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Educational Development And Manpower Planning in Singapore

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 'UHK Education Journal Vol. 21 No.2 & Vol. 22 No.l pp. 185-195 ©Copyright 1994by The Chinese University
of Hong Kong Faculty of Education.

Educational Development And Manpower Planning in Singapore

Paul CHEUNG
National University of Singapore

This paper describes the close relationship of educational development and

manpower planning in the development of human resources and technological
capability in Singapore. The need to develop rapidly the technological manpower
for economic restructuring has very much guided the development of Singapore's
educational system. The concern for the wastage in human resource has also
influenced its evolving structure. The paper discusses these issues and highlights the
emerging trends.

introduction and post-secondary levels, ensuring minimum

Singapore has made remarkable economic and
social progress during the last three decades. From a
narrow-based economy primarily dependent on
entrepot trade and related transport and port
activities, the economy has expanded and diversified
rapidly to include manufacturing, commerce and
services activities. The economic restructuring has
been made possible in part by the government's
educational policies to develop each child to his
maximum potential and to fine-tune the educational
system so as to meet manpower needs of the
economy.
The close relationship between educational
development and manpower planning starts early in
Singapore's educational system, right from the
primary level where academically less-inclined
students are prepared for progression to vocational
training. This streaming continues at the secondary
attrition and wastage of scarce human resources. At
the tertiary level, the emphasis has been the
expansion of educational facilities to produce
manpower with specialised skills to enhance
Singapore's technological capability.
This paper presents the evolution of
Singapore's educational system and the relationship
with manpower planning and development of
technological capability. The educational develop-
ments and manpower training that were
implemented to support different phases of
Singapore's economic development in the last thirty
years is also reviewed. Finally, recent improvements
to the educational structure and provisions for
continuing education to meet the manpower needs
in the 1990s and beyond are discussed.
Economic and Human Resource Developments

185
 Paul CHEUNG
With hardly any natural resources other than
her strategic geographic location, Singapore's most
precious resource for economic development is her
people. This recognition has been the key in the
formulation of Singapore's educational policy and
the charting of the educational and manpower
development programmes over the last three
decades. The development of the educational system
has also been closely linked to Singapore's economic
development objectives and plans.
General Education in The Early Years
When Singapore attained self-government in
1959, economic conditions were poor. There was
high unemployment and the entrepot-based
economy provided little growth prospects for
sustained economic development. Job creation then
was the overriding objective when the government
embarked on the road to economic development
through an ambitious industrialisation programme.
However, this broad objective of massive job
creation made difficult the introduction of a detailed
and well-defined educational policy. The
educational policy then focused largely on providing
free and universal primary education, making
secondary education more widespread, encouraging
vocational and technical education, and expanding
tertiary education.
Post-independence Emphasis on Technical Education
and Training
Singapore's economic situation suffered a
set-back soon after independence was achieved in
1965. Singapore had to contend with the continuing
effects of the confrontation with Indonesia when it
joined Malaysia in 1963. The economic problems
resulting from suspension of trade with Indonesia
were aggravated by Singapore's separation from
Malaysia in 1965 and the British decision in 1968 to
withdraw its military base from Singapore. In order
to address these problems and push for faster
economic development, strategies were adopted to
promote export-oriented industries and develop
trade, financial and technical services.
The Economic Development Board was
established to spearhead the economic development
plans. It was instrumental in initiating and
organising a number of training programmes to
meet the increasing need for skilled workers by the
186
growing industries. The government projects
included the setting up of the Industrial Training
Center to help the large numbers of young female
workers to acclimatize themselve to factory life, the
Light Industries Services Unit with United Nation
Development Project assistance to provide the
electronics industry with supporting services and to
train workers, and the Singapore Institute of
Management for the promotion of management
training. In order to accelerate technical and
vocational training, a Technical Edcuation
Department was organised within the Ministry of
Education in 1968 to administer technical education
and industrial training programmes.
Several industries also implemented their own
training and apprenticeship programmes. To enable
them to select the most effective training methods,
the government provided some financial assistance.
A "quick start" approach was adopted and
supported by the Economic Development Board
under the Industrial Development Scholarships
Scheme. Under this scheme, financial assistance was
provided to multinational corporations to send their
key personnel abroad for in-plant training. A pilot
scheme for overseas industrial training was also
introduced, whereby apprentices were attached to
reputable companies in Germany and Switzerland
for long-term training. On completion of their
training, these apprentices returned as fully-trained
workers.
By the early 1970s, the economic situation had
improved and the economic strategy shifted towards
promotion of more sophisticated industries and high
economic growth. This greatly increased the need
for manpower with the necessary skills and
technological capabilities. The Technical Education
Department was converted into an Industrial
Training Board in 1973, as the national authority
for the coordination and promotion of all forms of
industrial training at skilled level. Concomitantly,
enrolments at the Singapore Polytechnic, Ngee Ann
Technical College and University of Singapore were
expanded to meet demands for technical and
professional manpower.
Greater efforts were also made to expand
technical education at secondary level. A dual
system developed, whereby students could pursue an
academic or vocational education in secondary
schools. Secondary one and two students in the
academic stream were required to do a minimum
amount of workshop practice. For those who were
 Educational Development and Manpower Planning in Singapore
in secondary technical schools, they received an
academic education with a technical emphasis.
rather than training in individual trades or crafts.
The emphasis on vocational arid technical
education resulted in a remarkable increase in
student enrolment, The number of secondary school
students in the technical stream rose from 12,000 in
1971 to 18,000 by the end of the 1970s. During the
same period, enrolment expanded significantly from
6,000 to 14,500 in the vocational and technical
institutes and from 5,500 to almost 10,000 in the
polytechnics.
Better Coordination of Higher Education
It is clear from the foregoing that education and
manpower training in Singapore are carried out
both within and outside the formal educational
system by the public and private sectors. With
several government agencies having a direct interest
and involvement in educational development and
manpower planning and training, a central
coordinating body became necessary. The Council
for Professional and Technical Education was
established in 1979 to provide better coordination
among the various government agencies. Its main
objective is to ensure that an adequate supply of
trained professional, technical and skilled manpower
is available for Singapore's continued economic
development and restructuring. The Council for
Professional and Technical Education makes
periodic projections and recommends annual
enrolment targets and the corresponding staffing
and financial requirements for tertiary and
vocational/technical institutes.
Major Restructuring to Reduce Educational Wastage
While the expansion of capacity in. the various
educational institutions provided an increasing
supply of skilled and professional manpower, an
issue that quickly assumed critical dimensions was
the considerable wastage in the educational system
that evolved during the 1960s and 1970s. This was
because a single system of education was imposed on
children with varying academic abilities and learning
rates and the educational progression and retention
policies resulted in high attrition rates. In the late
1970s, the attrition rates were 29% at primary level
and 36% at secondary level. Education attrition due
to pre-mature school leaving was not the only form
of educational wastage. Wastage also arose from
failure to achieve expected standards, repetition of
grades and poor employment prospects for school
leavers.
The problems in the educational system were
identified by a top-level, government study team
which was formed in 1978 to review the education
system. Though the education system has so far
been able to support economic development, the
high incidence of educational attrition created fears
that the system might gradually fail to meet the ever-
increasing demands for a skilled and professional
workforce.
Arising from the study team's report, a new
educational system has been introduced since 1980.
The fundamental principle of this new system is that
streaming is necessary to avoid the unacceptable
attrition rates of the past. Streaming is carried out at
both the primary and secondary levels, with
provisions for lateral transfers between streams.
During the decade of the 1980s, primary school
pupils were streamed into three courses of study at
the end of primary three. Two of the courses which
prepared the pupils for the primary school leaving
examination. Fast learners took another three years
to complete their primary education while the slower
learners did so in a longer period of five years. The
third course was a non-academic course designed for
the less academically inclined students who acquired
basic literacy and numeracy for another five
years in preparation for pre-vocational training at
vocational institutes,
At the secondary level, streaming started right
at the beginning when pupils entered secondary one.
They had the choice of academic courses designed to
match their learning abilities and interests. Faster
learners completed their secondary education and
sat for the Genera! Certificate of Education
Ordinary Level examinations at the end of four
years. Slower learners took five years to prepare for
the General Certificate of Education Ordinary Level
examination.
That the educational system put in place in
1980 has been successful in raising educational
achievements is evident from the increasing
percentage of passes at Primary School Leaving
Examination, and General. Certificate of Education
Ordinary and Advanced Level, Table 1 shows the
trends since 1980.
187
 Paul CHEUNG

Table 1: Percentage Passes by Level of Education

Year Primary School Leaving General Certificate of General Certificate of

Examination Education Ordinary Level Education Advanced Level

1980 83.3 68.6 67.9

1981 81.7 70.1 61.2
1982 87.3 75.4 64.1
1983 87.0 74.5 65.4
1984 85.5 79.9 65.3
1985 85.9 89.0 66.2
1986 85.6 85.3 70.8
1987 86.5 88.1 73.9
1988 86.5 89.2 72.5
1989 88.4 88.1 68.5
1990 88.2 88.9 76.5
1991 89.8 89.9 83.0
1992 91.2 89.0 82.7

competitive examinations. Students are not the only

The Present Educational System ones competing to do well in schools. The schools
also compete for the best students and to increase
Despite the success of educational streaming in
their value added by improving students'
meeting the objectives of educating each child to his
performance.
potential and reducing wastage, there is a need for
Under the present system, primary education
continual evaluation and further innovations to the
consists of 6 years' schooling. During the foundation
educational system so as tc keep in step with
stage of primary one to four, pupils are taught a
Singapore's rapidly changing economy. A number
common curriculum which emphasises basic literacy
of improvements to the structure of the system have
and numeracy. At the end of the fourth year, pupils
been introduced for the 1990s. The educational base
sit for a school-based examination which determines
has been expanded, with more places in schools and
their streaming into different courses during primary
various educational institutions. The quality of
five to six. Most pupils are streamed into the general
education has also been improved, with greater
two-year course, where English is taught as a first
flexibility and diversity in educational programmes.
language and the mother tongue as either a first or
Chart 1 gives a schematic representation of
second language depending on the pupils' abilities.
Singapore's present educational system. Educational
The less academically inclined students learn English
streaming remains as the cornerstone of the present
as the first language and the mother tongue at a
system. At every level of formal education, options
basic level. At the end of primary six, all students sit
are provided for pupils to progress along different
for the Primary School Leaving Examination which
paths to prepare them for their chosen careers. The
has been modified to become a placement test, to
system is also a competitive one. How pupils are
determine the type of secondary school course most
streamed and which educational path they take
suited for each pupil.
depends very much on how well they do in

188
 Educational Development and Manpower Planning in Singapore

Chart 1: Singapore's Education System, 1992

00
Universities e
~o
UNIVERSITY o
.e
EDUCATION 00 O

O
GCE 'S.
>.
H

Polytechnics/ 13
POST ITE 18
EDB Institutes Junior
SECONDARY Institutes of Technology 17
Colleges 11
EDUCATION
16

GCE O-level
'ssssss/ss/ss/sssssss*

10
Normal (Academic)/ 15
Normal (Technical) Special/Express 9
SECONDARY course 14
course 8
EDUCATION 4 years
4 years 13
7
12

Orientation Stage
P5-P6 11
with different language streams
10
PRIMARY
EDUCATION
1
9
Foundation Stage
P1-P4 8
7

National Examination

189
 Paul CHEUNG
At the secondary level, pupils undergo either
four or five years of secondary education with
different curricular emphases. The majority of pupils
are streamed into the Special or Express courses,
both of which lead to the General Certificate of
Education Ordinary Level Examination in four
years. The rest enter the four-to-five years Normal
course which leads to the General Certificate of
Education Normal Level Examination at the end of
four years. Those who perform well go on to sit the
General Certificate of Education Ordinary Level
Examination at the end of the fifth year. The others
will either go on to vocational training or take up
employment as the Normal Level certificates are
recognised by employers.
Depending on their General Certificate of
Education Ordinary Level examination results,
those who wish to pursue further academic
education will proceed to pre-university. Pupils may
either apply for a two-year course in a junior college
or three-year course in a centralised institute or
pre-university centre. At the end of their
pre-university course, pupils will sit for the General
Certificate of Education Advanced Level
examination. Alternatively, pupils may join the
technical or commercial institutes under the Institute
of Technical Education, the polytechnics or
Economic Development Board training institutes.
Pupils who have passed their General
Certificate of Education Advanced Level can opt to
enrol in the various institutions of higher learning in
Singapore. These include the polytechnics,
Economic Development Board training institutes
and universities. Alternatively, those who aspire to
be teachers can opt for the National Institute of
Education. On the average, a student spends a
minimum of 16 years to obtain a university
education. Typically, he would spend 6 years in
primary school, 4 years in secondary school, 2-3
years in pre-university and 3-4 years in the
university.
Educational Changes to Meet Manpower Needs in the
1990s
The educational system described above is the
result of a number of educational developments
since 1990. Firstly, the developments at primary
level and secondary levels follow from the
recommendations of a Ministry of Education
Review Committee which was set up in July 1990. A
190
key feature of the changes is that most pupils will
have at least ten years general education up to the
secondary level. Another important change is the
introduction of a new Normal (Technical) course in
secondary schools.
Secondly, the improvements introduced by the
Review Committee have significant implications on
vocational/technical education. As a consequence, a
Vocational and Industrial Training Board Review
Committee was formed to formulate plans for the
restructuring and upgrading of the vocational/
technical training system to meet the needs of
secondary school leavers and the economy. This
Review has led to the upgrading of the Vocational
and Industrial Training Board into a post-secondary
training institution and more opportunities for
vocational/technical trainees to progress to further
education.
Thirdly, at the tertiary level, the educational
developments are closely linked to the on-going
review and recommendations of the Council for
Professional and Technical Education. Enrolment in
the polytechnics, National University of Singapore
and Nanyang Technological University have been
monitored closely by the Council for Professional
and Technical Education and fine-tuned yearly. This
is to ensure that they produce sufficient numbers of
graduates in relevant disciplines for economic
restructuring and enhancement of Singapore's
technological capability. The result is a rapid,
coordinated expansion of tertiary educational
facilities and steady increase in output of graduates
in a wider range of disciplines.
Another important educational development
which revolutionizes school organisation and
management in the decade of the 1990s is the
formation of independent schools. So far, eight of
Singapore's top secondary schools have opted to
operate more independently of the Ministry of
Education. The objective of allowing these schools
to become independent schools is to enable them to
upgrade their education programme by improving
their teacher-pupil ratios and introducing enrich-
ment and other programmes for their pupils.
Independent schools have the flexibility to decide
curriculum matters, charge the appropriate
educational fees, and recruit and reward teachers.
By offering a variety of educational programmes
and improved infrastructure, such schools raise
educational standards as they compete not just for
the best students but also for the best teachers and
 Educational Development and Manpower Planning in Singapore
school administrators.
Improved Primary Education
The primary school system which has been
implemented since 1980 has brought about better
educational achievements and reduced attrition. In
1990, 86% of a primary one cohort passed the
primary school leaving examination and only 14%
did not proceed to secondary education, A decade
ago, 24% did not proceed to secondary education.
There are, however, some areas in the primary
school system that could be improved. First, there is
a need to provide pupils with an adequate
foiiQdation in English and Mathematics to prepare
them for further education and training. Second,
streaming at primary three is premature as there has
been a high incidence of lateral transfers at primary
four and five. Third, most pupils and their parents
do not favour post-primary vocational education
and training, perferring an academic education.
For the majority of pupils of average and
above-average ability (80%), there is no major
change as the system has been successful in
developing their potential and preparing them for
secondary education. However, the system has to be
refined to help the least able 20% of pupils to
progress up the educational ladder. The main
changes which are implemented in the primary
system are the provision of six years' primary
education for all pupils, delay in streaming at the
end of primary three to the end of primary four and
modification of the primary school leaving
examination to assess pupils' suitability for
secondary education and determine their placing in
the appropriate secondary courses. The improved
primary system allows most, if not all, pupils to go
on to secondary school and receive at least ten years
of general education.
Secondary Technical Education
While the structure of the secondary system
remains more or less intact, it is necessary to provide
for a technically-oriented course in secondary
schools to give pupils wider educational choices. The
15-20% less academically-inclined primary school
leavers will no longer proceed to vocational training.
They will be placed in a new Normal (Technical)
course which is not regarded as vocational education
but as part of general education necessary to achieve
a higher level of vocational/technical education and
training.
The Normal (Technical) course leads to the
General Certificate of Education Normal Level
examination at the end of four years with a fifth year
leading to the General Certificate of Education
Ordinary Level examination for the more able of the
pupils. Pupils in the Normal (Technical) course take
English, Mathematics and computer applications as
core subjects. These subjects strengthen the pupils'
proficiency in English and Mathematics and prepare
them for further education or careers in vocational/
technical fields.
Upgrading f Vocational I Technical Education and
Training
Arising from the changes in the primary and
secondary systems, the Vocational and Industrial
Training Board has been re-structured and re-named
as the Institute of Technical Education in 1992.
Unlike its predecessor which admitted primary and
premature secondary school leavers as well as
secondary school leavers, the Institute of Technical
Education focuses on the provision of post-
secondary technical and vocational training for
pupils who have completed a minimum of ten years
of general education. As a post-secondary training
institution, the Institute of Technical Education no
longer admits primary school leavers.
The changes in the vocational training system
will reduce educational wastage as studies have
shown that at least one-third of primary school
leavers who joined the vocational institutes ie the
past did not complete the most basic vocational
training course. Moreover, employment surveys
show that 75% of Vocational and Industrial
Training Board trainees with only primary
education were not working in jobs relevant to their
training. These trainees faced limited employment
prospects as feedback from employers has shown
their preference for workers with at least secondary
education. The secondary-educated workers were
considered to have greater potential in picking up
new skills and adapting to new technology than
those with only a primary education.
A key change in the vocational training system
is course restructuring. Under the restructured
vocational training scheme, only secondary school
leavers who have completed a minimum of ten years
of general education will be offered full-time
191
 Paul CHEUNG
vocational training or apprenticeship schemes.
Pupils who have done well at General Certificate of
Education Ordinary Level are eligible for the
higher-level Industrial Technician Certificate and
Certificate in Business Studies. Those who are not
eligible for these two courses are offered the
Certificate in Office Skills or National Trade
Certificate Grade 2 courses. The National Trade
Certificate Grade 2 courses are grouped into 2
categories. Category A courses which mainly involve
electrical and electronics skills are more demanding
and require the pre-requisite General Certificate of
Education Ordinary or 'N' Level passes. Other
school leavers who have completed secondary
school education can apply for Category B courses
which provide training in mechanical-related skills
as well as hairdressing and dressmaking.
Besides the full-time vocational training
scheme, secondary school leavers are also given the
choice of 90 courses in various apprenticeship
schemes. The new apprenticeship training system
launched in 1990 is modelled closely after the
reputable German 'dual' system. Apprenticeship
schemes provide new entrants to the job market with
the opportunity to learn as they work. They help to
meet the diverse interests and aptitudes of the school
leavers and achieve a better match between their
occupational choices and the manpower needs of
industry.
Another important improvement is the provision
of more opportunities for progression of the
Institute of Technical Education trainees to further
education and training. Internally within the
Institute of Technical Education, Certificate in office
Skills and National Trade Certificate Grade 2
trainees who have done well could progress to the
Certificate in Business Studies and Institute of
Technical Education courses respectively. Exter-
nally, Institute of Technical Education graduates
with good results have the opportunities to enrol in
192
the polytechnics.
Expansion in Tertiary Education
Education at diploma and post-diploma level in
polytechnics has been expanded significantly in
response to the increasing demand for more
technical and middle-management manpower. There
are two aspects to this expansion. First, enrolment
has increased in the existing polytechnics, Singapore
Polytechnic and Ngee Ann Polytechnic, for various
engineering, computer, business and management
courses. Second, two new polytechnics have been
established since 1990 to complement existing
curricula and broaden the range of technical training
in specific fields. New diploma courses offered at the
Temasek Polytechnic include tourism management,
media and fashion design, legal studies and software
technology. The Nanyang Polytechnic offers
specialised training of paraprofessionals in health
sciences including nursing, occupational therapy and
physiotherapy.
Education at the university level has also been
expanded and streamlined in recent years. Today,
Singapore has two full-fledged universities, National
University of Singapore and the Nanyang
Technological University. The National University
of Singapore provides opportunities to those who
opt for the academic path, whether in professional
courses (eg. law, medicine, engineering) or
non-professional courses (eg. arts, sciences). For
those who prefer more practice- and business-
oriented degree courses, they may choose to enrol in
engineering, accountancy and management courses
in the Nanyang Technological University. Plans are
being made to establish an Open University in
Singapore. When this is operational, not only will
mature adults who miss out on a university
education benefit, there will also be spin-offs from
the educational upgrading for the economy.
 Educational Development and Manpower Planning in Singapore

2:

University University University

Year
Per of Number Per Ceit of Per Cent of
1 Cohort 18 Years Output

1980 8 5 2,549 1,771 5 3 82,2 15,0

1932 11 7 3,175 2,395 6 4 76,1 14,6
1984 14 8 4,056 3,409 8 7 70.7 17.2
1986 15 10 5,173 4,521 11 10 72.0 20.4
1988 16 14 6,879 4,746 17 11 75.9 21.6
1990 20 15 7,384 5,334 16 12 73,5 19.9
1992 29 16 8,445 6,631 19 15 68.4 21.7

In the last ten years, the number of university
graduates has more than doubled from 2,400 in 1982
to 6,600 in 1992. More importantly, the proportion
of engioeering graduates from the universities has
increased from 15% to 22%. The number of
polytechnic graduates also increased, from 3,200 to
8,400. Table 2 above provides some key indicators
of polytechnic and university education in
Singapore.
Education Endowment Find
independent schools and the top 10% in each
government and government-aided schools. It
ranges from $300 for awards to pupils in the
government and government-aided schools up to
$2,400 per year for awards to pupils in the more
expensive, independent schools.
The Edusave grant is an annual grant of
about $10,000 provided to each government and
government-aided secondary schools for their use in
educational and enrichment programmes for the
pupiils.

Parallel to the structural changes in Singapore's
education system, the government has established an
Educational Endowment Fund with effect from
1993. Through income earned from the Education
Endowment Fund, pupils benefit from three
different schemes, namely, the Edusave account,
Edusave scholarship and Edusave grant. Edusave is
intended to maximise and equalise opportunities for
students in government schools so that they can
compete with those in independent schools
which have more enrichment and extra-curricular
programmes.
An Edusave account is opened for every pupil
aged six to sixteen. It is credited annually with a sum
of money which could be used by pupils to pay
for school-based educational or enrichment pro-
grammes or for the payment of miscellaneous
educational fees. The amount credited for a start in
1993 is $50 and this may rise to $400 per year.
The Edusave scholarship is provided only to the
top 25% of secondary one pupils enroled in the
Continuing Education and Skill Development Fund
The success of Singapore's efforts in
restructuring the economy lies not only in producing
an increasing inflow of skilled entrants into the
workforce but also in nurturing and training the
existing workforce to upgrade their skills and adapt
to rapid technological and structural changes in the
economy. The National Productivity Board has
been actively involved in worker training and
continuing education. Training programmes
designed to raise worker productivity include
courses on labour-management relations, manage-
ment skills and worker's core skills for effectiveness
and change.
Apart from National Productivity Board's
productivity-related training programmes, various
continuing education programmes for workers have
also been launched. These include:
(a) Basic Education for Skills Training pro-
gramme, started in 1983, offers opportunities

193
 Paul CHEUNG
to workers below 40 years without a Primary 6
education to acquire basic knowledge of
English and Mathematics.
(b) Worker Improvement through Secondary
Education programme, launched in 1986, is
aimed at workers who have completed either
primary school or Basic Education for Skills
Training programme and are keen to sit for
the secondary school examination at General
Certificate of Education Normal level.
(e) Modular Skills Training provides skills
training during evenings and weekends for
workers with at least primary school leaving
examination qualification or 2 years relevant
working experience.
(d) Training Initiative for Matured Employees is
designed for older worker above 40 years old
who do not have formal educational
qualification.
(e) FAST FORWARD is a home-based worker
education programme for workers without
secondary education and who have not
enroled in conventional training programmes.
The Singapore government has provided
financial support for the various worker training
and continuing education programmes. A Skills
Development Fund has been established since 1979
to provide funds for the subsidised training of
workers. This is to encourage employers to upgrade
the skills of their workers. The Skills Development
Fund is financed through a levy on salaries of
employees earning less than S$ 1,000 per month. The
levy is paid by employers. In 1980, a total of S$18
million was committed for training grants. This
amount increased by more than three times to S$81
million in 1991. The number of workers who
benefited from such grants rose from 11,000 in 1980
to 301,000 in 1985 and further to 408,000 in 1991.
The schemes implemented by Skills
Development Fund since its foundation include the
Training Grant Scheme, the Emerging/Critical Skills
194
Development Grant Scheme, Basic Education for
Skills Training and Worker Improvement through
Secondary Education. The latter two are nationally-
driven remedial adult eduation prorammes aimed at
equipping workers with only primary or no formal
qualification with a certain level of literacy and
numeracy for further training. The Emerging/
Critical Skills Scheme, on the other hand, is a
relatively new scheme introduced by Skills
Development Fund aimed to help companies
venture into emerging or critical skills deemed
crucial to the continued development of their
industries.
Concluding Remarks
Educational streaming has provided Singapore's
formal educational system with an inherent
flexibility that minimises educational wastage.
Streaming at primary and secondary levels allows
pupils to study courses that are suited to their
different abilities and needs. Further, ample
provisions are made in the system for the less
academically-inclined to pursue vocational and
technical education and training at secondary and
post-secondary levels. The system gives pupils a
good general education as well as a firm foundation
to build up the skills and expertise that are necessary
to meet manpower needs for rapid economic
development.
The multi-agency, coordinated approach to
manpower planning and training has also ensured a
steadily increasing supply of the trained manpower
in specific fields of occupations. At the tertiary level
and beyond the formal school system, institutes of
higher learning and various government agencies
work in concert to expand the pool of skilled,
technical and professional manpower and to
promote educational and skills upgrading. Their
efforts augur well for the enhancement of
Singapore's technological capabilities.
 Educational Development and Manpower Planning in Singapore

Ministry of Education, Key Education Statistics 1934, Singapore.

Cheung, Paul & Soon Teck Wong, (1990). Education System and
Social Inequality in Singapore: Symposium on the State,
Education and Development, Chinese University of Hong
Kong, September 20-21.
Goh Keng Swee, (1979), Report on the Ministry of Education
1978, Singapore, Ministry of Education.
Government of Singapore, The Skills Development Fund Annual
Report 1991192, Singapore: National Printers.
Ministry of Education, Education Statistics Digest 1992,
Singapore.
National Productivity Board, National Productivity Board Annual
Report 1991/92, Singapore,
Review Committee, (1991), Improving Primary School Education,
Singapore, Ministry of Education.
Soon Teck Wong, (1992). Development of Human Resources and
Technological Capability in Singapore, Economic
Development Institute, The World Bank.
Vocational & Industrial Training Board, (1991). Upgrading
Vocational Training, Singapore.

Dr. Paul CHEUNG is Senior Lecturer of the Development of Social Work & Psychology, National University
of Singapore.

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