LONG ANS QUESTIONs

5. …Buddhism in Indian civilization?

1. Origin
Buddhism first originated in northern India in 563 - 483 B.C.E with the
foundation of Siddhartha Gautama who was a native of a small
principality in the foothills of the Himalaya mountains (Nepal today)
2. The journey of formating Buddhism
Siddhartha Gautama was an Indian prince in the fifth century B.C.E.
However, he soon renounced his wealth and power after seeing people die.
because of poorness and illness and realized that human life is suffering.
His life stepped onto a new page of a poor beggar meditating and traveling.
and even settling on something called “the Middle Way.” Eventually, in a
state of deep meditation, he achieved enlightenment, or
nirvanaunderneath the Bodhi tree (the tree of awakening).
3. The conception
Siddhartha accepted the concept of reincarnation and the role of karma as
a means of influencing the movement of individual souls up and down in
the scale of life, but if that one achieves a state of enlightenment. He
praised nonviolence and borrowed the idea of living a life of simplicity.
and chastity from the ascetics. Siddhartha denied the ultimate reality of
the material world in its entirety and taught that it was an illusion to be.
transcended. Siddhartha rejected the panoply of gods that had become.
identified with Brahmanism and forbade his followers to worship his
person or his image after his death. Buddhism was more equitable than
other religions. He opposed categorizing people into strict groups based.
on their past lives and advocated for the idea that everyone has the
potential to attain Nirvana based only on their actions in this lifetime.
4. Buddhism: Four noble truths
+ The noble truth of pain (dukkha): Everyone in life is suffering anyway
+ The noble truth of the cause of pain (samudāya): This states that all
suffering comes from desire.
+ The noble truth of the cessation of pain (nirodha): it is possible to stop.
suffering and achieve enlightenment.
+ The noble truth of the way that leads to the cessation of pain (magga) :
this is the noble Eightfold Way(The Middle way) - the step to achieve
enlightenment
 - The Middle Way: stood for right knowledge, right purpose, right speech,
right conduct, right occupation, right effort, right awareness, and right
meditation. (Chánh kiến, Chánh tư duy, Chánh ngữ, Chánh nghiệp,
Chánh mệnh, Chánh tinh tiến, Chánh niệm, Chánh định)
The Middle Way” meant that neither extreme asceticism nor extreme.
wealth was the path to enlightenment, but rather, a way of life between
the two extremes.
- The Five Precepts (Ngu gioi )are the five prohibitions that the Buddha
invented for preventing evil thoughts, false speech, and unrighteous.
actions, encouraging doing good. Those five things continue to be: Not.
killing; Not robbing; Not committing adultery; Not lying; Not drinking
alcohol.
- Buddhism was mainly divided as: Mahayana Buddhism and Theravada
Buddhism.
+ Mahayana Buddhism was commonly practiced in Tibet, China,
Taiwan, Japan, Korea, and Mongolia, focusing on the role models
of bodhisattvas (beings that have achieved enlightenment but
return to teach humans).
+ Theravada Buddhism was dominant in Sri Lanka, Cambodia,
Thailand, Laos, and Burma (Myanmar) by emphasizing a monastic
lifestyle and meditation as the way to enlightenment.
- After Siddhartha Gautama’s death in 480 B.C.E., dedicated disciples
carried his message about the length and breadth of India. Over the next
millennia, it spread across Asia and the rest of the world. The Mahabodhi
Temple in Bihar, India—the site of his enlightenment—is now a major
Buddhist pilgrimage site.

8. …The Water Splitting Festival in Southeast Asian civilization?

The Water Splitting Festival in Laos is called Bunpimay (Laos new year), usually
takes place in 3 days from April 13 to 15 according to the Buddhist calendar. The first
day of the Lao New Year Bunpimay, also the last day of the old year, in the morning
people clean, clean their houses, prepare fragrant water and flowers. The perfume is
made from a mixture of water, khun (yellow lily), champa (giant flower) and aromatic oil
... On the second day, people started going to the temple to perform a Buddhist bath
rite, forcing only their wrists to pray. According to the concept of Laotians, when the
New Year comes, go to as many temples as possible, at least nine temples must be
visited. Fragrant water after watering on Buddha statues will be inspired to bring home
to anoint ones. People also splash water on the monks, temples and trees surrounding
the temple. The third day is also the last day with jubilant activities taking place
everywhere. Before splashing, people often give each other good wishes. To pay
homage, young people splash water on their elders and friends splash water on each
other. They not only splashed water on people but also splashed water on their homes,
worshiping objects, animals and production tools. On this occasion, Laotians gather to
worship the Buddha, bathe with aromatic water, listen to the monk's teachings, and
then splash water to the monks, the temples and thetrees around. In addition, Laotians
splash water into their houses, labor tools and animals to wash away evil, disease and
wish for a good and healthy new year.
The Cambodian Chol Chnam Thmay Water Festival takes place at the same time
as Laos, from April 13-15 each year. It is also an occasion for Cambodian people to
celebrate the new year. There are three days in this New Year Celebration: Maha
Sangkran – the first day of the New Year, Virak Vanabat – the second day, Vearak Loeng
Sak – the third day. In these days, everywhere is decorated with colorful flowers,
especially the temples, the roads leading to the Royal Palace. Also, with rituals to pay
homage to the Buddha, carrying a cultural tradition. On Maha Sangkran, people dress up
and light candles and burn incense sticks at shrines, where the members of each family
pay homage to offer thanks for the Buddha's teachings by bowing, kneeling and
prostrating themselves three times in front of his image. For good luck people wash
their face with holy water in the morning, their chests at noon, and their feet in the
evening before they go to bed. On Virak Vanabat, people contribute charity to the less
fortunate by helping the poor, servants, homeless, and low-income families. Families
attend a dedication ceremony to their ancestors at monasteries. Lastly, the last day, on
Vearak Loeng Sak, Buddhists wash the Buddha statues and their elders with perfumed
water. Bathing the Buddha images is a symbolic practice to wash bad actions away like
water clean dirt from household items. It is also thought to be a kind deed that will bring
longevity, good luck, happiness and prosperity in life. By washing their grandparents and
parents, the children can obtain from them best wishes and good pieces of advice to live
life for the rest of the year.
Songkran Water Festival celebrates Thailand's New Year. Songkran is a term
derived from Sanskrit meaning 'to move' or 'movement'. It derives from the movement
of the sun from one position to another in the zodiac. According to its literal meaning in
Sanskrit, a songkran occurs every month. The Songkran celebration is rich with symbolic
traditions. Mornings begin with merit-making. Visiting local temples and offering food to
the Buddhist monks is commonly practiced. On this specific occasion, performing water
pouring on Buddha statues and the young and elderly is a traditional ritual on this
holiday. It represents purification and the washing away of one's sins and bad luck. As a
festival of unity, people who have moved away usually return home to their loved ones
and elders. Paying reverence to ancestors is an important part of Songkran tradition.
The holiday is known for its water festival. Major streets are closed to traffic and are
used as arenas for water fights. Celebrants, young and old, participate in this tradition
by splashing water on each other. Traditional parades are held and, in some venues,
"Miss Songkran" is crowned, where contestants are clothed in traditional Thai dress.
Thingyan is an annual water festival in Myanmar held to symbolize the end of the
hot and dry season and the beginning of the New Year, along with the onset of the rainy
season that makes the green forests flourish once again. The festival, which typically
lasts for four to five days, involves a range of activities that are celebrated differently
depending on the region of Myanmar. However, the most common activity is water
splashing, which is believed to clean away bad luck. During the four days leading up to
New Year's Day, the tradition claims that everybody in Myanmar shall splash water on
others. In rural areas, locals soak sprigs of thabyay (jambul) in a silver bowl to create
scented water, which they then gently sprinkle on others. In bigger cities like Yangon
and Mandalay, traditional bowls and cups are used, as well as hoses, huge syringes,
water pistols, and other devices. Apart from water splashing, Thingyan is also a favorite
time for shinbyu novitiation ceremonies for boys. This ceremony involves boys joining
the monks (Sangha) and spending a short time in a monastery. The festival's origin is
from the Buddhist version of a Hindu myth. The story goes that the King of Brahmas
called Arsi lost a wager to the King of Devas, Sakra (or Thagya Min as he is known in
Myanmar). After losing, Arsi was decapitated, and the head of an elephant was put onto
his body (transforming him into Ganesha). The Brahma was so powerful that if the head
were thrown into the sea, it would dry up immediately. If it were thrown up into the air,
the sky would burst into flames. Sakra, therefore, commanded that the Brahma's head
be carried by one princess devi and another taking turns for a year each. The festival
involves various religious activities, such as almsgiving, offerings, washing Buddha
figures, and cleaning temples. Families put myrtle branches on their front doors to avoid
bad luck. At night, there are decorated pavilions and stages for shows and dance. On the
last day, Thagya Min returns to the heavens, and the water splashing stops. During this
day, people eat a kind of traditional snack called mont lone yei baw (glutinous rice balls
with palm sugar). The whole community helps to cook it; the balls are thrown into
boiling water in a huge wok and served as soon as they resurface. On the fifth day,
which is New Year's Day, people visit their elders and pay obeisance by gadaw (also
called shihko) with a traditional offering of water in a terracotta pot and shampoo.
Young people wash the hair of the elderly often in the traditional manner with shampoo
beans (Acacia rugata) and bark. As well as hair washing, people make food donations
called satuditha and typically provide free food to those participating in the New Year’s
celebrations.
12…The Colosseum in Ancient Rome civilization?
- Location: East of the Roman Forum and the Palatine Hill, on the grounds of what
was Nero's Golden House, in Rome - the capital of Italy now
- Origin: 
· After the decadent Roman emperor Nero suicided in A.D. 68, his misrule and
excesses fueled a series of civil wars. The Flavian emperor Vespasian(A.D. 69-79)
attempted to tone down the excesses of the Roman court, restore Senate
authority and promote public welfare. 
· Around 70-72, Vespasian returned to the Roman people the lush land near the
center of the city and built there a new amphitheater for the public to enjoy
forms of entertainment. 
§ Colosseum was constructed around A.D. 70-72 by Emperor Vespasian ( 69-79
AD ) of the Flavian dynasty as a gift to the Roman people
· In A.D. 80, Vespasian’s son Titus opened the Colosseum—officially known as the
Flavian Amphitheater—with 100 days of games, including gladiatorial combats
and wild animal fights.
-Architecture: 
· Measure: 620 by 513 feet (190 by 155 meters)
· Material: Mainly cement, mortar, stone, bricks, and wood, tuff, tiles, marble,
lime, Iron / Bronze Clamps, travertine.
·  A statue of the sun god  that the Emperor Hadrian moved right next to the
Coliseum -  about 100 feet tall - but soon be decayed due to earthquakes and
pillaging
· Colosseum was a freestanding structure ( unlike many earlier amphitheaters,
which had been dug into hillsides to provide adequate support )
· Exterior decoration:  followed Greek architecture by piling one order or style of
architecture on top of the other ( Classical orders): 
++ At the bottom were columns of the relatively simple Doric order ( or Tuscan
order )
++ Middle story was in Ionic order.
++ Topped story was in the ornate Corinthian order.
· These three stories included 80 arched entrances, supported by semi-circular
columns. 
++  A large number of entrances allowed Romans to access the maze of
staircases, ramps, arcades, and passageways inside.
++ 76 arches on the entry level were numbered as key to the number on the
ticket of spectators
 ++ The four axial entrances (one on the west, the east, the south and the north)
which  didn't have numbers were the main entrance
· Located just near the main entrance to the Colosseum was the Arch of
Constantine, built in A.D. 315 in honor of Constantine I’s victory over Maxentius
at Pons Milvius
·   Inside: 
++ There was a very complex interior structure of corridors and stairways
++ A massive weight of stone benches for seating for more than 50,000
spectators, who may have been arranged according to social ranking.
+++ The emperor, magistrates, and priests sat in the lowest seats. The marble
seats were inscribed with the names of the categories of people who were allowed to sit
there.
+++ The senators sat secondly.
+++ The wealthy businessmen sat thirdly
+++ The plebeians sat fourth.
+++ The common folk who didn't have that much money sat fifth
+++ The foreigners, slaves, sat at the very top
+++ The women sat only on temporary wooden seats
++  The arena floor was made up of wood planks. These wood planks were
punctuated every couple of meters with a trap door and those trap doors were the caps
to elevators which were operated manually by slaves. 
++ Series of animal pens and rooms for the gladiators is placed under the
Colosseum.
++ Awnings were unfurled from the top story.
-Activities:  
§ Roman people watched gladiatorial combats, hunts, wild animal fights and
possibly even larger combats such as mock naval engagements put on at great
expense.
-> The entertainment was mainly violent and bloody. 
· Almost gladiators were men, generally enslaved peoples, condemned criminals or
prisoners of war,  with thousands of wild beasts 
§  It is said that up to 400,000 people met their end on the sands of the arena, as
did one million wild animals of many different species.
-Achievement: 
+ It has been on the Unesco World Heritage List since 1980 
+ It was included among the New Seven Wonders of the World in 2007
-The collapse: 
 · By the 6th century A.D, the Colosseum saw some four centuries of active use
until the struggles of the Western Roman Empire and the gradual change in
public tastes put an end to gladiatorial combats and other large public
entertainments.
· In the centuries to come, the Colosseum was abandoned completely, and used as
a quarry for numerous building projects, houses and workshops
· By the 13th and 14th century, a combination of weather, natural disasters,
neglect, and vandalism had destroyed nearly two-thirds of the original Colosseum

13…Pantheon Temple in Ancient Rome civilization?

1. Origin
· ‘’Pantheon’’ is from the Ancient Greek meaning ‘’to all god’’ The Pantheon as it is
known today was actually built on the site of another Pantheon that served as a
temple for all the Roman gods. The first building was built by Marcus Agrippa
around 27 AD to celebrate the victory of his father-in-law, the emperor Augustus,
at Actium over Antony and Cleopatra. Located in the Campus Martius, the
original building was rectangular and faced south. However, this building was
completely destroyed by a fire. Domitian had the Pantheon restored in 80 ADS,
only to have it struck by lightning and burnt to the ground again in 110 AD. The
destruction of the original Pantheon was considered a bad omen suggesting that
the pagan gods were unhappy with the temple that was built to honor them. The
remains of the Pantheon were thus left in place for nearly eight years until
Hadrian became emperor and began his building program, which produced the
Pantheon that still stands today. The Pantheon is a former Roman temple and,
since 609 AD, a Catholic church (Basilica di Santa Maria ad Martyres or Basilica of
St. Mary and the Martyrs) in Rome, Italy. It was rebuilt by the
emperor Hadrian and probably dedicated c. 126 AD. Its date of construction is
uncertain. No one knows the original purpose of the present-day Pantheon, but
Hadrian sometimes held court there.
2. From Pagan Temple to Christian Church
· Since its inception in 128 ADS, the Pantheon has had a long history. Renovated by
Septimius Severus and Caracalla, the Pantheon fell into disrepair, as did many
Roman buildings, after Constantine moved the center of the empire from Rome
to Constantinople. During the rise of Christianity, the Pantheon was abandoned
and then pillaged by the Goths. In 330, the capital of the Roman Empire was
transferred from Rome to Byzantium (modern-day Istanbul, Turkey) by
Emperor Constantine.Afterward, the Pantheon fell into a long period of disrepair.
In 476, the German warrior Odoacer conquered the western half of the Roman
 Empire, where Rome was situated. The Pantheon’s long decline continued. Then,
in 609, Pope Boniface IV got permission from Byzantine emperor Phocas to
convert the Pantheon into a Christian church, known as in Latin as Sancta Maria
ad Martyres (St. Mary and the Martyrs). It was the first Roman pagan temple to
be consecrated as a Christian church. The conversion played a key role in the
Pantheon’s survival, as the papacy had the resources to repair and maintain it.
3. The Pantheon today
· Following the Pantheon’s conversion into a Christian church, it eventually
became the burial place for Renaissance figures including painter Raphael,
composer Arcangelo Corelli and architect Baldassare Peruzzi. Several monarchs
are buried there too, including Vittorio Emanuele II, who died in 1878 and was
the first king of Italy since the 6th century; his son, Umberto I, who was
assassinated in 1900, and Umberto’s wife, Queen Margherita, who passed away
in 1926. Today, the Pantheon is a major tourist destination for visitors from
around the world, while continuing to function as a church. Catholic mass is
regularly held there.
4. How was it built?
· Pantheon Dome
· The Pantheon’s basic design is simple and powerful. Made primarily from bricks
and concrete, the Pantheon consists of three sections: a portico with granite
columns, a massive domed rotunda and a rectangular area connecting the other
two sections. Measuring 142 feet in diameter, the domed ceiling was the largest
of its kind when it was built. At the top of the dome sits an opening, or oculus, 27
feet in width. The oculus, which has no covering, lets light—as well as rain and
other weather—into the Pantheon. The walls and floor of the rotunda are
decorated with marble and gilt and the domed ceiling contains five rings of 28
rectangular coffers. The symbolism of the great dome adds weight to this
interpretation. The dome’s coffers (inset panels) are divided into 28 sections,
equaling the number of large columns below. 28 is a “perfect number,” a whole
number whose summed factors equal it (thus, 1 + 2 + 4 + 7 + 14 = 28). Only four
perfect numbers were known in antiquity (6, 28, 496, and 8128) and they were
sometimes held—for instance, by Pythagoras and his followers—to have
mystical, religious meaning in connection with the cosmos. Additionally, the
oculus (open window) at the top of the dome was the interior’s only source of
direct light. The sunbeam streaming through the oculus traced an ever-changing
daily path across the wall and floor of the rotunda. Perhaps, then, the sunbeam
marked solar and lunar events, or simply time. The idea fits nicely with Dio’s
 understanding of the dome as the canopy of the heavens and, by extension, of
the rotunda itself as a microcosm of the Roman world beneath the starry
heavens, with the emperor presiding over it all, ensuring the right order of the
world. When the artist Michelangelo saw the Pantheon, centuries after its
construction, he reportedly said it was the design of angels, not of man. The
Pantheon proved an important influence for the great Renaissance architect
Andrea Palladio, as well as countless architects who followed, in Europe and
beyond. Thomas modeled both Monticello—his home near Charlottesville,
Virginia—as well as the Rotunda building at the University of Virginia, after the
Pantheon. The U.S. Capitol rotunda was inspired by the Pantheon, as were
various American state capitols.
· One approaches the Pantheon through the portico with its tall,
monolithic Corinthian columns of Egyptian granite. Originally, the approach
would have been framed and directed by the long walls of a courtyard or
forecourt in front of the building, and a set of stairs, now submerged under the
piazza, leading up to the portico. Walking beneath the giant columns, the outside
light starts to dim. As you pass through the enormous portal with its bronze
doors, you enter the rotunda, where your eyes are swept up toward the oculus.
5. Who designed the Pantheon?
· We do not know who designed the Pantheon, but Apollodorus of Damascus,
Trajan’s favorite builder, is a likely candidate—or, perhaps, someone closely
associated with Apollodorus. He had designed Trajan’s Forum and at least two
other major projects in Rome, probably making him the person in the capital city
with the deepest knowledge about complex architecture and engineering in the
110s. On that basis, and with some stylistic and design similarities between the
Pantheon and his known projects, Apollodorus’ authorship of the building is a
significant possibility.

14…The 12 gods and goddess in Ancient Rome civilization?

1. Jupiter (Zeus)
Supreme King of the gods. Roman god of the sky and thunder, and patron god of
Rome. Jupiter was a son of Saturn; brother to Neptune, Pluto and Juno, to whom he was
also husband. Saturn had been warned that one of his children would overthrow him
and began swallowing his children. On their release after a trick by Jupiter’s mother
Opis; Jupiter, Neptune, Pluto and Juno overthrew their father. The three brothers
divided control of the world, and Jupiter took control of the sky.
2. Juno (Hera)
 Queen of the Roman gods and goddesses. Saturn’s daughter Juno was the wife
and sister of Jupiter, and sister of Neptune and Pluto. She was the mother of Juventas,
Mars and Vulcan.
Juno was patron goddess of Rome, but was also attributed with several epithets;
amongst them Juno Sospita, protector of those awaiting childbirth; Juno Lucina, goddess
of childbirth; and Juno Moneta, protecting the funds of Rome.
The first Roman coins were said to be minted in the Temple of Juno Moneta.
3. Minerva (Athena)
Roman goddess of wisdom, arts, trade and strategy. Minerva was born of the
head of Jupiter after he swallowed her mother Metis, having been told that the child he
had impregnated her with could be more powerful than he. Metis created commotion
by making armour and weapons for her daughter inside of Jupiter, and the god
demanded that his head be split open to end the noise.
4. Neptune (Poseidon)
Brother of Jupiter, Pluto and Juno, Neptune was the Roman god of freshwater
and the sea, along with earthquakes, hurricanes and horses. Neptune is often depicted
as an older man with a trident, sometimes being pulled across the sea in a horsedrawn
chariot.
5. Venus (Aphrodite)
Mother of the Roman people, Venus was the Roman goddess of love, beauty,
fertility, sex, desire and prosperity, equal to her Greek counterpart Aphrodite. She was
also, however, goddess of victory and even prostitution, and patron of wine. Venus was
born from the foam of the sea after Saturn castrated his father Uranus into it. Venus is
said to have had two main lovers; Vulcan, her husband and the god of fire, and Mars.
6. Mars (Ares)
According to Ovid, Mars was son of Juno alone, as his mother sought to restore
balance after Jupiter usurped her role as mother by giving birth to Minerva from his
head. Famously the Roman god of war, Mars was also guardian of agriculture and the
embodiment of virility and aggression. He was the Venus’ lover in adultery and the
father of Romulus — founder of Rome and Remus.
7. Apollo (Apollo)
The Archer. Son of Jupiter and Latona, twin of Diana. Apollo was the Roman god
of music, healing, light and truth. Apollo is one of only a few Roman gods who kept the
same name as his Greek counterpart. Emperor Constantine was said to have had a
vision of Apollo. The Emperor used the god as one of his key symbols until his Christian
conversion.
8. Diana (Artemis)
 Daughter of Jupiter and Latona and twin of Apollo. Diana was the Roman goddess
of the hunt, the moon and birth. To some Diana was also considered to be goddess of
lower classes, especially slaves, for whom her festival on the Ides of August in Rome and
Aricia was also a holiday.
9. Vulcan (Hephaestus)
The Roman god of fire, volcanoes, metal work and the forge; maker of the
weapons of the gods. In some mythology Vulcan is said to have been banished from the
heavens as a child because of a physical defect. Hidden in the base of a volcano he
learnt his trade. When Vulcan built Juno, his mother, a trap as revenge for his
banishment his father, Jupiter, offered him Venus as a wife, in exchange for Juno’s
freedom. It was said that Vulcan had a forge under Mount Etna, and that whenever his
wife was unfaithful, the volcano became volatile. Because of his position as deity of
destructive fire, Vulcan’s temples were regularly located outside cities.
10. Vesta (Hestia)
Roman goddess of hearth, home and domestic life. Vesta was a daughter of
Saturn and Ops and sister to Jupiter, Juno, Neptune and Pluto. She was enshrined in the
sacred and perpetually burning fire of the Vestal Virgins (all female and Rome’s only full-
time priesthood).
11. Mercury (Hermes)
Son of Maia and Jupiter; Roman god of profit, trade, eloquence, communication,
travel, trickery and thieves. He is often depicted carrying a purse, a nod to his
association with trade. He also often had wings, just as Hermes does in Greek
mythology. Mercury was a roman psychopomp, tasked with guiding the souls of the
dead to the underworld.
When the nymph Larunda betrayed Jupiter’s trust by revealing one of his affairs
to his wife, Mercury was to take her to the underworld. However, he fell in love with the
nymph on route and she had two children by him.
12. Ceres (Demeter)
The Eternal Mother. Ceres is the daughter of Saturn and Ops. She was the Roman
goddess of agriculture, grain, women, motherhood and marriage; and the lawgiver. It
was suggested that the cycle of seasons coincided with Ceres’ mood. The months of
winter were the period in which her daughter, Proserpina, was obligated to live in the
underworld with Pluto, having eaten pomegranate, the fruit of the underworld.
Ceres’ happiness at her daughters return allowed plants to grow through spring
and summer, but in autumn she began to dread her daughter’s absence, and plants
shed their crop.
15. The five distinct orders of Classical Rome architecture?
The five distinct orders of Classical Roman architecture are: Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, Tuscan
and Composite orders.
The first three classical orders of columns in the Western world, the Doric, Ionian and Corinthian
orders, originated in ancient Greece. Later, the Romans adopted the three orders and invented
another two orders: the Tuscan order, which is simpler than Doric, and the Composite order,
which is more ornate than Corinthian.
1. Doric
The oldest and most simple among the five classical Roman orders, the Doric order, arose from
Greek during the seventh century BC.
Based on the proportions of the male body and its robust archetype, it was employed in Greek
buildings in honor of male deities.
In Vitruvius' words, the Doric exemplifies "proportion, strength and grace of the masculine
body", denoting balance, and for him, it should be used in "churches dedicated to the most
extroverted saints.
2. Ionic
With light, fluid organic lines, this order alludes to the lines of the female body, characterized by
"feminine slenderness".
In composition, this order presents a broader base, allowing it to receive greater load; a slender
shaft which widens slightly as it reaches the base; and capitals with scrolls (volutes).
The columns are about nine times as tall as they are wide, a width larger than the Doric Order.
3. Corinthian
As the most refined style of the three models based on Greek design, this order presents a series
of details and designs highly thought out and elaborated to imitate the "thin figure of a girl".
Sprouts and leaves of acanthus characterize the three-dimensional drawing of sculptural stone.
It is ten times as tall as it is wide, the thinnest of the three columns.
4. Tuscan
Conceived by the Romans, this order is a reinterpretation of the Doric order.
At seven column widths in height one width less than the Doric column it presents formal
simplicity and therefore also structural simplicity.
Unlike the three models of Greek origin, where the shaft is fluted, in this order the shaft is
smooth, aiming at simplification.
5. Composite
Developed from the union of the classical lonic and Corinthian orders, this order is the most
elaborate of the five architectural orders.
With lonic scrolls and Corinthian sprouts and acanthus leaves, this order features an overlap of
ornament. The column presents formal simplicity and therefore also structural simplicity. The
column is typically ten column-widths in height.

16. What was Michelangelo’s contribution to the Renaissance?

Michelangelo was an Italian sculptor, painter, architect, and poet of the High
Renaissance. His work was inspired by models from classical antiquity and had a lasting
influence on Western art. He was lauded by contemporary biographers as the most accomplished
artist of his era. Michelangelo’s diverse legacy is mainly classified into four fields: Sculpture,
painting, architecture and poem. Below are some of the most astonishing works that he devoted
for the humanity’s art.
1. Sculptures
- The La Madonna della Pietà: a subject in Christian art depicting the Blessed Virgin
Mary cradling the mortal body of Jesus Christ after his Descent from the Cross, now enshrined
within Saint Peter’s Basilica, Vatican city. The Pietà is a specific form of the Lamentation of
Christ in which Jesus is mourned by sole privilege of the Virgin Mary alone, whilst representing
her "sixth sorrow" and sometimes accompanied by a specific Marian title. This interpretation of
the Pietà is unprecedented in Italian sculpture because it balances the Renaissance ideals of
classical beauty with naturalism. The dimensions of the statue was 68.5 in x 76.8 in. The
structure is pyramidal, and the vertex coincides with Mary's head. The statue widens
progressively down the drapery of Mary's dress, to the base, the rock of Golgotha.
- The David statue: David is a 17.0 ft marble statue depicting the Biblical hero David,
represented as a standing male nude. Originally commissioned by the Opera del Duomo for the
Cathedral of Florence, it was meant to be one of a series of large statues to be positioned in the
niches of the cathedral’s tribunes, way up at about 80 metres from the ground. Afterwards,
Michelangelo was asked by the consuls of the Board to complete the unfinished work and
accepted the challenge with enthusiasm to sculpt a large scale David. Because of the nature of
the figure it represented, the statue soon came to symbolize the defence of civil liberties
embodied in the Republic of Florence, an independent city-state threatened on all sides by more
powerful rival states and by the hegemony of the Medici family. The eyes of David, with a
warning glare, were fixated towards Rome where the Medici family lived.
2. Paintings
- The Sistine Chapel: is a cornerstone work of High Renaissance Art, painted in fresco by
Michelangelo between 1508 and 1512. The Sistine Chapel is the large papal chapel built within
the Vatican between 1477 and 1480 by Pope Sixtus IV, for whom the chapel is named. The
ceiling was painted at the commission of Pope Julius II. The complex design includes several
sets of figures, some clothed and some nude, allowing Michelangelo to demonstrate his skill in
depicting the human figure in a variety of poses. The ceiling was immediately well-received and
imitated by other artists, continuing to the present. The narrative begins at the altar and is divided
into three sections. In the first three paintings, Michelangelo tells the story of The Creation of the
Heavens and Earth; this is followed by The Creation of Adam and Eve and the Expulsion from
the Garden of Eden; finally is the story of Noah and the Great Flood. Ignudi, or nude youths, sit
in fictive architecture around these frescoes, and they are accompanied by prophets and sibyls
(ancient seers who, according to tradition, foretold the coming of Christ) in the spandrels. In the
four corners of the room, in the pendentives, one finds scenes depicting the Salvation of Israel.
3. Architecture and Poems
- The dome of Saint Peter’s Basilica: Saint Peter’s Basilica is a church built in the Renaissance
style located in Vatican city, the papal enclave that is within the city of Rome, Italy. It was
initially planned by Pope Nicholas V and then Pope Julius II to replace the aging Old St. Peter's
Basilica, which was built in the fourth century by Roman emperor Constantine the Great. As a
work of architecture, it is regarded as the greatest building of its age. Because of its location
within the Vatican State and because the projection of the nave screens the dome from sight
when the building is approached from the square in front of it, the work of Michelangelo is best
appreciated from a distance. Michelangelo has blurred the definition of the geometry by making
the external masonry of massive proportions and filling in every corner with a small vestry or
stairwell. The effect created is of a continuous wall surface that is folded or fractured at different
angles, but lacks the right angles which usually define change of direction at the corners of a
building. This exterior is surrounded by a giant order of Corinthian pilasters all set at slightly
different angles to each other, in keeping with the ever-changing angles of the wall's surface.
Above them, the huge cornice ripples in a continuous band, giving the appearance of keeping the
whole building in a state of compression.
- From the 1530s on, Michelangelo wrote poems in which around 300 are still survive. Many
incorporate the philosophy of Neo-Platonism - that a human soul, powered by love and ecstasy,
can reunite with an almighty God - ideas that had been the subject of intense discussion while he
was an adolescent living in Lorenzo de’ Medici’s household. Michelangelo also wrote many
lyrical letters to his family members who remained there. The theme of many was his strong
attachment to various young men, especially aristocrat Tommaso Cavalieri.
Among his other masterpieces are Moses (sculpture, completed 1515), The Last Judgment
(painting, completed 1534), and Day, Night, Dawn and Dusk (sculptures, all completed by
1533), etc.

17. What are the contributions of Leonardo da Vinci in the Age of Renaissance?
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) was a critical figure in the late Renaissance. Not
only is he regarded as one of the greatest artists who ever lived, but he made
remarkable contributions to engineering, architecture, science, urban planning,
cartography, philosophy, and anatomy during the Renaissance.
The art:
 During the early Renaissance, painting had advanced greatly because of great
artists such as Botticelli and Verrocchio. However, Leonardo was to raise painting to new
heights, and his work is intrinsically important but very influential. His work was
revolutionary because it was so realistic and expressive. Leonardo used his anatomical
studies to understand the human body and especially its actions better. Da Vinci's
studies allowed him to create images of people that were highly realistic and very
dynamic. The emotions expressed by Leonardo are much more naturalistic than
previous artists. Leonardo inspired many painters to adopt a more naturalistic approach.
He wrote about his painting techniques in his widely read Treatise on Painting.
Perhaps his most significant contribution to the painting was developing the
sfumato technique, a new way to blend glazes. This technique made the figures in a
painting living and breathing subjects. Leonardo's techniques and styles were
revolutionary, and they, in particular, influenced the other great Florentine,
Michelangelo. The frescoes of Michelangelo became more dynamic and expressive as a
result of the work of Leonardo. Michelangelo's work changed even though the two great
artists did not like each other and were bitter rivals.
Da Vinci also inspired other High Renaissance painters, such as Raphael (1483-
1520). Da Vinci’s treatment of the Virgin Mary was very influential in the paintings of
Raphael. Among the others whose work was shaped by the great Florentine was
Filippino Lippi (1457–1504) and del Sarto (1486–1531).
Science and Engineering
Da Vinci was fascinated by science, engineering, and mechanics. He wrote about
these subjects copiously in his notebooks. His theory of knowledge was based on the
study of nature. Leonardo was also intrigued by the human body, and he is believed to
have dissected up to 30 human bodies and made many anatomical drawings.
Moreover, he was a great observer, and he made many empirical observations
that were insightful in areas as diverse as hydraulic engineering and town planning. This
emphasis on empiricism was radical at the time because the authority of the Church and
the Ancient Classical authors was unchallenged, and the received wisdom.[6] Leonardo's
ideas at this time were more akin to modern ideas on science and learning.
During his lifetime Leonardo did encourage some to privilege observation and
experiment over the teachings of the Church and the Classics, which was critical in the
later phase of the Renaissance. Leonardo helped to change the intellectual environment
of the Renaissance to one that was much more modern in outlook.
Inventions
Leonardo was also an inventor, and his notebooks are filled with many plans or
drafts for inventions. While Leonardo can be credited with having great ideas, his
inventions made little or no impact on the Renaissance