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Abstract: Despite the large variability of landforms in Montenegro, no attempts have yet been made to regionalize
its geomorphology. However, Digital Elevation Models are globally availability and in recent decades we have seen
a strong increase in computation possibilities to map and quantify relief. Here, we used the Geomorphon method to
of a regional geomorphological map of Montenegro at scale 1:800,000. In total, seven geomorphological regions
were recognized: Coastal Montenegro, High Karst, Inland Depression, Durmitor Flysch, Northwestern Highlands,
Prokletije and the Northern Cristalline Hills. Karst landforms largely dominate the geomorphology of the country,
with the occurrence of numerous dolines, uvala’s, large poljes (Gradaj, Grahovo and Njeguši) and karst plateaus
the Geomorphon method allowed making a rapid assessment of the country’s main geomorphological characteris-
In terms of landforms, Montenegro (Crna Gora) shows based approaches and the interpretation of stereoscopic
a great variability, ranging from sand and rock coasts aerial photographs (Verstappen 2011), contemporary
(some corresponding to a ria coast), karst plateaus, large approaches focus increasingly on the use of Digital Ele-
(intra-montane) poljes, high mountains holding a (peri) -
glacial imprint, canyons, and more; all of it comprised in gen 2013). DEMs indeed capture both the morphology
only 13 812 km² and within an elevation range of 2535 m. and the morphometry of landscapes and over the past
Fig. 1. Geomorphon classificatio of Montenegro. (a-g) indicate some examples of geomorphologies which can be easily
detected and which are also explained in the result sections: (a) Dalmatian zone consisting of an anticlinal structure, (b) Ban-
jani karst plateau which shows large proportions of flat areas, (c) polje of Nikši which is very distinct by a flat zone, (d) Zeta
valley incising the inland depression as a valley, (e) Mora river which forms a canyon in the High Karst Zone and a dense
dendritic river valley network in the Durmitor flysch Zone. (f) wide U-shaped glacial valleys in the Durmitor mountains and
(g) very wide U-shaped glacial valley in Prokletije.
6 A. Frankl et al.
imprint is present, while more pronounced forms (includ- 2001). The Inland Depression (next section) cuts quite
ing glacial pavements and large moraines) are present brusquely through the region (Nicod 2003) and to the
in the Orjen mountains (Hughes et al. 2010). Typical N of this depression the elevation rises up to more than
for karst hydrography, springs and rivers are very rare, 2000 m a.s.l., making the transition with the Durmitor
despite the high precipitation of 2000 mm y–1 (Kilibarda Flysch zone.
Fig. 2. Geomorphological regions of Montenegro based on a classification using the Geomorphon method, literature and field
observations.
8 A. Frankl et al.
Fig. 3. Valley in the Durmitor massif showing glacial and periglacial features interacting with
karst landforms.
outcrops identified as ‘keratophyre and quartz-kera- although carbonate rocks are still abundantly present.
tophyre’ on the geological map (Mirkovi et al. 1985). The central part of the region, N and NE of Bjelasica
These rock types are defined by Schermerhorn (1973) mountains, is dominated by Paleozoic (Permian, Devo-
as ‘leucocratic (greater than 90% felsic minerals) sodic nian and Carboniferous) sandstone and phyllites. Bje-
(more sodium than potassium) albite-phyric volcanic lasica itself rises above the surrounding Paleozoic
rocks’. The S part, close to the village Vusanje, consists environment representing Triassic limestones and again
of mesozoic limestones and dolomites. The E part, to the dark keratophyres. The NW part of the region, around
SE of Plav, is more complex with Paleozoic (Devonian the town of Pljevlja, is again dominated by Jurassic and
and Carboniferous) phyllites and schists and Permian- Triassic limestones (Mirkovi al. 1985).
Triassic conglomerates. The geomorphological region of Despite the large variation in lithology, the general
Prokletije comprises the Prokletije mountains (which run abundance of softer material is reflected in the landscape,
into Albania) but is nevertheless extended to the N until where smooth hills and valleys are formed due to higher
Andrijevica and the west until the Komovi mountains. vulnerability to lateral erosion. Towards the NE and the
Like the NW Highlands, Prokletije offers evidence of SW, the Ljubisnja and Hajla mountain chains, respec-
past glaciations (Fig. 1g). Across the border, in Albania, tively, reach elevation of more than 2200 m a.s.l. and
some still active glaciers were recently discovered, mak- there, glacial features are characteristic. The Lim River
ing it one of the southernmost glaciers of the European is the largest river draining this zone and large fluvio
continent. In the Montenegrin part, numerous cirques, glacial terraces can be found on its valley floo .
glacial valleys and other periglacial evidences are found
(Milivojevi et al. 2008). Plav Lake provides a typical
example of a lake formed behind a terminal moraine;
located in the headwaters of the Lim river. 4 Discussion
Fig. 4. Frequency distribution of the different morphologic units (as define in the Geomor-
phon method) for the geomorphological regions of Montenegro. CM: Coastal Montenegro,
HK: High Karst, ID: Inland Depression, DF: Durmitor Flysch, NW: North-western Highlands,
PO: Prokletije and NC: Northern Crystalline Hills.
this study sets the minimal landform size at 60 m. The phenomena dominate the geomorphology, with doline(s)
ASTER-DEM is thus mainly useful to define the main (fields) making up approximately one fourth of the study
characteristics of the relief. The regionalization of the area. The central part is the polje floor (also the crop pro-
geomorphology occurred on the basis of both more clas- duction area), which is flanked by several springs on the
sical methods (literature, maps, field observations, etc.) contact between the fine grained polje deposits and the
and the Geomorphon output, allowing the rapid identi- limestone flanks. On Fig. 5B, the main morphological fea-
fication and delineation of regions that are morphologi- tures identified during the field mapping were compared to
cally uniform. A clustering based on the Geomorphon the Geomorphon classification of the area. In general, the
method alone was, however, not performed. Using the morphological classification by the Geomorphon method
identified regions did allow us to compute the relative matches well the field-based interpretation of peaks and
proportions of the different morphologies that are dis- crestlines. Slopes are also relatively well defined, and
tinguished by the Geomorphon method (Fig. 4). This thalwegs are classified in the slope ‘hollow’ or ‘valley’
generally supports the regionalization of the geomor- Geomorphon classes, the latter when the topography is
phology, with clearly larger proportions of flat surfaces more pronounced. The polje floor is largely defined as a
in the Inland Depression and Coastal Montenegro, and to ‘valley’ and only the polje floor is partly defined as ‘pit’.
a lesser extent in the High Karst and Northwestern High- Especially the representation of the polje floor by valley
lands (related to the Banjani and Jezerska Površ karst is problematic as this does not fit the general morphologi-
plateaus respectively). For the High Karst, the dolines cal perception of a polje (which would be a combination
are comprised in the categories pit, valley, footslope and of ‘footslope’, ‘flat and ‘pit’). As expected, small scale
hollow; consisting of approximately 30% of the area. The surface morphologies, such as individual dolines, doline
mountainous character of the country is marked by very fields, scree slopes or moraines are less easily detected
high proportions of the slope class. from the Geomorphon output and their complex surface
In order to evaluate whether the Geomorphon method morphologies is mostly reflected in a mixture of different
(applied on the ASTERM-DEM) could facilitate or fas- Geomorphon morphologies (Fig. 5, Fig. 6).
ten a field-based geomorphological mapping at scale of
1:25,000, the computational outputs were compared to 4.2 Landform genesis
the map produced by Lenaerts (2014) over the Njeguši 4.2.1 Ria coast
polje (Fig. 5 and 6). The latter has an area of approxi- The term ‘ria’ is used to describe a former river valley sys-
mately 14 km² and is located on the border between tem developed in a high relief area that was drowned by
Coastal Montenegro area and the High Karst zone. As sea level rise. The resemblance of the morphology above
can be viewed on the Fig. 5A, the S part of the study current sea level to a fjord could cause some confusion,
area comprises of a glacial cirque with moraines at ca. but a ria coastal system is not related to glacial processes
1000–1100 m a.s.l. Given the limestone lithology, karst (Castaing & Guilcher 1995). In Montenegro, the Kotor
10 A. Frankl et al.
Fig. 5. Use of the 30 m resolution ASTER-DEM based Geomorphon classification for detailed geomorphological mapping in
the Njeguši polje, A: detailed geomorphological map of based on fieldwork (Lenaerts 2014), B: Geomorphon classification
based on the 30 m resolution ASTERM DEM (morphological features from A given as an overprint). Note that the general
morphological signature of the Njeguši polje is well comprised in the Geomorphon classification but that small-scale landforms
are generally not well represented.
Bay provides a typical example of this phenomenon shows a strong resemblance to a drowned fluvial system
(Fig. 7A). There, the valley systems were formed mainly (Fig. 7B). This would indicate that Skadar Lake at some
during the Messinian Salinity Crisis (5.97 to 5.33 Ma; point would have been part of the Adriatic Sea. Due to
Krijgsman et al. 1999), when the Mediterranean Sea was the low elevation difference (ca. 5 m) between Skadar
nearly completely dry because of the uplift of Gibraltar Lake and the Adriatic Sea, with the Bojana sometimes
Street (Roveri et al. 2014). As a result, sea level – thus noted to flow upstream, it is however unlikely that the
erosion basis – was lowered with more than 1000 m, Bojana alone has created such an alluvial plain. It is prob-
allowing regressive erosion of the landscape. As fluvial able that this landform is in fact part of the alluvial plain
erosion continued, this resulted is a very deep incised of the Great Drin, the longest river in Albania, flowing
morphology under the current sea level by a river flo - into the eastern part of Skadar Lake. A possible expla-
ing in NE-SW direction, orthogonal to the orientation of nation for the formation of Skadar Lake was provided
the anticlinal structures, with its tributaries, parallel to by Ager (1980), stating that an inlet of the Adriatic Sea
the anticlines. In the hard carbonates, narrow and steep would have been closed by dune formation. The fiel -
valleys were incised while in the soft flysch layers the work nonetheless suggested that the dune formation S of
river and tributaries formed wide valleys, causing the Ulcinj is rather limited, with eolian sedimentation up to
NW-SE orientation of the bays (Magas 2002). A more maximum 2 m. Therefore, it seems highly unlikely that
subtle example of a ria system is probably the W bank the formation of dunes closed the inlet of the Adriatic Sea
of Skadar Lake, where the outflow of Rijeka Crnojevi to Skadar Lake.
The regional geomorphology of Montenegro 11