Food Hydrocolloids 23 (2009) 700–707

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Food Hydrocolloids
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodhyd

Effect of hydrocolloids and emulsifiers on the rheological, microstructural

and quality characteristics of eggless cake
A. Ashwini, R. Jyotsna, D. Indrani*
Flour Milling, Baking and Confectionery Technology Department, Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore 570020, Karnataka, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Effect of hydrocolloids like Arabic (AR), guar (GR), xanthan (XN), carrageenan (CG) and hydrox-
Received 9 August 2007 ypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC) in combination with emulsifiers such as glycerol monostearate (GMS)
Accepted 6 June 2008 and sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate (SSL) on the rheological, microstructural and quality characteristics of
eggless cake was studied. Addition of GR to wheat flour in the presence of SSL increased peak viscosity,
Keywords: while in the presence of GMS all hydrocolloids excepting XN increased the peak viscosity. The set back
Eggless cake value decreased with the addition of hydrocolloids. Addition of hydrocolloids to wheat flour as well as in
Gums
the presence of GMS and SSL increased the eggless cake batter viscosity, specific gravity, and XN showed
Hydrocolloids
Rheology
the highest value. Among different hydrocolloids tried, only HPMC improved the eggless cake making
Microstructure characteristics of wheat flour. Use of HPMC increased the overall quality score of eggless cake with GMS
Sensory evaluation to the maximum extent followed in decreasing order by CG and XN. Addition of all the hydrocolloids
increased the overall quality of eggless cake with SSL and highest improvement was brought about by
HPMC. Microstructure studies of eggless cake crumb with hydrocolloids showed that the starch granules
appeared wrapped by XN and HPMC. In eggless cake with combination of HPMC and SSL the protein
matrix appeared more uniform.
Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
In cake making, wheat flour, eggs, sugar and fat are the major
ingredients. Among different ingredients used in cake making, eggs
are the most costly ingredients and significant source of choles-
terol. The use of vegetable proteins for partial or total substitution
of eggs in cake formulations appears, therefore, to be an interesting
objective, and especially so for the people with specific dietary
needs or restrictions (vegans, vegetarians, high cholesterol people,
etc.). The almost unique foaming, emulsifying, and heat coagulation
properties of egg proteins confer them a very important functional
role in the definition of cake characteristics, namely volume and
texture. This makes it extremely difficult to replace eggs success-
fully by a different source of proteins, even by the use of several
types of additives, such as hydrocolloids, in cakes (Arozarena,
Bertholo, Empis, Bunger, & Sousa, 2001).
Johnson, Havel, and Hoseney (1979) reported that freshly pro-
cessed bovine blood plasma was effective in replacing all egg white
or whole egg in high ratio layer cakes. Lee, Johnson, Love, and
Johnson (1991) in their study stated that the use of fresh, frozen and
spray-dried bovine plasma could replace egg whites in high ratio,
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ91 821 2517730; fax: þ91 821 2517233.
E-mail address: dindrani@yahoo.com (D. Indrani).
white layer cakes resulting in cakes with similar volume, texture
and appearance. Replacement of 1.0 part of egg white protein with
1.1 part of plasma protein gave cakes of equivalent quality.
A blend of hydrolysed plasma and beef stock could replace 50%
of the egg in devils food cake without affecting symmetry or
shrinkage and with only a slight decrease in volume (Lee, Love, &
Johnson, 1993). Soy flour has been used to partially replace eggs in
sugar cookies, fancy muffins, lean muffins, chocolate cake and
pancake (Glibertson & Porter, 2001). Arozarena et al. (2001) ana-
lyzed the possibility of total substitution of egg proteins in small
ratio yellow cakes with use of optimum leavening agent, emulsi-
fiers, and xanthan gum levels in this system. Miller and Setser
(1983) suggested the use of xanthan gum to partially replace egg
white content in cakes.
Miller and Hoseney (1993) showed that the cakes obtained after
the inclusion of xanthan gum in the batter formulation showed
similar or better characteristics, in terms of volume, height and
shrinkage, than those of the control cakes. The reasons for replacing
egg with hydrocolloids and emulsifiers are related to their func-
tional properties. Hydrocolloids have good functional attributes
such as water binding, viscosity, foaming, emulsifying, gelling,
solubility and textural improvement while emulsifiers are known
for their crumb softening and antistaling effect.
The objective of this study was to determine the effect of hy-
drocolloids and emulsifiers on the rheological, microstructural and

0268-005X/$ – see front matter Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.foodhyd.2008.06.002
 A. Ashwini et al. / Food Hydrocolloids 23 (2009) 700–707
quality characteristics of eggless cake. The results of the studies will
be useful in identifying the hydrocolloids and emulsifiers for im-
proving the characteristics of eggless cake.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Wheat flour
Commercial wheat flour obtained from the local market was
used for the studies. The characteristics of the flour such as mois-
ture, ash, dry gluten, falling number, Zeleny’s sedimentation value
were determined using American Association of Cereal Chemists
(2000) methods.
2.2. Hydrocolloids
Arabic (AR) [EC 232 – 519-5], xanthan (XN) [EC 234 – 394-2],
guar gum (GR) [EC 232 – 536-8], carrageenan (CG) [EC 232 – 524-2]
were procured from Sigma Chemicals, Bangalore, India and
hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC) [Methocel – K4M] was from
Dow Chemical International Pvt. Ltd, Mumbai, India.
2.3. Emulsifiers
Glycerol monostearate (GMS) and sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate
(SSL) were procured from Biocon India Pvt. Ltd, Bangalore, India.
2.4. Ingredients
Sugar powder procured from the local market, shortening
(Margarine, Hindustan Lever Ltd., Mumbai, India), baking powders
(single and slow acting type, acid source sodium aluminium sulfate,
Hindustan Lever Ltd.), salt, calcium propionate, glacial acetic acid
(S.D. Fine Chem Ltd., Mumbai, India), and pineapple essence (Bush
Boake Allen Ltd., Chennai, India) were used in these studies.
2.5. Preparation of emulsifier gel
Gels were prepared using emulsifier and water in the ratio of
1:4. First dispersions were made and then dispersions under con-
tinuous agitation were heated to a temperature of 65  C for GMS
and 45  C for SSL. On cooling gels were obtained. For all the ex-
periments the gels were added in order that there was 0.5%
emulsifier on wheat flour basis.
2.6. Rheological characteristics
Effect of AR, XN, GR, CG, and HPMC separately and in combi-
nation with GMS and SSL at the level of 0.5% on amylograph
characteristics of wheat flour was studied in triplicate according to
AACC method (22-10) using Micro-Visco amylograph (Model
803201, Brabender, Germany) equipped with 300 cmg sensitivity
cartridge. The conditions of the test were as follows: wheat flour
(g) – 15; emulsifier (g) – 0.5; hydrocolloids (g) – 0.5; water addition
(mL) – 100; heating rate ( C/min) – 7.5; temperature profile 30–
92  C; speed (min1) – 250.
2.7. Cake formulation
The following formulation for the preparation of eggless cake
was used: wheat flour (g) – 100; shortening (g) – 25; sugar powder
(g) – 80; salt (g) – 0.25; baking powder (g) – 5.0; pineapple essence
(mL) – 0.40; calcium propionate (g) – 0.3; glacial acetic acid (mL) –
0.1; water (mL) – 115; hydrocolloids: AR/XN/GR/CG/HPMC (g) – 0.5
and emulsifier GMS/SSL (g) – 0.5. Wheat flour, salt, baking powder,
hydrocolloid and calcium propionate were sifted thrice, and sugar
701
powder, margarine and essence were creamed for 1 min at 112 rpm
and 5 min at 173 rpm in a Hobart N-50 mixer (Ontario, Canada).
Fifty milliliters of water and emulsifier gel were added and mixture
was whipped for 1 min at 112 rpm and 2 min at 173 rpm. Finally
flour and remaining water were added, mixed at 58 rpm for 1 min,
112 rpm for 1 min and at 173 rpm for 2 min until homogeneous.
The batter temperature was 28  C. Eggless cake batter (450 g) was
transferred into a cake pan and baked at 200  C for 60 min using
the oven (APV, Queensland, Australia).
2.8. Batter specific gravity
Specific gravity of eggless cake batter at (28  2  C) was calcu-
lated by dividing the weight of a standard measure of the batter by
the weight of an equal volume of water.
2.9. Batter viscosity
The viscosity of eggless cake batter was determined using
a Brookfield viscometer (Model DV-III, Stoughton, MA, USA)
according to Kim and Walker (1992), with slight modifications.
Cake batter was transferred to a 100 g beaker and leveled upto the
brim. The spindle speed was set to 20 rpm and spindle no. 7 was
used for all experiments. The experiment was run at room tem-
perature (28  2  C). Viscosity was measured immediately.
2.10. Measurement of physical and sensory characteristics of
eggless cake
2.10.1. Eggless cake volume
Cake volume was measured by the rapeseed displacement
method (Chopin, S.A., France).
2.10.2. Eggless cake texture
Eggless cake crumb firmness was measured using a texture
analyzer (Model TAHDI, Stable Microsystem, Surrey, UK). The force
required for 25% compression was recorded using the following
conditions: sample thickness 1 inch; load cell 5 kg, cross-head
speed 100 mm/min, and plunger diameter 35 mm (American As-
sociation of Cereal Chemists, 2000). The values reported are the
average of four readings.
2.10.3. Scanning electron microscopic studies
SEM studies were carried out using Leo scanning electron mi-
croscope Model 435 VP (Leo Electronic Systems, Cambridge, UK)
according to the method of Prabhasankar, Indrani, Jyotsna, and
Venkateswara Rao (2003). Eggless cake samples (size 20  20 mm)
were defatted with hexane, followed by freeze-drying using Heto
freeze-dryer Model DW3 (Allerod, Denmark). The freeze-dried
samples were kept in a desiccator until further use. Eggless cake
samples were separately placed on the sample holder with the help
of a double sided scotch tape and sputter-coated with gold (2 min,
2 mbar). Finally, each sample was transferred to the microscope
where it was observed at 15 kV and 9.75  105 torr vacuum.
2.10.4. Sensory evaluation of eggless cake
Scorecard for evaluation of eggless cake was prepared based on
the preliminary evaluation of eggless cake by the experienced
judges. The parameters like crust color, crust shape, crumb color,
crumb grain size, and thickness of cell wall were evaluated for
maximum score of 10, while parameters like crumb grain size,
texture and mouthfeel which were considered very significant for
eggless cake were evaluated for the maximum score of 20. Sensory
evaluation of cake samples was carried out by assigning scores for
above parameters as follows: crust color: 1 ¼ dull brown,
10 ¼ golden brown; crust shape: 1 ¼ flat, uneven, 10 ¼ normal;
702 A. Ashwini et al. / Food Hydrocolloids 23 (2009) 700–707

crumb color: 1 ¼ dull, 10 ¼ bright white; crumb grain size: 1 ¼ very HYDROCOLLOIDS
A
coarse, 20 ¼ very fine; thickness of cell wall: 1 ¼ very thick cell wall, 1250 600

PV (BU); CPV (BU)

BD (BU); SB (BU)
10 ¼ thin cell wall; texture: 1 ¼ very firm, 20 ¼ very soft; mouthfeel:
1 ¼ gummy/dry, 20 ¼ no residue in mouth. The overall quality score 1000
was taken as the combined score of seven quality attributes. 400
750
2.11. Statistical analysis
500 200
Data were statistically analyzed by using ANOVA with six ex- Control AR XN GR CG HPMC
perimental groups appropriate to the completely randomized de- Hydrocolloids (%)
sign with four replicates each. The experimental groups were then
PV (BU) CPV (BU) BD (BU) SB (BU)
separated statistically using Duncan’s new multiple range tests, as
described by Steel and Torrie (1960).
B HYDROCOLLOIDS + GMS
3. Results and discussion 1400 600

PV (BU); CPV (BU)

BD (BU); SB (BU)
3.1. Quality of wheat flour
1000 400
The wheat flour used contained 0.5% ash and 9.7% dry gluten.
Falling number was 480 s and sedimentation value 24 mL. The
above characteristics indicate that the wheat flour selected for the
studies was of medium strong quality. 600 200
Control AR XN GR CG HPMC
Hydrocolloids (%)
3.2. Effect of hydrocolloids on the amylograph characteristics of
wheat flour PV (BU) CPV (BU) BD (BU) SB (BU)

Effect of Arabic (AR), xanthan (XN), guar (GR), carrageenan (CG)

C HYDROCOLLOIDS + SSL
and hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC) separately at the level 1400 600
PV (BU); CPV (BU)

of 0.5% on the amylograph characteristics of wheat flour is shown in

BD (BU); SB (BU)
Fig. 1A. Generally, addition of hydrocolloids decreased the pasting
temperature. According to Christianson, Hodge, Osborne, and
Detroy (1981) the early onset of initial viscosity is attributed to 1000 400
detection of the first stage of swelling and is dependent on media
viscosity. Rojas, Rosell, and Barber (1999) also reported that xan-
than, k-carrageenan and alginate decreased pasting temperature.
Addition of hydrocolloids influenced the maximum viscosity of 600 200
Control AR XN GR CG HPMC
wheat flour suspension. Guar gum increased the peak viscosity
Hydrocolloids (%)
from 975 to 1050 BU and all other hydrocolloids decreased it from
975 to 825–965 BU. Increase in the maximum viscosity has been PV (BU) CPV (BU) BD (BU) SB (BU)

previously observed with the addition of galactomannans like guar

gum (Alloncle, Lefebvre, Llamas, & Doublier, 1989; Christianson
et al., 1981). Alloncle et al. (1989) viewing starch pastes as sus-
pensions of swollen granules dispersed in a continuous macro-
molecular medium stated that the hydrocolloid (galactomannan) is
present only in the continuous phase of the medium, and as longer
the starch granules swell the concentration of the hydrocolloid
within the continuous phase increases leading to a substantial in-
crease in viscosity of this phase. With other hydrocolloids it may be
assumed that the decrease in peak viscosity is caused by a reduced
amylose leaching prevailed over the increase in viscosity due to
gums present in the continuous phase (Funami et al., 2005). The
cold paste viscosity when compared to control (1173 BU) decreased
with XN (917 BU), AR (1014 BU), GR (1050 BU), and CG (1073 BU)
and remained unaltered with HPMC. According to Christianson
et al. (1981), gums affect gelatinization and retrogradation of starch
through strong association of amylose with gum, resulting in a de-
crease in the retrogradation of starch. Also the hydrocolloids im-
proved the water holding capacity of starch aqueous system,
suggesting that the control of water dynamics should be one of the
important factors to prevent the retrogradation of starch (Funami
et al., 2005). The breakdown values increased only with the addi-
tion of GR from 354 to 401 BU and all other hydrocolloids decreased
it from 354 to 336–287 BU. According to Lee, Baek, Cha, Park, and
Lim (2002) the increase in breakdown is due to the starch granules
becoming less resistant to thermal treatment and mechanical
shearing which means the morphological changes of the starch
Fig. 1. Effect of hydrocolloids and glycerol monostearate (GMS)/sodium steoryl-2-
lactylate (SSL) on the amylograph characteristics of wheat flour. AR – Arabic;
XN – xanthan; GR – guar; CG – carrageenan; HPMC – hydroxypropylmethylcellulose.
PV – peak viscosity; CPV – cold paste viscosity; BD – breakdown; SB – set back.
granules, involving a radial expansion of the granules to rupture,
were altered by the interaction with hydrocolloids. The set back
values representing the easiness of cooking and tendency to ret-
rograde were noticeably influenced by hydrocolloids. It was ob-
served that AR, XN, GR and CG significantly decreased the set back
values from 552 to 505–349 BU while HPMC showed only marginal
decrease indicating the use of AR, XN, GR and CG would be bene-
ficial as antistaling agents in the eggless cake making process.
3.3. Effect of hydrocolloids and emulsifier on the amylograph
characteristics of wheat flour
3.3.1. Effect of hydrocolloids and glycerol monostearate (GMS)
Use of XN decreased the pasting temperature from 62.3 to
58.1  C, GR (61.1  C), CG (61.8  C) and HPMC increased it to 62.8  C.
The peak viscosity of wheat flour with GMS was 914 BU and it in-
creased with AR (954 BU), GR (1044 BU), CG (991 BU), and HPMC
(969 BU) while XN decreased it to 889 BU (Fig. 1B). The cold paste
viscosity noticeably increased with GR from 1130 to 1224 BU, de-
creased marginally with AR, XN, CG from 1130 to 1074, 1116,
1103 BU, respectively, and increased with HPMC (1142 BU). In the
 A. Ashwini et al. / Food Hydrocolloids 23 (2009) 700–707 703

presence of GMS, the breakdown and set back values decreased
with hydrocolloids, XN showed the least breakdown value (283 BU)
against the control (320 BU) and CG showed the lowest set back
value (396 BU) when compared to control (536 BU).
3.3.2. Effect of hydrocolloids and sodium steoryl-2-lactylate (SSL)
Influence of hydrocolloids on the amylograph characteristics of
wheat flour with SSL is presented in Fig. 1C. The results showed that
addition of AR increased pasting temperature from 61.8 to 62.9  C
and CG (63.9  C) while XN and GR decreased it. Among different
hydrocolloids, addition of only GR caused an increase in the peak
viscosity from 1037 to 1089 BU and all other hydrocolloids de-
creased it to 993–941 BU. The cold paste viscosity of wheat flour
with SSL was 1179 BU and it increased to 1219 BU with XN and GR
(1204 BU) while addition of CG and HPMC decreased it to 1126 and
1130 BU, respectively. The breakdown values decreased with ad-
dition of AR, XN, CG and HPMC. The set back values noticeably
increased from 461 to 522 and 517 BU with AR and XN, respectively,
while GR and HPMC showed only marginal decrease.
3.4. Eggless cake making characteristics
3.4.1. Effect of hydrocolloids
Effect of incorporating hydrocolloids (AR, XN, GR, CG and HPMC)
on physical characteristics of eggless cake is presented in Table 1.
The presence of hydrocolloids increased the batter viscosity at
ambient temperature over the control value from 20,000 to
24,200–46,400 Cp. Among different hydrocolloids XN showed the
highest batter viscosity of 46,400 Cp followed by GR (38,400 Cp),
HPMC (35,200 Cp), CG (33,600 Cp) and AR (24,200 Cp), re-
spectively. This result may be due to xanthan’s unique, rod-like
conformation, which is more responsive to shear than a random-
coil conformation (Urlacher & Noble, 1997). The specific gravity of
batter is a very important physical property since it represents re-
tain of the small bubbles, which are initially incorporated into the
batter during mixing time, lower specific gravity is desired in cake
batter since it indicates that more air is incorporated into the batter.
Table 1 shows the specific gravity of the cake batter with different
hydrocolloids. Control batter had a specific gravity of 1.027 g/cc
whereas batter-containing hydrocolloids such as AR, XN, GR, CG
and HPMC had a batter specific gravity of 1.036, 1.039, 1.048, 1.068
and 1.043 g/cc, respectively. This indicates that batter with hydro-
colloids was heavier and lacks the proper aeration. Among different
hydrocolloids tried, only addition of HPMC increased the volume
from 730 to 760 cm3/450 g, AR and XN did not show any im-
provement in the volume while GR and CG decreased it. This may
be explained by the difference in the dielectric properties of dif-
ferent hydrocolloids (Datta, Sumnu, & Raghavan, 2005). According
to Gomez, Ronda, Caballero, Blanco, and Rosell (2006), the in-
fluence of hydrocolloids on the final cake volume is due to increase
in batter viscosity that slows down the rate of gas diffusion and
allows its retention during the early stages of baking. Shelke, Fau-
bion, and Hoseney (1990) suggested that lower viscosity of the
batter during heating is one of the reasons for decreased end
product volume. It is possible that, in the presence of a less viscous
batter, carbon dioxide evolved and water vapor produced might not
be trapped in the air cells during baking, thus resulting in the cakes
with low volume. The influence of hydrocolloids on the texture of
eggless cake can be observed in Table 1. The presence of HPMC and
AR decreased the firmness value from 740 to 680 and 700 g in-
dicating improvement in the texture of cake. Addition of XN, GR
and CG increased the firmness value showing adverse effect of
them on the texture of cakes. According to Bell (1990), HPMC forms
interfacial films at the boundaries of the gas cells that confer some
stability to the cells against the gas expansion and processing
condition changes. A significant difference was observed in the
moisture content when hydrocolloids excepting AR were added,
highest moisture content was observed in the case of HPMC (33.6%)
followed by GR (33.0%), CG (32.6%) and XN (32.5%). The increase in
the moisture content in eggless cake with HPMC, GR, CG and XN is
explained by the ability of hydrocolloids to hydrate at room tem-
perature, and its self-interactions without competing with gluten
proteins and starchy polysaccharides for the water available in the
system (Leon et al., 2000).
Sensory evaluation of eggless cakes with different hydrocolloids
(Table 2) showed that the use of HPMC improved the crumb color,
crumb grain size, thickness of cell wall, texture, mouthfeel and
overall quality of eggless cake. This is reflected in the increase in the
overall quality score from 65 to 75. Addition of AR and XN did not
show any improvement in the characteristics of eggless cakes while
GR and CG decreased it. The above results indicate that among
different hydrocolloids tried, only HPMC improved the quality of
eggless cake.
3.4.2. Effect of hydrocolloids and glycerol monostearate (GMS)
Effect of hydrocolloids on the physical characteristics of cake
with GMS is presented in Table 3. The results showed that addition
of hydrocolloids increased the viscosity of cake batter with GMS,
highest increase in the viscosity was observed with XN (51,200 Cp)
followed by GR (40,000 Cp), CG (32,000 Cp), AR (30,400 Cp) and
HPMC (28,800 Cp) against the control with GMS (25,600 Cp).
However, hydrocolloids like AR, XN and GR when compared to
control without any GMS (Table 1) increased the viscosity while CR
and HPMC decreased it. The increase in viscosity as explained by
Turabi, Sumnu, and Sahin (2008) might be due to the synergistic

Table 2
Table 1 Effect of hydrocolloids on the sensory characteristicsa of eggless cake
Effect of hydrocolloids on the physical characteristicsa of eggless cake
Parameters CON AR XN GR CG HPMC SEMb ()
HC (0.5%) Batter Batter specific Moisture Volume Crumb firmnessb Crust color (10) 8b 7.5a 8b 7a 7a 8.5c 0.05
viscosity gravity (g/cc) (%) (cm3/450 g (force, g) Crust shape (10) 7ab 7.5ab 8c 6a 6a 8c 0.04
(Cp) of batter) Crumb color (10) 7.5bc 7b 7b 6a 6a 8.5c 0.03
Control 20,000a 1.027a 30.3a 730c 740b Crumb grain 12.5b 12b 14c 9a 9a 15.5d 0.15
AR 24,200b 1.036b 30.5a 725c 700b size (20)
XN 46,400f 1.039c 32.5b 735c 790c Thickness of 7.5b 7b 7b 6a 6a 8.5c 0.15
GR 38,400e 1.048e 33.0b 580b 1300d wall (10)
CG 33,600c 1.068f 32.6b 500a 1400e Texture (20) 11.5d 12d 10c 8b 7a 13e 0.20
HPMC 35,200d 1.043d 33.6b 760d 680a Mouthfeel (20) 11c 11c 12d 10b 9a 13e 0.25
SEMc () 4.5 0.001 0.15 15 10 Overall quality 65b 64b 66b 52a 50a 75c 0.40
score (100)
HC, hydrocolloids; AR, Arabic; XN, xanthan; GR, guar; CG, carrageenan; HPMC,
hydroxypropylmethylcellulose. CON, control; AR, Arabic; XN, xanthan; GR, guar; CG, carrageenan; HPMC,
a
Means in the same column followed by different letters differ significantly hydroxypropylmethylcellulose.
a
(p  0.05). Means in the same row followed by different letters differ significantly
b
Force required for 25% compression measured using texture analyzer. (p  0.05).
c b
Standard error of the mean at 18 degrees of freedom. Standard error of the mean at 18 degrees of freedom.
704 A. Ashwini et al. / Food Hydrocolloids 23 (2009) 700–707

Table 3 Table 5
Effect of hydrocolloids and glycerol monostearate (GMS) on the physical charac- Effect of hydrocolloids and sodium steoryl-2-lactylate (SSL) on the physical
teristicsa of eggless cake characteristicsa of eggless cake

HC (0.5 %) þ Batter Batter specific Moisture Volume (cm3/ Crumb HC (0.5 %) Batter Batter specific Moisture Volume (cm3/ Crumb
GMS (0.5%) viscosity (Cp) gravity (g/cc) (%) 450 g of batter) firmnessb þ SSL (0.5%) viscosity (Cp) gravity (g/cc) (%) 450 g of batter) firmnessb
(force, g) (force, g)
Control 25,600a 1.035a 30.5a 900c 700c Control 32,000d 1.029a 30.8a 755a 600e
AR 30,400c 1.036a 31.3b 680a 970e AR 28,800b 1.076f 30.9a 765ab 580cd
XN 51,200f 1.039bc 33.2c 925cd 670b XN 43,000f 1.061e 31.2b 790c 550b
GR 40,000e 1.038b 33.8c 850b 930d GR 36,800e 1.034b 33.1c 770ab 580cd
CG 32,000d 1.047e 32.2c 930d 650b CG 30,000c 1.042c 32.8c 780c 560c
HPMC 28,800b 1.045de 33.6c 950e 600a HPMC 28,000a 1.051d 33.7c 800cd 500a
SEMc () 50 0.001 0.25 15 15 SEMc () 50 0.001 0.15 10 10

HC, hydrocolloids; AR, Arabic; XN, xanthan; GR, guar; CG, carrageenan; HPMC, HC, hydrocolloids; AR, Arabic; XN, xanthan; GR, guar; CG, carrageenan; HPMC,
hydroxypropylmethylcellulose. hydroxypropylmethylcellulose.
a a
Means in the same column followed by different letters differ significantly Means in the same column followed by different letters differ significantly
(p  0.05). (p  0.05).
b b
Force required for 25% compression measured using texture analyzer. Force required for 25% compression measured using texture analyzer.
c c
Standard error of the mean at 18 degrees of freedom. Standard error of the mean at 18 degrees of freedom.

interaction between hydrocolloid and emulsifier in the cake batter

addition of AR, CG and HPMC decreased the batter viscosity of
as compared to hydrocolloids alone. The batter specific gravity and
eggless cake with SSL from 32,000 to 28,800 Cp, 30,000 Cp and
moisture content of cakes with GMS also increased with addition of
28,000 Cp, while XN and GR increased it from 32,000 to 43,000 and
hydrocolloids. The data on volume showed that hydrocolloids like
36,800 Cp, respectively. The batter specific gravity and moisture
HPMC, CG and XN increased the volume from 900 to 950, 930 and
content increased with addition of hydrocolloids. A tendency to
925 cm3/450 g, while AR and GR decreased it from 900 to 680 and
increase the volume of eggless cake with SSL from 755 cm3/450 to
850 cm3/450 g, respectively. The crumb firmness value of eggless
765–800 cm3/450 g was observed with different hydrocolloids.
cake with GMS was 700 g and it decreased with addition of XN
However, among different hydrocolloids tried, HPMC showed the
(670 g), CG (650 g) and HPMC (600 g). The decrease in the crumb
highest increase. The crumb firmness value with SSL was 600 g and
firmness values due to addition of XN, CG and HPMC indicates
it decreased with AR (580 g), XN (550 g), GR (580 g), CG (560 g) and
improvement in the texture of eggless cakes. Addition of AR and GR
HPMC (500 g). The decrease in the crumb firmness value due to
increased the crumb firmness value from 700 to 970 and 930 g
addition of hydrocolloids indicates improvement in the texture of
indicating adverse effect of AR and GR on the texture of eggless
eggless cakes. The improvement brought about by HPMC in the
cakes with GMS.
presence of SSL was highest.
Effect of hydrocolloids on the sensory characteristics of eggless
Sensory evaluation showed that the addition of hydrocolloids to
cake with GMS is presented in Table 4. The results showed that the
eggless cake with SSL increased the overall quality score (Table 6).
addition of XN, CG and HPMC improved the crumb characteristics
The overall quality score for eggless cake with SSL was 70 and it
of eggless cake with GMS with reference to color, grain, thickness of
increased to 73 with AR, XN (75), GR (72), CG (76) and HPMC (85).
cell wall, texture and mouthfeel. This is reflected in the increase in
The above results indicate that the addition of all the hydrocolloids
the overall quality score from 68 of control eggless cake with GMS
increased the overall quality score of eggless cake with SSL. How-
to 76 with XN, CG (77) and HPMC (80). Addition of AR and GR
ever, highest improvement in the overall quality score was brought
decreased the overall quality score of eggless cake with GMS in-
about by HPMC.
dicating adverse effect of them. The above results show that im-
provement brought about by the addition of HPMC to the eggless
cake with GMS was highest, followed in decreasing order by CG and 3.5. Microstructure of eggless cake
XN.
3.5.1. Effect of hydrocolloids
3.4.3. Effect of hydrocolloids and sodium steoryl-2-lactylate (SSL) Fig. 2a–f represents the micrographs of crumb of eggless cakes
Eggless cake making characteristics of wheat flour with SSL and with different hydrocolloids. Fig. 2a is the micrograph of the crumb
hydrocolloids are presented in Table 5. The results showed that the

Table 6
Table 4 Effect of hydrocolloids and sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate (SSL) on the sensory char-
Effect of hydrocolloids and glycerol monostearate (GMS) on the sensory character- acteristicsa of cake
isticsa of eggless cake
Parameters CON AR XN GR CG HPMC SEMb
Parameters CON AR XN GR CG HPMC SEMb () ()
Crust color (10) 8b 7.5a 8b 8b 8b 8b 0.05 Crust color (10) 8a 8a 8a 8a 8.5ab 8a 0.10
Crust shape (10) 8c 7a 9c 8b 8b 9c 0.05 Crust shape (10) 8a 8a 8a 8a 8.5ab 9a 0.10
Crumb color (10) 7a 7.5a 9c 8b 8b 9c 0.05 Crumb color (10) 8b 8b 7a 7a 8b 8.5b 0.15
Crumb grain size (20) 13b 10a 15d 13b 16e 14c 0.15 Crumb grain size (20) 13a 13a 14b 13a 14b 16c 0.00
Thickness of wall (10) 8b 6a 8b 6a 9c 8b 0.15 Thickness of wall (10) 9a 9a 9a 9a 9a 9a 0.05
Texture (20) 12b 10a 13c 10a 14d 16e 0.15 Texture (20) 12a 13.5b 15d 13b 14c 17e 0.05
Mouthfeel (20) 12c 10a 14d 11b 14d 16e 0.25 Mouthfeel (20) 12a 13.5b 14c 14c 14c 17d 0.15
Overall quality 68bc 58a 76d 64b 77d 80e 0.25 Overall quality 70a 73b 75c 72b 76c 85d 0.25
score (100) score (100)

CON, control; AR, Arabic; XN, xanthan; GR, guar; CG, carrageenan; HPMC, CON, control; AR, Arabic; XN, xanthan; GR, guar; CG, carrageenan; HPMC,
hydroxypropylmethylcellulose. hydroxypropylmethylcellulose.
a a
Means in the same row followed by different letters differ significantly Means in the same row followed by different letters differ significantly
(p  0.05). (p  0.05).
b b
Standard error of the mean at 18 degrees of freedom. Standard error of the mean at 18 degrees of freedom.
 A. Ashwini et al. / Food Hydrocolloids 23 (2009) 700–707
Fig. 2. Effect of hydrocolloids on the microstructure of eggless cake (magnification 1500). (a) Control; (b) Arabic (AR); (c) xanthan (XN); (d) guar (GR); (e) carrageenan (CR); (f)
hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC). GS – gelatinized starch; WSG – wrapped starch granules.
of control eggless cake. Most of the starch granules have gelati-
nized. Partial outlines of a few distorted starch granules can be seen
embedded in the gluten protein matrix. The protein components of
wheat flour doughs have been described as network covering the
starch granules (Aranyi & Hawrylewicz, 1969), thin creep like sheets
(Evans, Volpe, & Zabik, 1977), irregularly shaped sheets (Moss,
1974), or sheets and fibrils with inclusions (Bechtel, Pomeranz, & de
Francisco, 1978). Fig. 2b is the micrograph of eggless cake with AR. A
few starch granules can be seen wrapped in the gluten network.
Fig. 2c is the micrograph of crumb of eggless cake containing XN,
wherein starch granules cannot be seen. Chaisawang and
Suphantharika (2006) reported that in SEM micrographs of tapioca,
XN totally wrapped the native starch granules. In our SEM study,
the wheat starch granules seemed to be wrapped by XN, as the
granules are not visible. Fig. 2d represents the micrograph of crumb
of eggless cake with GR. A few small starch granules entrapped in
gluten matrix can be seen. Fig. 2e represents the micrograph of
crumb of eggless cake with CG. In Fig. 2e one or two small starch
granules can be seen embedded in gluten matrix, the nature of
which is different from protein network in Fig. 2f. A few partial
outlines of starch granules are visible in the micrograph of eggless
cake with HPMC (Fig. 2f). Barcenas and Rosell (2005) opined that
the microstructure of breadcrumb with HPMC showed a smooth
structure with less number of cavities. The gas cells showed a more
continuous surface with a thicker appearance than the control.
They also stated that HPMC enfolds all the other bread constituents.
A similar effect could be observed in the microstructure of eggless
cake with HPMC.
3.5.2. Effect of hydrocolloids and glycerol monostearate (GMS)
Fig. 3a–f represents the micrographs of crumb of eggless cake
with GMS and hydrocolloids in combination. Fig. 3a is the micro-
graph of control eggless cake with GMS only, in which a few starch
705
granules with distorted outlines embedded in gluten matrix can be
observed. Blaszeczak, Sadowska, Rosell, and Fornal (2004) reported
that in the micrographs of wheat flour doughs, two types of starch
granules – large starch granules of lenticular shape and small starch
granules of spherical shape, are distributed in the gluten–protein
network. Fig. 3b represents the micrograph of eggless cake with
GMS and AR wherein some small and large starch granules are
embedded in a thick matrix. The starch granules can be hardly seen
in Fig. 3c, which is the micrograph of eggless cake with XN and
GMS. The starch granules appeared to be wrapped by the xanthan.
In Fig. 3d, which is the micrograph of GR and GMS, few distorted
large starch granules can be seen entrapped in gluten matrix.
Brennan, Blake, Ellis, and Schofield (1996) in their study reported
that the galactomannan present in GR flour get intimately mixed
with starch granules and protein matrix. Thus the starch granules
appear to be coated with galactomannan. A similar effect was seen
in our SEM studies also. Some of the large starch granules appear
distorted and shrunken owing to gelatinization and are trapped in
gluten matrix in Fig. 3e, which is the micrograph of eggless cake
with CG and GMS. Fig. 3f represents the micrograph of eggless cake
with HPMC and GMS, which shows the protein matrix and some
faint outlines of starch granules. Barcenas and Rosell (2005) stated
that in the microstructure of bread with HPMC the underneath
components were not clearly revealed.
3.5.3. Effect of hydrocolloids and sodium steoryl-2-lactylate (SSL)
Fig. 4a–f is the scanning electron micrographs of eggless cake
with SSL and hydrocolloids. In Fig. 4a which is the micrograph of
control eggless cake with SSL only, some partial outlines of dis-
torted starch granules can be seen embedded in the matrix. Evans
et al. (1977) stated that in the ultrastructure of bread dough with
SSL, the gluten sheet in the dough was extremely thin, intact and
translucent in many areas. Starch granule silhouettes were visible
706 A. Ashwini et al. / Food Hydrocolloids 23 (2009) 700–707

Fig. 3. Effect of hydrocolloids and GMS on the microstructure of eggless cake (magnification 1500). (a) Control þ GMS; (b) Arabic (AR) þ GMS; (c) xanthan (XN) þ GMS; (d) guar
(GR) þ GMS; (e) carrageenan (CG) þ GMS; (f) hydroxypropylmethylcellulose þ GMS. GS – gelatinized starch; WSG – wrapped starch granules.

beneath the veiling proteins. The protein draped finely over the
mass of granules. A similar effect can be seen in our SEM studies.
Fig. 4b is the micrograph of eggless cake with AR and SSL in which
starch granules embedded in a thicker matrix can be observed. The
matrix is continuous and the XN gum and SSL (Fig. 4c) seem to
wrap all the starch granules. In the micrograph of eggless cake with
GR and SSL (Fig. 4d) the granules are coated with GR. Faint outlines
of starch granules covered by the gum can be observed in the mi-
crograph of eggless cake with CG and SSL (Fig. 4e). The eggless cake
micrograph with HPMC and SSL is shown in Fig. 4f in which

Fig. 4. Effect of hydrocolloids and SSL on the microstructure of eggless cake (magnification 1500). (a) Control þ SSL; (b) Arabic (AR) þ SSL; (c) xanthan (XN) þ SSL; (d) guar
(GR) þ SSL; (e) carrageenan (CG) þ SSL; (f) hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC) þ SSL. GM – gluten matrix; GS – gelatinized starch; WSG – wrapped starch granules.
 A. Ashwini et al. / Food Hydrocolloids 23 (2009) 700–707
continuous matrix can be seen. Kim, Lee, and Kim (1999) stated that
addition of ascorbic acid and SSL gave bread dough a continuous
structure. They also reported that in the microstructure the strands
were strengthened and there was an interaction between the
starch granules and proteins.
4. Conclusions
Addition of hydrocolloids differently influenced pasting char-
acteristics of wheat flour. Addition of hydrocolloids increased the
batter viscosity and XN showed the highest batter viscosity. Batter
specific gravity and moisture were also increased. Among different
hydrocolloids tried, HPMC was the best as it improved the quality of
eggless cake alone as well as in the presence of GMS and SSL. Mi-
crostructure studies showed that the starch granules appeared
wrapped by XN and HPMC. In microstructure of combination of
HPMC and SSL, the protein matrix seemed to be continuous. The
above results suggest that there is some relationship between
prominent wrapping observed above starch granules and im-
provement in the overall quality of eggless cake with special ref-
erence to volume and texture brought about by HPMC. It could be
concluded that the various results presented in this paper have
shown that good quality eggless cake can be prepared using HPMC
and SSL.
Acknowledgements
The authors are greatly indebted to Mr. K. Anbalagan, CIFS,
CFTRI, Mysore for his help in carrying out scanning electron
microscopy.
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