely movable joint.
 For example, synovial membranes surround the joints of the
shoulder, elbow, and knee.
 Fibroblasts in the inner layer of the synovial membrane
release hyaluronan into the joint cavity.
 The hyaluronan effectively traps available water to form the
synovial fluid, a natural lubricant that enables the bones of a
joint to move freely against one another without much
friction.
 This synovial fluid readily exchanges water and nutrients
with blood, as do all body fluids.
Features of Membrane
 Biomembrane Functions
 Its function is to protect the integrity of the interior of the cell
by allowing certain substances into the cell while keeping
other substances out.
 It also serves as a base of attachment for the cytoskeleton in
some organisms and the cell wall in others.
 Thus the cell membrane also serves to help support the cell
and help maintain its shape.​
 Another function of the membrane is to regulate cell growth
through the balance of endocytosis and ​exocytosis.
 In endocytosis, lipids and proteins are removed from the cell
membrane as substances are internalized.
 In exocytosis, vesicles containing lipids and proteins fuse
with the cell membrane increasing cell size.
 Animal cells, plant cells, prokaryotic cells, and fungal
cells have plasma membranes. Internal organelles are also
encased by membranes.
Biological membranes have three primary
functions:
1) They keep toxic substances out of the cell;
2) They contain receptors and channels that allow
specific molecules, such as ions, nutrients, wastes,
and metabolic products, that mediate cellular and
extracellular activities to pass between organelles
and between the cell and the outside environment;
and
3) They separate vital but incompatible metabolic
processes conducted within organelles.
 Membrane Lipids

 The term lipid, derived from the Greek word lipos, meaning fat, is not a
chemical designation but an operational term for a variety of substances
that are not soluble in polar solvents such as water (recall that oil and
water do not mix) but will dissolve in nonpolar solvents such as benzene
and chloroform.
 This property occurs because the substances we call lipids contain
relatively long or complex COH (hydrocarbon) chains that are nonpolar
and thus hydrophobic.
 The main groups of compounds classified as lipids are triglycerides,
phospholipids, steroids, and waxes.
 Important storage lipids are the triglycerides, a category that includes fats
and oils.
 Triglycerides are composed of a single molecule of glycerol bound to
three fatty acids.
 Glycerol is a 3-carbon alcohol with three OH groups that serve as
binding sites.
 Fatty acids are long-chain unbranched hydrocarbon molecules with a
carboxyl group (COOH) at one end that is free to bind to the glycerol.
 The bond that forms between the OOH group and the OCOOH is
defined as an ester bond.
 The hydrocarbon portion of a fatty acid can vary in length from 4 to 24
carbons and, depending on the fat, it may be saturated or unsaturated.
 A saturated fatty acid has all of the carbons in the chain bonded to
hydrogens with single bonds.
 Fatty acids having at least one carbon—carbon double bond are
considered unsaturated.
 In most cells, triglycerides are stored in long-term concentrated form as
droplets or globules.
 Because a water molecule is
released at each ester bond, this
is another form of dehydration
synthesis.
 The jagged lines and R symbol
represent the hydrocarbon chains
of the fatty acids, which are
commonly very long.
Structural and three-dimensional
models of fatty acids and
triglycerides
 (1) A saturated fatty acid has
long, straight chains that readily
pack together and form solid
fats.
 (2) An unsaturated fatty acid—
here a polyunsaturated one with
3 double bonds—has bends in
the chain that prevent packing
and produce oils.
Membrane Lipids
 The phospholipids serve as a major structural component of
cell membranes.
 Although phospholipids also contain glycerol and fatty
acids, they differ significantly from triglycerides.
 Phospholipids contain only two fatty acids attached to the
glycerol, and the third glycerol binding site holds a
phosphate group.
 The phosphate is in turn bonded to an alcohol, which
varies from one phospholipid to another.
 This class of lipids has a hydrophilic region from the charge
on the phosphoric acid–alcohol “head” of the molecule and
a hydrophobic region that corresponds to the long,
uncharged “tail” (formed by the fatty acids).
 When exposed to an aqueous solution, the charged heads are
attracted to the water phase, and the nonpolar tails are
repelled from the water phase.
 This property causes lipids to naturally assume single and
double layers (bilayers), which contribute to their biological
significance in membranes.
 When two single layers of polar lipids come together to
form a double layer, the outer hydrophilic face of each
single layer will orient itself toward the solution, and the
hydrophobic portions will become immersed in the core of
the bilayer.
 The structure of lipid bilayers confers characteristics on
membranes such as selective permeability and fluid
nature.
Miscellaneous Lipids
 Steroids are complex ringed
compounds commonly found
in cell membranes.
 The best known of these is the
sterol (meaning a steroid with
an OH group) called
cholesterollaneous Lipids.
 Cholesterol reinforces the
structure of the cell membrane
in animal cells and in an
unusual group of cell-wall-
deficient bacteria called the
mycoplasmas.
 Bacteria that cause
tuberculosis and leprosy
produce a wax (wax D) that
contributes to their
pathogenicity.
 Phospholipids are a major component of cell membranes.
 Phospholipids form a lipid bilayer in which
their hydrophilic (attracted to water) head areas spontaneously
arrange to face the aqueous cytosol and the extracellular fluid, while
their hydrophobic (repelled by water) tail areas face away from the
cytosol and extracellular fluid.
 The lipid bilayer is semi-permeable, allowing only certain molecules
to diffuse across the membrane.
 Cholesterol is another lipid component of animal cell membranes.
Cholesterol molecules are selectively dispersed between membrane
phospholipids.
 This helps to keep cell membranes from becoming stiff by
preventing phospholipids from being too closely packed together.
 Cholesterol is not found in the membranes of plant cells.
 Glycolipids are located on cell membrane surfaces and have
a carbohydrate sugar chain attached to them.
 They help the cell to recognize other cells of the body.
 Membrane Protein

 Membrane proteins represent about a third of the proteins in living organisms.

 Based on their structure, there are main three types of membrane proteins:
 The first one is integral membrane protein that is permanently anchored or part of
the membrane,
 The second type is peripheral membrane protein that is only temporarily attached
to the lipid bilayer or to other integral proteins.
 The third one is lipid-anchored proteins.
 The cell membrane contains two types of associated proteins.
 Peripheral membrane proteins are exterior to and connected to
the membrane by interactions with other proteins.
 Integral membrane proteins are inserted into the membrane and
most pass through the membrane. Portions of these
transmembrane proteins are exposed on both sides of the
membrane. Cell membrane proteins have a number of different
functions.
 Structural proteins help to give the cell support and shape.
 Cell membrane receptor proteins help cells communicate with
their external environment through the use of hormones,
neurotransmitters, and other signaling molecules.
 Transport proteins, such as globular proteins, transport
molecules across cell membranes through facilitated diffusion.
 Glycoproteins have a carbohydrate chain attached to them. They
are embedded in the cell membrane and help in cell to cell
communications and molecule transport across the membrane.
 The membrane is represented in yellow.
1. A single transmembrane α-helix (bitopic membrane
protein).
2. A polytopic transmembrane α-helical protein.
3. A polytopic transmembrane β-sheet protein.
4. Interaction by an amphipathic α-helix parallel to the
membrane plane (in-plane membrane helix).
5. Interaction by a hydrophobic loop.
6. Interaction by a covalently bound membrane lipid.
7. Ionic or electrostatic interactions with membrane
lipids.

 According to their relationship with the bilayer, integral membrane protein

can be classified two primary types: integral polytopic proteins and
Integral monotopic proteins.
 Integral polytopic proteins are also known as “transmembrane proteins”
which can span across the membrane at least once (Fig. 2).
 These integral membrane proteins may have different transmembrane
topology which refers to orientations (locations of N- and C-termini) of
membrane-spanning segments with respect to the inner or outer sides of
the biological membrane occupied by the protein.
 The first three types in the Fig. 2 are common forms in integral
membrane proteins, such as, transmembrane α-helix protein,
transmembrane α-helical protein and transmembrane β-sheet protein.
 Integral monotopic proteins are one type of integral
membrane proteins that are attached to only one side of
the membrane and do not span the whole way across.
 There are 4 types of interaction between Integral
monotopic membrane protein and cell membranes:
 by an amphipathicα-helix paralle, by a hydrophobic
loop, by a covalently bound membrane lipid and
electrostatic or ionic interaction with membrane lipids
(No. 4, 5, 6,7 of Fig. 2).
 Integral membrane proteins can be separated from the
biological membranes only using detergents, nonpolar
solvents, or sometimes denaturing agents.
 Peripheral proteins dissociate following treatment with
a polar reagent, such as a solution with an
elevated pH or high salt concentrations.
 Function of Membrane Proteins
 Membrane proteins play crucial roles in all organisms, where they serve as, such as
membrane receptors, ion channels, GPCR (G protein–coupled receptors) and
various kinds of transport proteins.
 Membrane receptors that embedded in the cell membranes, which can transmit
signals between the cell’s internal and external environments. Membrane transport
protein (or transporter) is a kind of membrane protein that involved in the
movement of ions, small molecules, or macromolecules across a biological
membrane.
 About membrane transport protein, there is a detailed classification
called Transporter Classification Database (or TCDB) approved by International
Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology.
 Ion channels are one of most important type of membrane transport proteins.
 The functions of ion channel include establishing a resting membrane potential,
shaping action potentials and other electrical signals by gating the flow
of ions across the cell membrane, controlling the flow of ions
across secretory and epithelial cells, and regulating cell volume.
 Some enzymes are also membranes proteins, for example oxidoreductase,
transferase or hydrolase. Cell adhesion molecules that located on the cell
surface involved in binding with other cells or with the extracellular matrix (ECM),
allow cells to identify each other and interact.
 For example, proteins including Ig (immunoglobulin) superfamily involved
in immune response.
 Summarizes membrane protein functions
for easy to understand.
 Membrane Carbohydrate
 Carbohydrates are the third major component of plasma
membranes.
 They are always found on the exterior surface of cells and are
bound either to proteins (forming glycoproteins) or to lipids
(forming glycolipids).
 These carbohydrate chains may consist of 2–60
monosaccharide units and can be either straight or branched.
 Along with peripheral proteins, carbohydrates form
specialized sites on the cell surface that allow cells to
recognize each other (one of the core functional requirements
noted above in "cellular membranes").
 Cell membranes are selective barriers that separate individual
cells and cellular compartments.
 Membranes are assemblies of carbohydrates, proteins,
and lipids held together by binding forces.
 Carbohydrates are covalently linked to proteins
(glycoproteins) or lipids (glycolipids) and also an
important part of cell membranes, and function as
adhesion and address loci for cells.
 The Fluid Mosaic Model describes membranes as a
fluid lipid bilayer with floating proteins and
carbohydrates.
 Membrane carbohydrates are chemically bound
to glycolipids and glycoproteins.
 However, some membrane carbohydrates are part
of proteoglycans that insert their amino acid chain
among the lipid fatty acids.
 Although some carbohydrates can be found associated
with intracellular membranes, most of them are
located in the outer monolayer of the plasma
membrane, facing the extracellular space.
 Membrane Carbohydrate Types
 Carbohydrate groups are present only on the outer
surface of the plasma membrane and are attached to
proteins, forming glycoproteins, or lipids,
forming glycolipids.
 Glycoproteins
 Most of the membrane carbohydrates are found linked
to proteins, known as glycoproteins.
 Nearly all the membrane proteins have carbohydrates.
 In the glycoproteins, the majority of the molecule
consist of proteins; they have one or more
oligosaccharides attached to a protein, and they usually
are branched and do not have serial repeats, so they are
rich in information, forming highly specific sites for
recognition and high-affinity binding by other proteins.
 As in glycolipids, the sugar residues are added in
the lumen of the ER and Golgi apparatus.
 For this reason, the oligosaccharide chains are always
present on the non-cytosolic side of the membrane.
 The sugars can be attached to a protein in two
locations in the cell, the endoplasmic reticulum,
which produces N-linked sugars, and the Golgi
apparatus, which produces O-linked sugars.
 The N-linked glycoproteins have a sugar attached to a
nitrogen atom, and O-linked glycoproteins have a
sugar attached to an oxygen atom.
 The different structure of N- and O-linked sugars give
them different functions.
 Membrane-bound glycoproteins participate in a wide
range of cellular phenomena, including cell
recognition, cell surface antigenicity, etc.
 Glycolipids
 Glycolipids are membrane lipids in which the hydrophilic head groups are
oligosaccharides.
 Three types of glycolipids are found in membranes: glycosphingolipids, which
are the most abundant in the animal cells, glycoglycerolipids, and
glycophosphatidylinositol. Glycoglycerolipids are more frequent in the plasma
membrane of plant cells.
 Only 5 % of lipids in membranes are glycolipids.
 As in glycoproteins, glycolipids act as specific sites for recognition by
carbohydrate-binding proteins.
 Proteoglycans
 Polysaccharide chains of an integral membrane are called as proteoglycan
molecules.
 Proteoglycans, which consist of long polysaccharide chains linked covalently to
a protein core, are found mainly outside the cell as part of the extracellular
matrix.
 But for some proteoglycans, the protein core either extends across the lipid
bilayer or is attached to the bilayer by a glycosylphosphotidylinositol (GPI)
anchor.
 Functions of Membrane Proteins
 Carbohydrates present in the plasma membrane as short sometimes branched
chains of sugars attached either to exterior peripheral proteins (forming
glycoproteins) or to the polar ends of phospholipid molecules in the outer lipid
layer (forming glycolipids).
 Carbohydrate chains may consist of 2-60 monosaccharide units and can be either
straight or branched.
 The oligosaccharide chains of membrane glycoproteins and glycolipids are
formed by various combinations of six principal sugars D-galactose, D-mannose,
L-fucose, N-acetylneuraminic acid (also called sialic acid), N-acetyl-D-
glucosamine, and N-acetyl-D- galactosamine. All of these may be derived from
glucose.
 The oligosaccharide side chains of glycoproteins and glycolipids are enormously
diverse in their arrangement of sugars.
 Although they usually contain fewer than 15 sugars, they are often branched, and
the sugars can be bonded together by a variety of covalent linkages—unlike the
amino acids in a polypeptide chain, which are all linked by identical peptide
bonds.
 Even three sugars can be put together to form hundreds of different
trisaccharides.
 In principle, both the diversity and the exposed position of the oligosaccharides
on the cell surface make them especially well-suited to a function in specific cell-
recognition processes.