CIVL2810: TRIGGER WORDS (Weeks 4 to 6)

Week 4:

Compaction- The process by which the porosity of a given form of sediment is decreased as a result
of its mineral grains being squeezed together by the weight of overlying sediment or by mechanical
means.

Densification- Increasing the levels of density within a particular material.

Lift thickness - A "lift" refers to a layer of pavement as placed by the asphalt paver. Lift thickness is
generally the thickness of this layer.

Particle-Interlocking: How well particles of a material fit in together. Think of it as a puzzle, the
more angular the particle edges are the better they fit together, the more compacted a material
can be.

Inter-particle friction – How well particles of a material slide past each other, in soils at optimum
moisture content, the particles slide past each other quite fairly, this increases the load capacity. Too
little moisture means particles cannot slide past each other, too much moisture reduces bearing
ability as there are many voids (spaces) filled with water making the soil plastic.

Void ratio - Void ratio, in materials science, is related to porosity and defined as the ratio.
Porosity or void fraction is a measure of the void spaces in a material.

Particle Size distribution - The particle size distribution (PSD) is a list of values or a mathematical
function that defines the relative amounts of particles present, sorted according to size. PSD is also
known as grain size distribution.

Compactor - A compactor is a machine or mechanism used to reduce the size of waste material or

soil through compaction. There are various methods of compaction.

Smooth Drum- A roller cylinder used to compact gravels, sands, and other dry materials.

Peg drum*- Any roller cylinder with weld on studs

Sheepsfoot- A roller cylinder with weld on studs at regular intervals. Used to mesh and compact
different clay layers. These studs are roughly 6 inches long and 2 inches in diameter.

Vibration- Uses a mechanism, usually engine-driven, to create a downward force in addition to the

machine’s static weight. The vibrating mechanism is usually a rotating eccentric weight or
piston/spring combination (Rammers). The compaction delivers a rapid series of blows (impacts) to
the surface, thereby affecting top layers and layers below. Vibration moves through materials,
setting particles in motion and moving them closer together for the highest possible density
possible. Based on materials being compacted, a certain amount of force must be used to overcome
the cohesive nature of particular particles.

Non-vibration (Static force): A roller cylinder that compacts without the use of vibration. Simply, the
deadweight of the machine does all the compaction of the soil particles. The only way to change the
effective compaction force is by adding or subtracting to the weight of the machine. Static
compression is confined to upper soil layers and limited to any appreciable depth. Kneading and
pressuring are two example of static compression.
Additional Information: Some drums have the option of being filled with water. They are transported
when empty, and compact when filled with water. Human controlled rollers only have one drum,
while self-propelled rollers have 2 drums. Pneumatic tyres are sometimes used instead of rear rollers
to increase the traction.

PROOF ROLLER - A proof roller is used to confirm the load bearing capacity of a compacted material,
such as a highway, airport runway, or building pad.

Bearing capacity - In geotechnical engineering, bearing capacity is the capacity of soil to support the
loads applied to the ground. The bearing capacity of soil is the maximum average
contact pressure between the foundation and the soil which should not produce shear failure in the
soil.

The proctor test

The Proctor test is a laboratory test involving the preparation of a number of soil samples with
moisture content varying from less than optimum up to greater than optimum where "optimum"
means optimum for compaction purposes, in other words, just the amount of moisture to lubricate
particles and allow maximum compacted density, but no more water than that. 

A 3 point Proctor test involves the preparation of 3 samples so that the graph of the relationship
between moisture content and dry density is based on a curve drawn through 3 points.

A 5 point Proctor test involves the preparation of 5 samples so that the graph of the relationship
between moisture content and dry density is based on a curve drawn through 5 points.

The difference between a standard Proctor test and a modified Proctor test is that the modified
Proctor test involves more compactive effort in the preparation of the sample, (e.g. heavier hammer,
more layers in the sample, higher hammer drop etc). The modified Proctor test reflects heavier more
effective compaction equipment than was the case, when the standard Proctor test was OK.

Of course, the aim of the Proctor test, is to determine the maximum dry density for a given soil,
which then becomes the reference for determining whether compacted density measured in the
field satisfies the contractual requirement shown in contract documentation - in particular, shown in
the technical specifications for an earthworks contract.  

Proctor tests can be used to find a reference, or a standard, against which to test the adequacy of
compaction, not only in earthworks, but in material for laying heavy pipes in trenches, or for
material on which building footings are to be placed.

Week 5:
Consolidation: A geological process by which soils decrease volume and increase density.  According
to Karl Terzaghi consolidation is any process which involves decrease in water content of a
saturated soil without replacement of water by air.

Deep Lift Compaction: The process by which, multiple depth of soil or asphalt are compacted to
achieve a maximum density as possible.
Effects of compaction:
1) Reduces settling of soil and prevents frost damage.
2) Prevent seepage of water, swelling and contraction.
3) Increases bearing capacity.
4) Provide stability (enhanced engineering qualities of soil).

Lime Piles: A method of ground improvement using chemical lime piles consists of placing columns
of specially prepared quick lime into soft soils without mixing.

Wick Drains: Prefabricated vertical drains installed with specialized equipment called stitchers. Wick
drains allow soft soils to settle rapidly.

Preload: Before building a structure, a large weight is placed on an area of land in which the
structure is to be built on. This allows the settling of soil within the area, and then the structure is
placed on it after it has settled.

Minimum Haul Strategy: Reducing the distance travelled by a vehicle to transport cut & fill material,
the smaller it is, the more time saved and the less cost of hauling and returning is.

Allocation of machines: Choice of machines, depending on the distances within mass-haul

production diagram.
0-100m (Dozers)
100-3000m (Scrapers)
3000m + (Loaders/Trucks)

Week 6:

Lane width, shoulder width, median width: The width of lanes on a road. Width of shoulders on a
road & finally median width is the width of the concrete section (strip in the middle of the road).

Cut batter & Fill batter: Material to be cut and filled respectively to obtain a balanced level of
earthworks within a project.

Stripping: Before earthworks (cutting and filling), the topsoil is stripped off. (This increases fill levels
and decreases cut levels), after the construction of the road the stripping can be used as a protection
layer from erosion.

Balanced earthworks: Having an equilibrium level of cut and fill batter.

Batter slope erosion protection: To protect a surface from erosion, this is undertaken and can be
done through planting of trees and other geotechnical techniques.

Slope Drainage Protection: drainage systems are installed within roadwork to prevent flooding,
water puddles that are risk worthy of drivers.