Modeling Cyber-Physical Systems

● Modeling Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS) involves

creating mathematical and computational
representations of systems that integrate physical
components with computer-based control and
communication systems.
● CPS can include a wide range of systems, such as
smart grids, autonomous vehicles, industrial
automation, and medical devices.
 Continuous Models
● Continuous models are used when the variables in the system
can take on any value within a certain range. They are
described using continuous functions or equations. Continuous
models assume that the system changes smoothly and
continuously over time or space.
● These models are commonly used in physics, engineering, and
applied mathematics. Examples of continuous models include
differential equations, partial differential equations, and integral
equations.
 Discrete Models
● Discrete models are used when the variables in the system can
only take on specific, distinct values. These models represent
systems that change in a step-by-step manner rather than
continuously.
● Discrete models are often used in computer science, operations
research, and discrete mathematics.
● Examples of discrete models include difference equations, Markov
chains, and cellular automata. In these models, time or space is
often represented as a sequence of discrete points.
 Hybrid Model
● Hybrid models combine both continuous and discrete elements. They
are used when the system being modeled contains components that
can be described using both continuous and discrete characteristics.
● Hybrid models are particularly useful for representing complex
systems that exhibit a mix of continuous and discrete behaviors.
● Examples of hybrid models include hybrid dynamical systems, where
continuous dynamics are combined with discrete events or switches,
and hybrid automata, which combine continuous variables and
discrete control modes.
 Sensors and Actuators
● Sensors are such devices which are used to convert physical
quantities, events or characteristics into the electrical signals for
the purpose of monitoring and controlling. So sensor takes
input from environment and converts into electrical form then
fed to the system or controller. Sensor works as an input
device.
● For example- Thermocouple, photo cell, RTD, LVDT, strain
gauge, Load cell etc. A block diagram for sensor is shown
below
A sensor is an electronic device that measures some physical quantity and converts it into
an electrical signal that can be processed by a computer. Sensors can be classified based
on the type of output signal (analog or digital) or the physical parameter they measure
(temperature, light, pressure, etc.). Here are some descriptions of different types of sensors:
 Types of Sensor
● Vision and Imaging Sensors
● Temperature Sensors
● Radiation Sensors
● Proximity Sensors
● Pressure Sensors
● Position Sensors
● Photoelectric Sensors
● Particle Sensors
● Motion Sensors
● Metal Sensors
● Level Sensors
● Leak Sensors
● Humidity Sensors
● Gas and Chemical Sensors
● Force Sensors
● Flow Sensors
● Flaw Sensors
● Flame Sensors
● Electrical Sensors
● Contact Sensors
● Non-Contact Sensors
 Actuators
● actuators are such devices which deliver physical quantity (like
force or motion) to the environment by converting source energy
according to control signal received that can be in electrical form.
● Here source energy can be pneumatic, hydraulic or electric type
and motion produced (by actuator) can be either linear or rotary.
● Actuator acts as output device. For examples- different types of
electric motor actuator, heaters, electro pneumatic actuator,
electro-hydraulic actuator, magnetic actuator etc
Sensors Vs Actuators
● https://youtu.be/KDTDM6oCUeY