A dendrogeomorphic approach of recent rockfall and snow-avalanche activity

assessment on a debris cone located in the Făgăraș Mountains (Southern

Carpathians - Romania)

ABSTRACT. Rockfall and snow avalanches are typical processes developing in high mountain environments.
Human activities can sometimes prepare or even trigger such geomorphic processes. This is the case of the
Transfăgărășan Highway, built between 1970-1974. It crosses the Făgăraș Massif in the Southern Carpathians
(Romania), reaching elevations of 2000 m.a.s.l. Wooded areas are often impacted by geomorphic processes,
affected trees regularly exhibiting characteristic growth responses. Dendrogeomorphology is a scientific dating
method which analyzes tree-rings in order to date past geomophic processes. This paper is one of the first
dendrogeomorphic approaches in the Southern Carpathians, being focused on reconstructing past rockfall and
snow avalanche activity on a debris cone, apparently created at the time of the road construction. Analysis of 86
increment cores allowed for the identification of 8 events. By assessing the relative age structure of the forest
stand colonizing the debris cone, it was possible to confirm the complete deforestation of the study area in the
early 1970’s. Finally, the spatial distribution of trees showing clear growth disturbances was assessed in order to
approximate the extent of past snow avalanches.

Keywords:, Dendrogeomorphology, Dendrochronology, Snow avalanches, Rockfall,, Făgăraş Mountains,

Southern Carpathians

INTRODUCTION

Rockfall and snow avalanches are two of the most active slope processes present in the
Southern Carpathians (Romania). Both processes depend on local terrain features, namely
pre-existent specific morphological and geological particularities, called promoters (Dorren
2003). Geomorphic processes are mainly triggered by climatic parameters. Heavy rainfall and
freeze-thaw cycles (Luckman 1976, Matsuoka 1990, 2008; Schneuwly 2009) are considered
to be the main rockfall triggering conditions, while snowfall, air temperature fluctuation, and
wind cause the initiation of snow avalanches (McClung and Shaerer 1993; Weir 2002).
Human presence in mountain environments can, as well, enable rockfall or snow avalanches.
The repeated occurrence of geomorphic processes results in characteristic landforms. Various
shaped debris accumulations result after recurrent rockfall and typical avalanche paths can be
distinguished in areas where snow avalanches occurr (Butler 1979).

In many cases, forested areas are affected by the occurrence of rockfall and snow avalanches.
A damaged tree will react upon disturbance by yielding characteristic growth responses
(Shroder 1980). Stem tilting or breakage, wood injuries, apex loss, stem burial and root
exposure are the most common disturbances induced by geomorphic processes on tree growth
(Stoffel and Bollschweiler 2009). These external particularities are reflected by abnormal
tree-ring growth. Dendrogeomorphology, firstly defined by Alestalo (1971), is a scientific
method which enables accurate dating of past geomorphic processes by analyzing growth
anomalies in annual tree rings (Burrows and Burrows 1976; Braam et al. 1987; Shroder 1980;
Stoffel and Bollschweiler 2008). Rockfall was studied by means of dendrogeomorphology,
aiming to reconstruct past rockfall activity (Schneuwly and Stoffel 2008a), to analyze bounce
heights (Schneuwly and Stoffel 2008b), and to establish spatial extents (Stoffel et al. 2005b;
Schneuwly and Stoffel 2008b). Dendrogeomorphology was largely used to study snow
avalanche activity in forested snow avalanche paths. Thus, research was conducted in order to
determine frequency, magnitude and spatial extent of snow avalanches in various mountain
areas, such as the Alps (Szymcsak et al. 2010; Corona et al. 2010), the Pyrenees (Muntan et
al. 2009), Iceland (Decaulne and Saemundsson 2008; Decaulne et al. 2012), and mountain
regions throughout the U.S.A. (Butler and Malanson 1985; Jenkins and Hebertson 2004;
Reardon et al. 2008), and Canada (Germain et al. 2009).

Except recent interest for dendrogeomorphological study of snow avalanche activity in the
Bucegi and Făgăraș Mountains (Voiculescu et al. 2010, 2012), rockfall and snow avalanches
were not yet investigated in the Romanian Carpathians by means of dendrogeomorphology. It
is therefore the aim of this paper to : (i) identify and date recent rockfall and snow avalanche
activity on a debris cone in the Bâlea Valley – Făgăraș Massif (Southern Carpathians) by
analyzing growth disturbances in tree rings, (ii) assess whether the study area was re-shaped
during the construction of the Transfăgărășan Highway by determining the age structure of
the forest stand, and (iii) differentiate between the spatial occurrence of the two processes by
looking for morphological details on the cone and using focused sampling.

STUDY AREA

The present study was conducted on a debris cone (45˚37’ 59” N, 24˚36’ 37”E) located on
the west facing slope of the glacial Bâlea Valley in the Făgăraș Mountains, beneath the
runway of the alpine Transfăgărășan Highway built in the early 1970`s (Fig.1). It extends over
22.000 m² and reaches from 1315 to 1535 m.a.s.l. The mean slope angle is 35,5˚ with a
minimum value of 24˚ near the valley floor and gradually increasing angles to a maximum of
47˚ in the upper part. The geological setting consists of easily weathered foliated crystalline
schists like phillites and micaschists, with gneisses and amphibolitic schist layers.

The studied area was clearly influenced, if not even created, by the construction of the
Transfăgărășan Highway. Visually observable differences between the forest stand existing
above the road and the one colonizing the lower part of the cone (see Fig.1), suggest that the
area was completely deforested by road building activities in the 70’s. In the upper part of the
cone, just beneath the highway, a narrow gully separates two steep cliffs. The presence of the
gully explains the cone shaped area, being, along with the steep walls, the source area for
rockfall. Figure 2 shows two characteristic avalanche paths located on the surface of the
debris cone, which enter the forested area. Along with rockfall and snow avalanches, gullying
and torrential erosion processes are active landforming factors in the area (Urdea 2000).
 Fig.1. Location and view of the study area

Fig.2. Outlines of the debris cone, forest cover and the location of the two avalanche paths
Vegetation settings of the study area consist of a Picea abies (L.) Karst. (Norway Spruce)
forest colonizing the lower half of the cone. Pioneer tree species with flexible stems, such as
Alnus viridis (Green Alder) are found within the limits of the two avalanche paths. These
young deciduous trees show clear evidence of geomorphic impact, such as J shape forms
(Casteller et al. 2011) and upslope scars. North of the studied area, a remaining sector of the
old forest stand, not affected by the road construction, still exists.

METHODOLOGY

Field materials and methods

The first step consisted of identifying forms and deposits present at the study site, in order to
correctly assess active geomorphic processes. A Trimble „GeoExplorer” and satellite images
were used to create a geomorphic map at a scale of 1:2000, showing the extent of the cone-
shaped area and the forest cover. A detailed morphological analysis highlights the typical
shape of a debris cone formed by rockfall activity, as well as two characteristic snow
avalanche paths within the cone boundaries (Figure 2), suggesting that the studied area is
affected by both geomorphic processes.
Focused sampling was used (Jenkins and Hebertson 2004), 33 trees being selected according
to their position on the cone and the typical external evidence of impact events (Stoffel and
Bollschweiler 2009). Most tilted trees are located in and around the two avalanche paths,
while most scarred trees are found outside these paths (see Fig.3). Therefore, it was
hypothesized that, in this area, avalanches mainly tilt trees and rock impacts inflict scars in the
tree trunks. Based on these findings, 19 tilted trees within and neighbouring the avalanche
paths (15 Picea abies and 4 Alnus viridis) were sampled, as well as 14 wounded trees
scattered outside the avalanche paths. Sampling strategy and the low sample depth accord
with the aims of this study, as the main goals are limited to recent geomorphic activity dating,
age structure analysis and validation of process occurrence areas, assessed by visual terrain
feature observations.
A total of 86 increment cores were sampled at disturbance height (Stoffel et al. 2006; Corona
et al. 2010), using Haglöf increment borers (Ø 5.15 mm., lenght 30 cm.). The tilted trees were
sampled at the maximum bend angle (Corona et al. 2012), by taking two cores, one in
direction of the tilting and the other on the opposite side of the trunk (Stoffel and
Bollschweiler 2008). Subsequently, a minimum of three cores were sampled at scar height,
the first through the injury, the second perpendicular to the first, and the third from the
overgrowing callus tissue. For each sampled tree, additional data were collected: DBH
(diameter at breast height), description of the disturbance, sample heights, position within the
deposit, and GPS coordinates.

Sample analysis procedures

Standard dendrochronological procedures were used to dry, mount, prepare (Stokes and
Smiley 1968) and analyze the wood samples (Fritts 1976). The counting of annual rings and
the measurement of their widths was performed using a digital LINTAB positioning table
connected to a Leica stereomicroscope and TSAP-Win (Time Series Analysis and
Preparation) software (Rinntech 2006).
The usual growth disturbances recorded by trees affected by geomorphic processes are the
following: formation of reaction wood (Timell 1986), eccentric growth (Braam et al. 1987),
abrupt growth suppression and release (Burroughs and Burroughs 1976), formation of callus
tissue (Stoffel and Bollschweiler 2009), and the formation of tangential rows of traumatic
resin ducts (Stoffel 2008) for certain conifer species. To avoid misinterpretation of tree-ring
signals, the only growth disturbances used in this investigation were the initiation of reaction
wood confirmed by eccentric growth in the case of tilted trees, and the formation of callus
tissue overgrowing wood injuries of wounded trees. Due to the fact that at young age trees are
highly sensitive to several external factors, others than geomorphic processes (Dube et al.
2004), the 5 innermost rings were excluded from analysis. Furthermore, for result reliability,
only obvious reaction wood lasting at least two successive years and doubled by eccentric
growth was taken into account. Eventually, events identified in only one tree were rejected
from the final evaluation. Intensity classes (Germain et al. 2009; Corona et al. 2010) were not
established, implying the undertaken analysis to be based only on quantitative relations.

Fig.3. Trees were selected using focused sampling regarding the external disturbance.
RESULTS
Age structure of the stand
Based on the pith age at injury height, the average age of the selected Picea abies trees (29
trees) is 17 years. In May 2011, the month of the sample campaign, the oldest tree selected for
this study was 30 years old, while the youngest attained sampling height in 2005 (6 years).
Age distribution of the sampled trees highlights an obvious colonisation trend. The identified
pattern shows that older trees are mainly located on the lower limits of the study site, whereas
trees sampled on the upper parts of the cone are much younger in age.
Growth disturbances and event years
Two major external disturbances were identified in the field: wounded and tilted trees (Fig.
3). Analyses of the sampled increment cores allowed for identification of 35 internal growth
disturbances (GD). Reaction wood initiation (21 GD’s) generated by tree tilting, and callus
tissue formation (14 GD’s) as a response to wood injury (see Fig.4 and Table 1), were the
most frequently observed anomalies, and the only GD’s considered as reliable for the present
study.

Fig.4. Graphs showing growth disturbances identified in Picea abies trees. Callus tissue
formation is found in wounded trees (A) and reaction wood is present in tilted trees (B).

Fig.5. Stacked graph showing all growth disturbances found in sampled trees, allowing for a clear
identification of the major avalanche of 2005.
   TOTAL Tilted Wounded
Number of trees sampled 33 19 14
- Picea abies 29 15 14
- Alnus viridis 4 4 -
Number of increment cores 86    
Identified growth disturbances 35
Reaction Wood 21
Callus Tissue     14

Table 1. Number of trees, cores and identified growth disturbances

Dating the identified growth disturbances enabled reconstruction of 8 event years: 1995,
1996, 1997, 1998, 2005, 2006, 2008, 2009. On one hand, tilting of trees, according to reaction
wood initiation, occurred in the mid 90’s (more important years being 1995, 1996, 1997), as
well as in 2005. On the other hand, dating the callus tissue formation exhibited that most
analyzed trees were wounded in 2005. As illustrated in Fig.5, the most significant event
distinguished by the present analysis is 2005, totaling 42% of the identified GD’s.

Fig.6. Estimated flow direction of snow avalanches occurred in the mid 90’s
Spatial extent of snow avalanches
The spatial distribution of trees simultaneously affected on the two avalanche paths, allowed
for the estimation of the spatial extent of 4 main events: 1995, 1996, 1997 and 2005.
Homogenous distribution of 1995, 1996 and 1997 GD’s permitted the assessment of snow
avalanche direction and extension, as shown in Fig.6. The 4 Alnus viridis trees sampled did
not provide reliable data regarding GD’s, as tension wood identification was unmanageable.
However, the utility of these 4 samples consisted in establishing the relative age of the
deciduous trees growing in the avalanche paths. Alnus viridis are known as vegetative
indicators of snow avalanche frequency calculations (Weir 2002). The 4 selected trees exhibit
a maximum age of 10 years, indicating the existence of a devastating event between 11 and 15
years ago. In addition to these findings, adjacent to the same avalanche path, 3 Picea abies
trees recorded GD’s for the year 1997, confirming and relatively locating the 1997 snow
avalanche (Fig.6).
GD’s related to the major event occurred in 2005 are scattered on the entire sampling pool,
suggesting a minimum spatial extent as illustrated in Fig.7. Therefore, we concluded that the
2005 event is most likely a snow avalanche. Opposite to the initial hypothesis, this proves that
snow avalanches occurring on the study site do not preferably tilt trees, but wound them as
well.

Fig.7. Minimum spatial extent of the major event occurred in 2005.

DISCUSSION

Anthropogenic influence at the study site

Tree-ring analysis of Picea abies trees growing at the study site allowed the assessment of the
relative age of the forest stand. The oldest tree sampled at the study site exhibited 30 annual
rings at disturbance height. Our results suggest that the cone was firstly re-colonized by Picea
abies seedlings in the late 1970’s to the early 1980’s. As the Transfăgărășan Highway was
finished in 1974, the age structure of the stand confirms the visual observations, which
indicate clear signs of a complete past deforestation at the study site. The compact old forest
growing above the road and north of the debris accumulation is clearly discrepant from the
stand located on the cone. Eventually, the bedrock internal stability was influenced by
excavations during the road construction, changing the present-day geomorphic process
dynamics (Urdea 2000). Road traffic could as well emphasize the behavior of processes.
Human activities in high mountain environments are not only capable of leaving clear marks
upon the natural landscape, but as the present study indicates, they sometimes create a frame
for activating geomorphic processes.
The relation between GD type and a specific geomorphic process
Dendrogeomorphological research conducted in the Swiss Alps managed to differentiate past
geomorphic processes by analyzing distinct anatomical changes induced by rockfall and snow
avalanches (Stoffel and Hitz, 2008) and by debris-flow and snow avalanches (Stoffel et al.,
2006). Differences were emphasized by determining the intra-seasonal position of tangential
rows of traumatic resin ducts identified in Larix decidua and Picea abies trees. In our
approach, while analyzing the detailed terrain features of the debris cone and the different
types of external tree growth anomalies, we noticed a prevalence of tilted trees within and in
the proximity of the avalanche paths, as well as a dominance of injured trees (with obvious
scars) located further away from the paths. Therefore, we hypothesized that at this specific
site, avalanches will rather tilt trees than wound them, and rock impacts mostly cause wood
injury. But after dating the identified GD’s we could not verify the above stated hypothesis.
Nevertheless, further sampling and focusing on the position of traumatic resin ducts could
unravel the differences between the occurrence of the two studied processes.

CONCLUSIONS

In the present research paper, dendrogeomorphology has been used to determine past
occurrence of rockfall and snow avalanches on a debris cone in the Romanian Carpathians.
The analysis of 86 increment cores extracted from 33 Picea abies and Alnus viridis trees,
permitted the identification of 8 events, 4 of them being assessed as snow avalanches. Among
them, 2005 can be considered as a major event. According to the mean age of the trees
examined, a complete deforestation during a road construction in the mid ‘70s was confirmed.
Nevertheless, the approach to differentiate between geomorphic processes by analyzing type
and spatial distribution of characteristic growth disturbances was not confirmed. Further
research focused on tangential rows of traumatic resin ducts could unravel the issue.
The results indicate the presence of a major snow avalanche that occurred at the study site in
2005. As recent research suggests (Voiculescu and Ardelean, 2012), a series of snow
avalanches of varying magnitudes were produced in March 2005 in the Făgăraș Massif,
affecting forests and roads. Eyewitness statements also confirm snow avalanche activity in
several valleys throughout the Făgăraș Massif (Bâlea Valley, Doamnei Valley, Capra Valley)
during the winter of 2005. This proves that dendrogeomorphology is a useful and reliable
method to add evidence and expand information on past geomorphic processes, especially
where avalanche occurrence, type, frequency or magnitudes are poorly documented, even
around touristic areas. Neighbouring the lower limits of the debris one, a tourist trail leads
from the „Bâlea Waterfall” Chalet to the Bâlea Waterfall. Research undertaken in the Făgăraș
Massif (Voiculescu, 2009) report a number of 65 fatalities attributed to snow avalanches
between 1968 and 2005. Dendrogeomorphology can help to better understand active
geomorphic processes such as rockfall, snow avalanches, but also debris-flows or landslides,
this knowledge being also useful in land-use planning, hazard zoning, or risk assessment.

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