Fluid Mechanics

GATE & ESE

Content Sheet

Fluid Mechanics 1
1 Introduction 3
2 Fluid Statics 13
3 Fluid Kinematics 22
4 Fluid Dynamics 39
5 Flow Past Immersed Bodies: 73
6 Dimensional Analysis And Model Similitude 92
7 Fluid Machinery And Flow Measuring Devices 103

2.
 1 Introduction

Chapter 1
What is a fluid?
Generally, we can say that matter consists of two states:
� Solid
� Fluid
The difference between the two lies with the reaction of these states of matter to an
applied shear stress:
A solid can resist a shear stress by static deflection while a fluid cannot. This implies that
any shear stress applied to a fluid, even if it is very small, will result in the motion of the
fluid.
We can also say that:
The fluid moves and deforms continuously as long as the shear stress is applied. Also, for a
fluid to be at rest, it must be in a state of zero shear stress.

This continuous deformation of the fluid is called ‘flow’.

For a solid under the effect of a shearing force,
The shear stress, τ ∝ θ
For a fluid under the effect of a shearing force,
∂θ
τ∝
∂t

Classes of Fluids
There are two classes of fluids:
y Liquids
⚪ Relatively strong cohesive forces
⚪ Relatively closely packed molecules
⚪ Have a fixed volume for a certain mass
⚪ Form a free surface under gravitational force if unconfined from above
⚪ Free surface flows are dominated by gravitational effects
y Gases
⚪ Negligible cohesive forces
Introduction

⚪ Molecules are far more widely spaced

3.
 ⚪ Do not have a definite volume
⚪ Cannot form a free surface under gravitational influence
⚪ Gas flows are negligibly affected by gravitational force
Fluid mechanics is the study of fluids, i.e., liquids. The study of fluids may be divided
into two categories:
y Fluid statics: the study of fluids at rest
y Fluid dynamics: the study of fluids in motion

Types of Forces
The forces acting on a fluid can be broadly categorized into two types:
y Body forces
⚪ These forces are dependent on the mass of the fluid
⚪ These forces are independent of the surface area
⚪ E.g., weight and inertial forces
y Surface forces
⚪ These forces are entirely dependent on the surface area
⚪ These forces are independent of the mass of the fluid
⚪ E.g., surface tension

Key Terms in Fluid Mechanics

y System
The part of the universe the physical characteristics of which are under observation is called
a system.
y Surrounding
The part of the universe except the system is called surrounding.
y Property
A property is a measurable characteristic of a system which is used to define the state of
the system. Properties are of two types:
⚪ Intensive properties
The properties which are independent of the amount of matter in the system are called
intensive properties. E.g., pressure, temperature, density, specific energy, etc. These
properties can be defined at a point in the system.
⚪ Extensive properties
These are the properties that are dependent on the amount of matter in the system, and
thus can only be defined for the bulk. E.g., mass, volume, weight, energy, entropy, etc.

Physical Properties of a Fluid and Their Expressions

Mass Density or Density
The density of a fluid, denoted by ρ , is the mass of the fluid occupying a unit volume at the
Introduction

given state. Mathematically,

4.
 m kg
ρ=   ;
V m3

kg kg
1000
We have: ρwater = 3
 at 4.4 O C  and ρair =
1.23 3  at 25O C and 1 atm
m m
Specific Volume
It is the volume occupied by a unit mass of the fluid. It is generally more useful in the case
of gaseous fluids as gases can have multiple values of volume for a certain mass.
V 1 m3
v
= =   ;
m ρ kg
Weight Density or Specific Weight
It is defined as the weight of fluid at a given state in the given gravitational field in a unit
volume.
W mg N
w= = = ρg  ; 3
V V m
Specific Gravity
In general, the specific gravity is defined as the ratio of density or weight density of any fluid
to density or weight density of some standard fluid.
ρ w
=s =
ρstandard fluid wstandard fluid

For liquids, the standard fluid is water at 4.4 OC and 1 atm.

For gases, the standard fluid is air at 25 OC and 1 atm.
The specific gravity of the standard fluid will always be 1.
If the specific gravity of a solid or fluid is less than 1, then it will float in the standard fluid
and if its specific gravity is greater than 1, then it will sink in the standard fluid.

Dynamic Viscosity ( µ )
Viscosity is a quantitative measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow. More specifically, it
determines the fluid strain rate that is generated by a given applied shear stress.
For any fluid flow over a solid surface, it is assumed that the velocity at the solid surface
is zero and it increases gradually as we move away from the solid surface in the direction
normal to the flow.
The resistance to the flow because of internal frictional resistance is called viscous resistance
and the property which offers the resistance to relative motion between the adjacent layers
of fluid is called viscosity.
Introduction

5.
 Newton’s Law of Viscosity

According to Newton’s law of viscosity, the shear stress is directly proportional to the rate
of shear strain.
From the adjoining figure, we have:
BB′ = du * dt
Or,
BB′ = dy * dθ
This implies that
du dθ
=
dy dt
From the Newton’s law of viscosity,
dθ
Introduction

τ∝
dt

6.
This implies that
du
τ∝
dy
Or,
du
τ=µ
dy

In the above equation, the proportionality constant is called the dynamic viscosity of the
fluid.
We have,
N
τ 2 Ns
=
µ ≡ m= = Pa.s
du m m2
dy s
m
Thus, the SI unit of dynamic viscosity is Pa.s.
In the CGS system, viscosity is measured in Poise.
1P
  a.s = 10P
  oise
Shear stress is a second order tensor; it is internally produced and cannot be directly
measured.
Pressure is a scalar; it is externally applied and can be directly measured.

Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluids:

As discussed above, the Newton’s law of viscosity can be mathematically expressed as:
du
τ=µ
dy
This suggests that the ratio of shear stress and rate of shear strain is constant for a fluid at
a given temperature and pressure.
The fluids that obey Newton’s law of viscosity are called Newtonian fluids.
However, there are certain fluids which do not obey this relationship. Such fluids are called
non-Newtonian fluids.

Types of Non-Newtonian Fluids

The change in viscosity can either be dependent on strain rate or on time. The fluids which
undergo a change in viscosity are as follows.
Introduction

7.
 Dilatant fluids: These are also called shear-thickening fluids. Their viscosity increases with
increase in strain rate. Classic examples are those of mixtures of corn-starch in water and
sand in water. Quicksand is a widely known example, as its viscosity increases if you make
quick, hasty movements and thus it becomes difficult to escape.

Pseudoplastic fluids: these are also called shear-thinning fluids. Their viscosity decreases
with increase in strain rate. Examples include polymer solutions, colloidal suspensions,
paper pulp in water, latex paint, blood plasma, sugar syrup and molasses. One of the very
common examples is paint, which appears thick when you pour it but gets thinner when
applied at a high strain rate (swift brush strokes).

Bingham plastic fluids: These are the fluids that require a finite yield stress before they begin
to flow. Most common examples are those of clay suspensions, drilling mud, toothpaste,
mayonnaise and ketchup. You must have observed that the ketchup does not flow out of the
bottle until you shake it or even gently hit it at the bottom.
The fluids which undergo a change in viscosity with time are rheopectic and thixotropic
fluids.

Cohesive and Adhesive Forces: Contact Angle

Cohesive force is an intermolecular attraction force between two molecules of the same
substance.

Adhesive force is an intermolecular attraction force between two molecules of different

substances.
Introduction

8.
 If adhesive force is stronger than cohesive force, the fluid will tend to spread over the solid
surface and the angle of contact will be less than 90o. For example, for pure water and clean
glass, the angle of contact is approximately zero degrees.
If cohesive force is stronger than adhesive force, the fluid will tend to spread over the solid
surface and the angle of contact will be greater than 90o. For example, for liquid mercury
and clean glass, the angle of contact ranges from 135o to 150o.

Surface Tension
The liquid molecules in the bulk are surrounded by other molecules. Therefore, these
molecules are acted upon by equal and opposite forces in all directions. So it is in equilibrium
state.
The liquid molecules at the free surface have no molecules above them. These molecules
are acted upon by a downward force which tends to drag the molecule into the interior of
fluid. To hold its position, the molecules at the free surface will expand a quantum of their
energy over the free surface. This expansion of energy over the free surface is called surface
tension.
Surface tension is given by:
energy J Nm N
=σ ≡ =2
=
area m m2 m
y Surface tension is a line force
y Surface tension depends upon the nature of liquid and the nature of the surrounding
medium
y Surface tension is generally small or negligible in comparison to gravity or pressure force.
But it becomes quite significant when the boundary dimensions are small and there is a free
surface; for example, in a capillary tube, vascular tissues in plants, etc
y The value of surface tension decreases with increase in kinetic energy of molecules, i.e., the
temperature of the fluid
N N
y σ 0.073   for water − air interface
= ; σ 0.48  forH
  g − air interface
m m
Introduction

9.
 Pressure Inside a Water Droplet:

For a bubble, there are two interfaces. Thus, the surface tension is twice that at one single
interface.
The surface tension is 2σ .
Introduction

10.
Thus, the force balance gives:
π 2 π
p0 d + 2σπd = pi d2
4 4
2
πd
(pi − p0 ) = 2σπd
4
Or,
8σ
pi − p0 =
d

Capillary Effect
A capillary tube is a tube with a very small diameter. When a capillary tube is dipped into
a fluid, the level of fluid inside it either rises above or falls below that of the rest of the
container. This phenomenon of rise or fall of the liquid level in the capillary is called the
capillary effect or the meniscus effect.

When a capillary tube is dipped into a wetting fluid, due to adhesive forces, the level of
liquid in the capillary rises. The surface tension force that makes the fluid rise is countered
by the weight of the fluid.
Thus,
Introduction

The upward force is given by σπdcoscos θ 

11.
 π 2
The weight of the liquid is wV = w. dh
4
Equating both the forces,
π 2
w d h = σπdcoscos θ 
4
4σcoscos θ 
h=
wd
Introduction

12.
 2 Fluid Statics

Chapter 2
In this chapter, everything we shall be discussing will be about fluids at rest. And since the
fluids are at rest, no shear or inertia forces are in consideration. The only forces that will
be talked about are gravity and pressure forces. Let us discuss some key concepts before
diving into the details.

Pressure
Pressure is the compression stress at a point in a static fluid. Apart from velocity, pressure
is the most dynamic variable in fluid mechanics. Differences or gradients in pressure often
drive a fluid flow, especially in pipes or ducts.
In other words, we can also say that pressure is the rate of change of momentum transferred
by the fluid particles normal to the surface of the solid. The SI unit of pressure is N/m2 or
Pascals (Pa).
y Absolute Zero
In a case that there are no fluid particles in the system, or if all the fluid particles are at rest,
we say that it is the state of absolute zero.
y Absolute Pressure
Any value of pressure considering the absolute zero as the reference or datum is called
absolute pressure.

y Atmospheric Pressure
The pressure exerted by the air surrounding the planet’s surface is called atmospheric
pressure. The absolute pressure values for the earth’s atmosphere in different units are as
follows: 760 mm Hg, 10.33 m H2O, 101325 Pa and 1.01325 bar.
y Gauge Pressure
The relative value of pressure considering the earth’s atmospheric pressure as the reference
value is called gauge pressure. If the pressure is more than the atmospheric pressure, it is
denoted as positive gauge pressure. If it is less than the atmospheric pressure, it is reported
as negative gauge pressure or vacuum.
Pgauge
= Pabs − Patm

This implies that while the absolute zero is the same for all the planets, absolute vacuum
is different for different planets.

Laws associated with Pressure

y Pascal’s law
Fluid Statics

Pascal’s law states that in a static fluid, at a point, the pressure intensity will be the same
in all directions.

13.
Chapter 2

It can also be stated as:

“Any two points at the same elevation in a continuous mass of the same static fluid will be
at the same pressure.”

To prove this law, assume a differential element in a static fluid shown in the figure.
Since the fluid is static, there should be no net force in any direction.
Thus, in x-direction,
pxdydz pθdsdzsinsin θ 
=
But dssinsin θ =dy 
Thus,
px = pθ
Similarly, in y-direction,
py dxdz pθdsdzcoscos θ 
=

But, since dscoscos θ =dx 

Thus,
Fluid Statics

py = pθ

14.
 Chapter 2
This implies that
p=
x p=
y pθ

This means that the pressure forces in all directions are same at a point in a static fluid.
y Hydrostatic Law
The hydrostatic law states that in a static fluid, the pressure increases with increment in
depth.
Consider the adjoining figure.

For a differential cylindrical element of length dy and cross sectional area dA inside a static
liquid located at a distance y from the free surface,
Force balance in vertical direction is given by:
 ∂p 
−pdA +  p + dy  dA − W =
0
 ∂y 
Since =
W wV
= wdAdy,
∂p
dydA − w dA dy =
0
∂y
∂p
=w
∂y
Since the conditions in the liquid are all unchanging, we can safely assume that
∂p dp
= w
=
Fluid Statics

∂y dy

15.
Chapter 2

Upon integrating, we have

=
p wy + c
At y = 0, p = patm and this implies c = patm
Thus,
pabs
= wy + patm
The gauge pressure is then given by
pgauge = ρgy

Measurement of Pressure
To measure the pressure using any technique, we have to make the following assumptions:
i. Pascal’s law is valid.
ii. Hydrostatic law is valid.
iii. The pressure is not affected by container boundaries.
Pressure is measured using a manometer, by balancing columns of liquids against the
pressure to be measured. Manometers can be vertical, inclined, open, differential or
compound. They can be used to measure gauge pressure, absolute pressure, vacuum
pressure and atmospheric pressure.
y Piezometer
It is a straight transparent glass tube whose both ends are open to the atmosphere. To
measure the pressure, one end of the piezometer is connected to the gauge point where
the pressure has to be measured and by measuring the height of liquid in the piezometer,
we can measure the pressure.
Fluid Statics

16.
 Chapter 2
Demerits of piezometer:
i. Can’t be used to measure pressure in excess of patm.
ii. Can’t be used to measure negative gauge pressure or vacuum.
iii. Can’t be used to measure pressure of gases as they do not maintain a free surface.
y U-tube Manometer

It is a transparent glass tube bent in a U-shape. Initially, both the ends are open to the
atmosphere and so the level of manometric fluid is the same in both the limbs. All the
properties of manometric fluid are known.
Measurement of pressure using a U-tube manometer:

i. Positive gauge pressure

P1' = P2 '
Fluid Statics

17.
Chapter 2

'
P=
1 PA + wh
P2' = wmhm
∴ P=
A wmhm − wh
ii. Negative gauge pressure
P1' = P2 '
P1' =PA + wh + wmhm
P2' = 0
∴ PA + wmhm + wh =
0
− ( wh + wmhm )
PA =

y Differential U-tube Manometer

It is used to measure the pressure difference between two gauge points. If the U-tube
differential manometer is used in an upright position, in that case, the manometric fluid
must be heavier than the measured fluid. If it is used in an inverted position, then the
manometric fluid must be lighter than the measured fluid.
Example: Find the pressure difference between points A and B.
Fluid Statics

18.
 Chapter 2
Solution: Adding the pressures in the manometer tube from A to B gives
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
PA = 104 * 0.9 − 136 * 103 * 0.6 + 8.5 * 103 * 0.4  − 13.6 * 103 * 0.5 − 104 * 0.3 − PB  

=
PA − PB 140.2
= * 103 P
  a 140.2 kPa

Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Bodies

y Hydrostatic force on a horizontal planar surface

The force exerted by the bulk of the static fluid on a planar surface is given by:
F = ρgyA
y Hydrostatic force on a vertical planar surface
The hydrostatic pressure on a differential area element is given by
p = ρgy
Thus, the pressure force is given by
dF = pdA = ρgy dA
Integrating, we get

∫
F = ρg ydA

Taking yc to be the centre of mass of the object, we can say that ∫ ydA = y A .
c
Fluid Statics

19.
Chapter 2

This gives
F=
ρgAy c =
wAy c
We can also say that,
F = pavg A

Where pavg = ρgy c

Buoyancy and Floatation

Let us analyse the forces acting on a body that is submerged in a static liquid.
The hydrostatic force due to the liquid above the body is F = ρf gyA , where ρf is the density
of the fluid.
ρf g ( y + h) A
The hydrostatic force due to the liquid below the body is F =
Thus, the net force acting on the body due to hydrostatic pressure is Fnet = ρf ghA , in the
upward direction, which is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by the body.
On the other hand, the weight of the body, W =
mg = ρghA .
ρVg =
Fluid Statics

20.
 Chapter 2
Archimedes’ Principle
We can say that a body immersed in a fluid will experience an upward lifting force, which
is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced. This upward force is called buoyant force. The
tendency of a body to be lifted upward in a fluid is called buoyancy.
The line of action of the buoyant force is vertical and passes through the centroid of displaced
fluid, and this centroid is called the centre of buoyancy.
If W is the weight of the body and FB is the buoyant force then there are three possibilities:
i. When W > FB, the body will sink in the fluid.
ii. When W < FB, the body will rise in the fluid.
Fluid Statics

iii. When W > FB, the body will float in the fluid.

21.
 3 Fluid Kinematics
Chapter 3

In this section, we shall be discussing all about fluid in motion. We shall discuss the
visualization of the flow, velocity and acceleration of the fluid, its flow rate and the nature
of the flow. In fluid kinematics, the forces or energies responsible for the acceleration or
deceleration of the flow are not considered.
Before diving into detail, we must brush up what we know about calculus and vector calculus,
as this knowledge will come in handy as we progress further into the subject.

Basics of Vector Calculus

Scalar
A quantity that has a magnitude but has no direction is called a scalar. Examples are speed,
pressure, distance, energy, work, etc.
Vector
A quantity that needs both magnitude and direction to be defined is a vector. Examples are
velocity, acceleration, force, displacement, momentum, etc.
A vector is expressed as

a = xiˆ + yjˆ + zk̂
Here, the capped symbols i, j, k represent unit vectors in the respective directions in a right
handed coordinate system.
The magnitude of a vector is given by

a= x2 + y 2 + z2

Scalar Product or Dot Product



For two vectors a and b given by

a = a1ˆi + a2ˆj + a3k̂

b = b ˆi + b ˆj + b k̂
1 2 3

The scalar product or dot product is given by


a.b = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3
Its magnitude is also given by
  

= a.b a b cosθ

Where θ is the angle between the two vectors.

Vector Product or Cross Product

For the above defined vectors, the vector product is given by
Fluid Kinematics

 
a ×b =i jk
   a1  a2  a3  b1 b
  2  b3  
It is also given by

22.
    
a=
×b  ˆ
a b sinθn

Where n̂ is the unit vector normal to the plane containing both the vectors.

Field
Field is a type of algebraic structure, in which each point in space is assigned a certain
property or quantity.
y Scalar Field
It is an algebraic structure where each point in the coordinate space is allotted a scalar
value. For example, pressure field, energy field, etc.
y Vector Field
It is an algebraic structure where each point in the coordinate space is allotted a vector. For
example, velocity field, acceleration field, etc.

Gradient of a Scalar Field

Let φ be a field defined as a function of x, y, z.
φ =f ( x, y, z )
Then the gradient of φ is given by
 ∂ ∂ ˆ ∂ ˆ
∇φ  ˆi +
= j+ k φ
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
Or
∂φ ˆ ∂φ ˆ ∂φ ˆ
=
∇φ i+ j+ k
∂x ∂y ∂z
The gradient represents the vector normal to the field.

Directional Derivative
Projection of the normal vector to a field in any given direction is called the directional
derivative. For example, if you want to project the vector normal to the scalar field φ in the
direction â , then it would be represented by
ˆ
∇φ.a
Divergence of a Vector Field
Let us define a vector field as

F = F ˆi + F ˆj + F k̂
1 2 3

Then the divergence of this vector field is defined as the dot product of the vector F with
Fluid Kinematics

the gradient. It is represented as

   ∂
divF =∇.F = ˆi +
 ∂x ∂
∂ ˆ ∂ ˆ
y
j+
∂z 
( )
k  . F1ˆi + F2ˆj + F3kˆ

23.
 Thus,
 ∂F1 ∂F2
∇.F= + ˆj + ∂F3
∂x ∂y ∂z
Geometrically, divergence defines the rate of loss of fluid per unit volume.
If the divergence is positive, then it means there is an accumulation. For example, in the
case such as
mass in > mass out
If the divergence is negative, then it means there is generation. For example, in the case
such as
energy out > energy in
If the divergence is zero, then it means the field is said to be conserved. For example, in the
case such as
mass out = mass in
In such a case, the vector field is also called incompressible.

Curl of a Field
Curl of a field tells us about its rotation. It is represented by
  ∂ ∂ ∂
curlF = ∇ × F = i jk
       F  1F
 2F
 3 
∂x ∂y ∂z
For example, the curl of the velocity vector gives
 
∇ × V = 2ω
Here,
i. If the curl is non-zero, the field is said to be rotational.
ii. If the curl is zero, the field is irrotational.

Approaches to analyze Fluid Motion

There are two approaches to analyze the motion of a fluid:
y Lagrangian approach
y Eulerian approach
y Lagrangian Approach (Particle-Based Approach)
In this approach, a particle of fluid is identified and followed during the course of motion
with time. The identified lump of fluid may change in shape, size and state as it moves. The
law of mechanics must be applied to it all the time. This can be visualized as sitting in a
Fluid Kinematics

boat and drifting down a river.

Since the motion of one individual fluid particle is inadequate to describe the entire flow
field, this approach is rather insignificant when it comes to bulk flow of a fluid.

24.
y Eulerian Approach (Point-Based Approach)
The fluid motion at all points in the flow field is determined by applying laws of mechanics
at all fixed spatial coordinates. The Eulerian specification of the flow field is a way of looking
at fluid motion that focuses on specific locations in the space through which the fluid flows
as time passes. This can be visualized by sitting on the bank of a river and watching the
water pass the fixed location.

Visualization of the Fluid Flow

In a rectangular coordinate system, let x, y and z be the spatial coordinates at time t. Here,
the position of the particle can be located by a position vector given as:

r = xiˆ + yjˆ + zk̂
Let u, v, w be the components of velocity in the respective directions, x, y and z. Then the
velocity of the particle is given by

V = uˆi + vjˆ + wk̂
Similarly, the acceleration vector is given as

a = a xˆi + a yˆj + azk̂

For a flow field, let us define the components of velocity as the functions of space and time
coordinates as follows:
u = u ( x, y, z, t )
v = v ( x, y, z, t )
w = w ( x, y, z, t )
Fluid Kinematics

Then,
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u
du = dx + dy + dz + dt
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t

25.
 And the acceleration, let us say, in the x-direction is given by:
du ∂u dx ∂u dy ∂u dz ∂u
ax = =  + + +
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt ∂z dt ∂t
Simplifying further,
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u
ax = u  + v + w  convective acceleration +  local  acceleration
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
Similarly, the acceleration in the y- and z-directions can be given by:
∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v
ay = u  + v +w +
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
∂w ∂w ∂w ∂w
az = u  + v +w +
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
The sum of local and convective acceleration is called material acceleration or substantial
acceleration.
We can also write ax as

ax = (uˆi + vjˆ + wkˆ ) .  ∂∂ux ˆi + ∂∂uy ˆj + ∂∂uz kˆ  + ∂∂ut

 ∂u ∂u ∂u 
You might recall from your vector calculus lessons that  ˆi + ˆj + kˆ  can be
  ∂x ∂y ∂z 
written as the gradient of the velocity vector, ∇u .
Thus,
  ∂u
a x = V.∇u +
∂t
Similarly,
  ∂v
a y = V.∇v +
∂t
  ∂w
az = V.∇w +
∂t
Summing these components up, we have the net substantial acceleration vector given by
    ∂u  ˆ    ∂v  ˆ    ∂w  ˆ
a =  V.∇u +  i +  V.∇v +  j +  V.∇w + k
 ∂t   ∂t   ∂t 
Or,

   ∂V
(
a = V.∇ V +
∂t
)
Fluid Kinematics

26.
Classification of Fluid Flow
Laminar and Turbulent
The term laminar originates from the word lamina which means layer. Laminar flow is
imagined to be the smooth flow of one lamina or layer of fluid over another in which fluid
elements move in well-defined paths. It is also referred to as streamlined or viscous flow.
Turbulence is defined as the random, haphazard motion of fluid parcels where the path
lines can intersect and formation of eddies is possible. In turbulent flow, fluid particles
are subjected to fluctuating transverse velocities so that the flow is eddying rather than
straight-lined or rectilinear.

Steady and Unsteady

If the properties of the flow are not varying with time, it is called steady flow.
If the properties of the flow are varying with time, it is called unsteady flow.

Uniform and Non-Uniform

If the properties are not varying with space, the flow is said to be uniform.
If the properties of the flow vary with space, the flow is said to be non-uniform.

Rotational and Irrotational

If during the flow, the fluid particles are rotating about their own Centre of mass, then the
flow is said to be rotational.
If there is no rotation of particles at all, the flow is said to be irrotational.

Motion and Deformation of a Fluid Element

Linear Translation
Consider a fluid element as shown in the figure.
If both u and v are constant in x- and y-directions respectively, the fluid element will
translate by a distance udt in the x-direction and vdt in the y-direction.
Fluid Kinematics

27.
 Linear Deformation
If u is a function of x only and v is a function of y only, then within the time interval dt, the
∂u
element will linearly stretch or deform by an amount dxdt in the x-direction and by an
∂x
∂v
amount dydt in the y-direction.
∂y
Fluid Kinematics

28.
Rotation
If the velocities u and v are the functions of y and x coordinates respectively, we can then
define the angular velocity ω as follows.
u = u (y)
v = v (x)
Then,

1  ∂v  ∂u  
=
ωz  + − 
2  ∂x  ∂y  

Similarly,

1  ∂w ∂v 
=
ωx  − 
2  ∂y ∂z 

And,

1  ∂u ∂w 
=
ωy −
2  ∂z ∂x 

Summing up, the total angular velocity vector is given by


ω = ωxˆi + ωyˆj + ωzk̂

Substituting the values, we get

 1  ∂v ∂u  ˆ  ∂w ∂v  ˆ  ∂u ∂w  ˆ 
=ω  − i + − j+ −  k
2  ∂x ∂y   ∂y ∂z   ∂z ∂x  

From vector calculus, we know that this is equal to

 1  
ω
=
2
(
∇×V )
Or,
 1 
ω = curl V
2

Shear Deformation
If the velocity field varies with spatial coordinates as shown in the figure, then the fluid
Fluid Kinematics

element stretches as shown.

29.
 Patterns of Flow
Streamlines
These are a family of curves that are instantaneously tangent to the velocity vector of the
flow. These show the direction in which a massless fluid element will travel at any point in
time.
If s is the streamline tangent to the velocity vector,
Fluid Kinematics

   

= V × ds V = ds sinsin θ  0

ˆˆ  ˆ  u v  w  dx dy dz  = 0
i  jk

30.
Thus,
( vdz − wdy ) ˆi − (udz − wdx ) ˆj + (udy − vdx ) kˆ =
0

We thus have
dz dy
vdz − wdy =0 → =
w v
dz dx
udz − wdx =0 → =
w u
dy dx
udy − vdx =0 → =
v u
Consolidating these expressions, we have the relationship for a streamline.
dx dy dz ds
= = =
u v w V
In two dimensions, we have
dx dy
=
u v
From this equation, the slope of a stream line may be calculated and found to be
dy v
slope
= m =1 =
dx u
Since a particle cannot have two velocities at a single moment, two streamlines cannot
intersect. On a streamline, a number of particles are traced and thus gives an instantaneous
picture.

Streaklines
Fluid Kinematics

These are the loci of points of all the fluid particles that have passed continuously through
a particular spatial point in the past. Dye steadily injected into the fluid at a fixed point
extends along a streakline.

31.
 Pathlines
These are the trajectories that individual fluid particles follow. These can be thought of as
“recording” the path of a fluid element in the flow over a certain period. The direction the
path takes will be determined by the streamlines of the fluid at each moment in time.

Timelines
These are the lines formed by a set of fluid particles that were marked at a previous instant
in time, creating a line or a curve that is displaced in time as the particles move.
When the flow is steady, streamlines, streaklines, path lines and timelines are coincident.

The Continuity Equation

The equation of continuity, in general, is a mathematical relationship that describes the flow
of any quantity. In fluid mechanics, however, we shall use the continuity equation for the
description of flow of mass of a fluid.
While developing this equation, we shall be taking into account the fact that mass is
conserved, i.e., no mass is lost or generated when a fluid passes through our system of
reference.
Let us consider an infinitesimally small control volume in the fluid flow having dimensions
dx, dy and dz.
The volume of such an element would be = dxdydz
Mass entering the face ABCD in time interval dt is ρudydzdt
 ∂
Mass leaving the face EFGH in time interval dt is ρu + ( ρu) dx  dydzdt
 ∂ x 
Mass entering the face CDHG in time interval dt is ρvdxdzdt
 ∂ 
Mass leaving the face ABFE in time interval dt is ρv + ( ρv ) dy  dxdzdt
 ∂y 
Mass entering the face BCGF in time interval dt is ρwdxdydt
Fluid Kinematics

 ∂
Mass leaving the face ADHE in time interval dt is ρw + ( ρw ) dz dydxdt
 ∂z 

32.
Thus,
∂
The gain in mass in the x-direction in time interval dt = − ( ρu) dxdydzdt
∂x
∂
The gain in mass in the y-direction in time interval dt = − ( ρv ) dxdydzdt
∂y
∂
The gain in mass in the z-direction in time interval dt = − ( ρw ) dxdydzdt
∂z
Hence, the total mass gain in the time interval dt is given by
∂ ∂ ∂ 
−  ( ρu) + ( ρv ) + ( ρw ) dxdydzdt
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
Let the change in mass in the control volume be
∂m ∂ ∂ρ ∂ρ
dt = ( ρV ) dt = Vdt = dxdydzdt
∂t ∂t ∂t ∂t
Equating the above two results,
∂ ∂ ∂  ∂ρ
−  ( ρu) + ( ρv ) + ( ρw ) dxdydzdt = dxdydzdt
 ∂x ∂y ∂z  ∂t
Fluid Kinematics

∂ ∂ ∂  ∂ρ
−  ( ρu) + ( ρv ) + ( ρw ) =
 ∂x ∂y ∂z  ∂t

33.
 ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ρ
( ρu) + ( ρv ) + ( ρw ) + = 0
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
Simplifying the respective partial derivatives, we obtain
∂u ∂ρ ∂v ∂ρ ∂w ∂ρ ∂ρ
ρ +u +ρ +v +ρ +w + =0
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂t
Upon rearranging, we obtain
 ∂u ∂v ∂w  ∂ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ ∂ρ
ρ + +  +u +v +w + 0
=
 ∂x ∂y ∂z  ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
This is called the differential form of continuity equation.
For steady and incompressible flow, we assume the density to be constant. Hence the
equation reduces to
∂u ∂v ∂w
+ + 0
=
∂x ∂y ∂z
In two dimensions, we can express the continuity equation as
∂u ∂v
+ 0
=
∂x ∂y
This can also be expressed as

 ∂ ˆ ∂ ˆ ∂ ˆ ˆ ˆ

 ∂x
i+
∂y
j+
∂z 
( )
k  . u i + vj + wkˆ =
0

Or,

∇.V =
0
Or,

div V = 0

Stream function, ψ
A stream function is a mathematical tool expressed in the form of a higher order function
ψ that combines the two lower order functions of velocities u and v in such a way that its
derivative with respect to y provides the velocity in +ve x-direction and its derivative with
respect to x provides the velocity in +ve y-direction.
ψ =f ( x, y )
∂ψ ∂ψ
dψ
= dx + dy
Fluid Kinematics

∂x ∂y
=If ψ constant, 
= dψ 0

34.
This implies that
∂ψ ∂ψ
dx + dy =
0 --------(i)
∂x ∂y
From the equation of a streamline in two dimensions, we have
dx dy
=
u v
Or,
vdx = udy
Or,
udy − vdx =
0 --------(ii)
Comparing the equations (i) and (ii), we get
∂ψ ∂ψ
u=           and         v = −  --------(iii)
∂y ∂x
From the continuity equation,
∂u ∂v
+ 0
= --------(iv)
∂x ∂y
Substituting the values of u and v from equation (iii) into equation (iv), we get
∂2ψ ∂2ψ
+ 0
=
∂x∂y ∂y∂x
An important takeaway is that if the stream function exists, the continuity will always be
satisfied. In other words, if a stream function exists, the flow will always be continuous.
Consider the adjoining figure.

Let dQ be the elemental flow rate through the area ds.

Fluid Kinematics

We have
dQ = Vds

35.
 Or,
dQ udy − vdx
=
From equation (iii)
∂ψ ∂ψ
dQ
= dy + dx
∂y ∂x
B
∫ dQ
= ∫ dψ
A

Which gives the following:

Q = ψB − ψ A
For irrotational flow, the angular velocity is zero.
ωz =0
However,
1  ∂v ∂u 
=
ωz  − 
2  ∂x ∂y 
∂v ∂u
∴ − =0
∂x ∂y
This implies that
∂2ψ ∂2ψ
− − 0
=
∂x2 ∂y 2
∂2ψ ∂2ψ
0
+ 2 =
∂x2 ∂y
This can also be expressed as
∇2 ψ =0
This is the Laplace equation.
To say in words, we say that the Laplacian operator operates on the stream function. Thus,
if we operate the Laplacian on stream function and it gives zero as a result, the flow has to
be irrotational.
To sum up, if the stream function exists and it satisfies the Laplace equation, only then the
flow will be irrotational.

Potential Function, φ
Potential function is a function defined such that its derivative with respect to any direction
will provide the component of velocity in that direction.
Fluid Kinematics

∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
=u =     ;     v =     ;     w
∂x ∂y ∂y

36.
Equipotential planes or lines: In the three dimensional space, the planes on which the
value of the potential function is constant are called equipotential surfaces or equipotential
planes. In two dimensional space, the equipotential lines represent the lines throughout
which the potential function has a constant value.
We have
φ =f ( x, y )
∂φ ∂φ
dφ
= dx + dy
∂x ∂y
If φ is constant, dφ =0 .
Thus, for equipotential lines (or planes),
∂φ ∂φ
dx + dy =
0
∂x ∂y
From the definition of potential function, we can rewrite this as
udx + vdy =
0

This gives the slope as

dy u
m2 = = −
dx v
Comparing this to the slope of streamline, m1, we find that
Fluid Kinematics

m1m2 = −1
Clearly, this establishes the fact that a streamline is always normal to an equipotential line

37.
 (or plane).
This can be visualised from the adjoining figure.
The figure represents the flow of a fluid in a tank that has a pipe outlet attached at the
bottom. The grid formed by the streamlines and equipotential lines is called flow net.
From continuity equation,
∂u ∂v
+ 0
=
∂x ∂y
This can also be expressed as
∂2φ ∂2φ
+ 0
=
∂x2 ∂y 2
Or in terms of the Laplacian operation
∇2 φ =0
For two-dimensional incompressible flow,
1  ∂v ∂u 
=
ωz  − 
2  ∂x ∂y 
From the definition of the potential function, we have
1  ∂2φ ∂2φ 
=ωz  − 
2  ∂x∂y ∂y∂x 
This gives
ωz =0
Thus, if φ exists, the flow will always be irrotational.
Fluid Kinematics

38.
 4 Fluid Dynamics

Chapter 4
So far, we have studied about static fluids and the motion of fluids without considering the
cause of the motion of those fluids. From here on, we shall be studying the motion of fluid
in the light of forces. We shall talk about the forces involved in causing acceleration of the
fluid or the forces that resist the motion of the fluid.
Before moving forward, let us recall the fundamental laws of physics that we shall be
considering true and valid. These are:
i. Law of conservation of mass.
ii. Law of conservation of energy.
iii. Law of conservation of linear momentum.
iv. Law of conservation of angular momentum.
To start with, we shall try to develop the Euler’s equation in the Cartesian coordinate
system.

Euler’s Equation and Bernoulli’s Equation

Let us consider a fluid element in an ideal fluid and make the following assumptions:
y The fluid is ideal
y Shear forces are absent
y The only forces present are pressure force, gravity force and inertia force
Consider the adjoining figure.

Fluid Dynamics

39.
Chapter 4

Let g be the gravity force per unit mass (or the gravitational acceleration) in m/s2.
Let gX, gY and gZ be the components of the gravitational acceleration in the x-, y- and
z-directions respectively.
The net pressure force in the x-direction is given by
 ∂p  ∂p
pdydz −  p + dx  dydz =− dxdydz
 ∂x  ∂x
The gravity force in x-direction is given as g x ρdxdydz .
Thus, the net force in x-direction is
∂p
Fx = g x ρdxdydz − dxdydz
∂x
Fx refers to the inertia force in the x-direction and is given by
du
Fx = ma x = ρVa x = ρdxdydz
dt
Thus, the expression for net force can be modified as
∂p du
g x ρdxdydz − dxdydz =
ρdxdydz
∂x dt
Divide the whole expression by ρdxdydz
1 ∂p du
gx − =  --------(1a)
ρ ∂x dt
Expressions like this one can be developed for the y- and z-directions as well.
1 ∂p dv
gy − =  --------(1b)
ρ ∂y dt
1 ∂p dw
gz − =  --------(1c)
ρ ∂z dt
du
Now, if you expand the derivative , which is also the net acceleration in the x-direction,
dt
you can say that
du ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u
ax = =u +v +w +  --------(2a)
dt ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
And in a similar manner,
dv ∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v
a y = =u +v +w +  --------(2b)
dt ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
dw ∂w ∂w ∂w ∂w
az = =u +v +w +  --------(2c)
dt ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
Substituting the values from (2a), (2b) and (2c) in the equations (1a), (1b) and (1c) respectively,
we get
Fluid Dynamics

1 ∂p ∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u
gx − =u +v +w +  --------(3a)
ρ ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t

40.
 Chapter 4
1 ∂p ∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v
gy − =u +v +w +  --------(3b)
ρ ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
1 ∂p ∂w ∂w ∂w ∂w
gz − =u +v +w +  --------(3c)
ρ ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂t
Now, let us assume that the flow is steady. A steady flow means that the properties of
the flow at a given point in space do not change with time, and these properties include
acceleration, velocity, viscosity etc.
This means that we can assume the partial derivatives of the components of velocity with
respect to time to be zero. Thus,
∂u ∂v ∂w
= 0= 0= 0
∂t ∂t ∂t
Thus, rewriting the equations (3a), (3b) and (3c) using the above expressions, we obtain
1 ∂p ∂u ∂u ∂u
gx − =u +v +w  --------(4a)
ρ ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂z
1 ∂p ∂v ∂v ∂v
gy − =u +v +w  --------(4b)
ρ ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂z
1 ∂p ∂w ∂w ∂w
gz − =u +v +w  --------(4c)
ρ ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
Now, let us multiply (4a) by dx, (4b) by dy and (4c) by dz:
1 ∂p ∂u ∂u ∂u
g xdx − dx = u dx + v dx + w dx  --------(5a)
ρ ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂z
1 ∂p ∂v ∂v ∂v
g y dy − dy = u dy + v dy + w dy  --------(5b)
ρ ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂z
1 ∂p ∂w ∂w ∂w
g zdz − dz = u dz + v dz + w dz  --------(5c)
ρ ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z

You must notice here that each term in equations 5a, 5b and 5c has a dimension of
length2
. Note that these are also the dimensions of energy per unit mass. This should serve
time2
as a reminder or a hint that we are trying to develop an expression for energy in a flow field.
Now, let us recall the equation for a streamline in three dimensions.
dx dy dz
= =
u v w
This relationship gives us the following results:
vdx = udy
Fluid Dynamics

vdz = wdy
wdx = udz

41.
Chapter 4

Substituting these results in equation 5, we get the relationships for a flow along a streamline
as:
1 ∂p ∂u ∂u ∂u
g xdx − dx = u dx + u dy + u dz  --------(6a)
ρ ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂z
1 ∂p ∂v ∂v ∂v
g y dy − dy = v dx + v dy + v dz  --------(6b)
ρ ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂z
1 ∂p ∂w ∂w ∂w
g zdz − dz = w dx + w dy + w dz  --------(6c)
ρ ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
Let us play around with calculus a bit more. We can go on to say that

∂u 1 ∂u2
u =
∂x 2 ∂x
∂u 1 ∂u2
u =
∂y 2 ∂y
And
∂u 1 ∂u2
u =
∂z 2 ∂z
Similarly,
∂v 1 ∂v 2 ∂v 1 ∂v 2 ∂u 1 ∂v 2
v = ; v = and v =
∂x 2 ∂x ∂y 2 ∂y ∂z 2 ∂z
Also,
∂w 1 ∂w2 ∂w 1 ∂w2 ∂w 1 ∂w2
w = ; w = and w =
∂x 2 ∂x ∂y 2 ∂y ∂z 2 ∂z
We may now substitute these relationships into all parts of equation (6) as:

1 ∂p 1  ∂u2 ∂u2 ∂u2 

g xdx − dx=  dx + dy + dz   --------(7a)
ρ ∂x 2  ∂x ∂y ∂z 
1 ∂p 1  ∂v 2 ∂v 2 ∂v 2 
g y dy − dy=  dx + dy + dz   --------(7b)
ρ ∂y 2  ∂x ∂y ∂z 
1 ∂p 1  ∂w2 ∂w2 ∂w2 
g zdz − dz
=  dx + dy + dz   --------(7c)
ρ ∂z 2  ∂x ∂y ∂z 
Going back to calculus once again, we can make the following substitutions:
Fluid Dynamics

∂u2 ∂u2 ∂u2

dx + dy + du2
dz =
∂x ∂y ∂z

42.
 Chapter 4
∂v 2 ∂v 2 ∂v 2
dx + dy + dv 2
dz =
∂x ∂y ∂z
And,
∂w2 ∂w2 ∂w2
dx + dy + dw2
dz =
∂x ∂y ∂z
Notice that this derivative is defined in a different manner from the earlier defined derivative
of the velocity, i.e., acceleration.
Now,
1 ∂p 1 2
g xdx − dx = du  --------(8a)
ρ ∂x 2
1 ∂p 1 2
g y dy − dy = dv  --------(8b)
ρ ∂y 2
1 ∂p 1
g zdz − dz = dw2  --------(8c)
ρ ∂z 2
Adding all the parts of equation (8), we get

1  ∂p ∂p ∂p  1
g xdx + g y dy + g zdz − dx + dy + dz= du2 + dv 2 + dw2 
ρ  ∂x ∂y ∂z  2  

This may also be written as

1 1
g xdx + g y dy + g zdz − dp = dV2  --------(9)
ρ 2
Where
∂p ∂p ∂p
dx + dy + dz =
dp
∂x ∂y ∂z
And

du2 + dv 2 + dw2 =
dV2
Now, if we consider the following
gx = 0
g y = −g

gz = 0
This means that we are talking of general conditions on the surface of the earth, where
Fluid Dynamics

the gravitational acceleration only acts downwards. This is only true when we choose a

43.
Chapter 4

differential volume element such that the xz plane is parallel to the surface of earth and
y-direction is normal to the earth’s surface.
Then we have
1 1
−gdy − dp = dV2
ρ 2
Or,
dp 1
+ dV2 + gdy =
0 --------(10)
ρ 2
This equation is called the Differential Form of the Euler’s equation.
Further, let us try to integrate this equation.
dp 1
∫ ρ
+ ∫ 2
dV2 + ∫ gdy =
0

If you assume that the fluid is incompressible, you can say that the density is constant and
can be taken out of the integral.
1 1
∫ dp + 2 ∫ dV ∫
2
+ g dy =
0
ρ
This gives
p V2
+ + gy =
constant
ρ 2
Rearranging,
p V2
+ +y =
constant
ρg 2g

This is the famous Bernoulli’s equation, which as you just saw is an integral form of the
Euler’s equation.
The different terms in this equation have different names:

p V2
 pressure head +  velocity  head or kinetic head + y  potential  head or elevation head or head =
constant
ρg 2g

It follows from the Bernoulli’s Equation that:

“For an ideal, incompressible stream flow, the total head remains constant.”
You must note that although the different terms in this equation have the units of length,
these have been reduced from the expressions of energy per unit mass in equation (5). Thus,
in its essence, Bernoulli’s equation is an extension of the law of conservation of energy, i.e.,
Fluid Dynamics

the total energy is conserved or constant for the aforementioned kind of flow.

44.
 Chapter 4
It follows from the Bernoulli’s equation that for multiple points A, B, C and so on in a flow,
pA VA2 p V2 p V2
+ + y A = B + B + yB = C + C + y C = …
ρg 2g ρg 2g ρg 2g

Example: A suction pipe of a pump rises at a slope of 2 vertically in 3 along the pipe length
which is 10 cm in diameter. The pipe is 6 m long and its lower end is just below the surface
of water in the reservoir. For design reasons, it is undesirable that the pressure at inlet
to the pump shall fall to more than 75 kPa below the atmospheric pressure. Calculate
the maximum discharge that is done by the pump considering atmospheric pressure to
be 100 kPa.

Solution: Let us draw a figure to understand the situation better.

From the value of slope given, we have
y 2 = 4m
If the pump is operated at the design conditions,
P1 = 100 kPa
And
P2 = 100 − 75 = 25k
  Pa
Applying Bernoulli’s equation,
P1 V2 P V2
Fluid Dynamics

+ 1 + y 1 = 2 + 2 + y2
ρg 2g ρg 2g

45.
Chapter 4

Substituting the given values,

100000 0 25000 V22

+ = +0 + +4
9810 2g 9810 2 ( 9.81)
From here, we get
V2 = 8.4569 m / s
Area of the pipe is
π 2
=A = 0.1 0.00785 m2
4
The discharge is given by
Q = AV2

m3
Thus, Q 0.00785
= = * 8.4569 0.0664
s

Example: For a piping system shown in the figure, determine the flow rate and the pressure
at points 1, 2, 3, and 4. The pipe is filled with water and discharges freely into the atmosphere
through a nozzle having diameter 5 cm.

Solution: From the Bernoulli’s equation,

PA VA2 P V2
+ + y A = B + B + yB
Fluid Dynamics

ρg 2g ρg 2g
Taking the atmospheric pressure as the datum,

46.
 Chapter 4
VB2
0 + 0 + 4.5 = 0 + +0
2g
This yields
VB = 9.396 m / s
Now, since the flow rate is the same throughout the pipe,
V4 A 4 = VBAB
The area at point 4 is 4 times that at point B.
Thus,
VBAB 1 m
V4
= = 9.396=
  2.349
A4 4 s
Now, since at points 1, 2 and 3, the pipe diameter is the same,
V
=1 V=
2 V=
3 V4

Viscous Flow
As we had discussed in the first chapter, flow patterns can be divided into two types:
y Laminar flow
y Turbulent flow
Osborne Reynolds studied the conditions in which the flow of fluid in pipes transitioned
from laminar flow to turbulent flow. In 1883 Reynolds demonstrated the transition to
turbulent flow in a classic experiment in which he examined the behaviour of water flow
under different flow rates using a small jet of dyed water introduced into the centre of flow
in a larger pipe.
The larger pipe was glass so the behaviour of the layer of dyed flow could be observed, and
at the end of this pipe there was a flow control valve used to vary the water velocity inside
the tube. When the velocity was low, the dyed layer remained distinct through the entire
length of the large tube. When the velocity was increased, the layer broke up at a given point
and diffused throughout the fluid’s cross-section. The point at which this happened was the
transition point from laminar to turbulent flow.
Further, he conducted experiments with tubes with differing diameters and fluids at different
temperatures. Different temperatures meant that the density and viscosity of the fluid were
subjected to change.
His investigation revealed that the kind of fluid flow depends on the following parameters:
y Density of fluid
y Viscosity of fluid
Fluid Dynamics

y Mean flow velocity

y Characteristic dimension of the cross section of the stream

47.
Chapter 4

These variables are grouped together resulting in the very famous dimensionless quantity
called the Reynolds number.
Reynolds number is defined as the ratio of the inertial force to the viscous force in a flowing
fluid.
Finertial
Re =
Fviscous
Finertial = m mass of   the fluid *a acceleration
In dimensional terms, we can represent the mass as the product of density and volume
where the volume is given by the cube of a linear dimension of length. Similarly, acceleration
can be defined as the ratio of dimensions of velocity and time. Velocity, on the other hand,
can be expressed as the ratio of dimensions of length and time.
This computation has been done below.
ρl 3 V l
Finertial = = ρl2 V =
ρl2 V2
t t
The viscous force is given as the product of the shear stress and the area on which it is
acting.
Fviscous = τA
From Newton’s law of viscosity,
du
Fviscous = µ A
dy
Dimensionally, we can write this expression as
V
µ l2 =
Fviscous = µVl
l
Taking the ratio of the inertial and viscous forces, we get the following expression

Finertial ρl2 V2
=
Fviscous µVl

From the definition of the Reynolds number,

ρVl
Re =
µ

It is clear that for different values of the density of the fluid, the velocity of the flow, the
characteristic length of the flow, Re will assume different values. But how do we make
sense of the range of values of the Reynolds number?
Fluid Dynamics

We take the following two checkpoint values of Re:

48.
 Chapter 4
y The lower critical value of Re
⚪ This is the value of the Reynolds number below which the flow will always be laminar in
nature. For example, for flow in pipes, the lower critical value of Re is 2000.
y The upper critical value of Re
⚪ The value of Re above which the flow will always be turbulent in nature. This value for
flow in pipes is 4000.
Now, for the case in which the value of Reynolds number is between 2000 and 4000 in
pipe flow, we will say that the flow is transient, that is, it is making a transition from the
laminar flow regime to the turbulent flow regime.

Navier-Stokes Equation
The Navier-Stokes equations are a set of partial differential equations which describe the
motion of viscous fluids.
These equations mathematically express the conservation of momentum as well as mass in
a fluid flow. Here, we shall not bother about the derivation of Navier-Stokes equations as it
is less relevant keeping GATE in mind. However, let us see what they look like.
For incompressible, Newtonian fluids,
In x-direction,
∂p  ∂2u ∂2u ∂2u  du
ρg x − + µ  2 + 2 + 2  = ρ
∂x  ∂x ∂y ∂z  dt
In y-direction,
∂p  ∂2 v ∂2 v ∂2 v  dv
ρg y − + µ  2 + 2 + 2  = ρ
∂y  ∂x ∂y ∂z  dt
In z-direction,
∂p  ∂2w ∂2w ∂2w  dw
ρg z − + µ  2 + 2
+ 2 
 =ρ
∂z  ∂x ∂y ∂z  dt
The applications of the Navier-Stokes equations relevant to us are:
y Laminar unidirectional flow between stationary parallel plates
y Laminar unidirectional flow between parallel plates in relative motion
y Laminar unidirectional flow in a pipe or duct

Relationship Between Shear and Pressure Gradient

Consider a unidirectional, steady and uniform flow as shown.
Since the flow is steady, we can assume the acceleration to be zero. Also, the acceleration
due to gravity is non-existent in the direction of flow.
This means that in the direction of flow, the only forces of relevance are pressure
Fluid Dynamics

force and shear force.

49.
Chapter 4

Applying the force balance over the selected differential element,

 ∂p   ∂τ 
pdydz −  p + dx  dydz +  τ + dy  dxdz − τdxdz = 0
 ∂x   ∂y 
Upon simplifying, this becomes
∂p ∂τ
− dxdydz + dxdydz =
0
∂x ∂y
Simplifying further,
∂p ∂τ
=
∂x ∂y
Now, since pressure only varies with the x-direction and the shear stress only varies in the
y-direction, we can say that
dp dτ
=
Fluid Dynamics

dx dy

50.
 Chapter 4
dp
This equation gives you the relationship between pressure gradient, i.e., and shear
dx
dτ
stress gradient, .
dy
And we know that for Newtonian fluids,
du
τ=µ
dy
Substituting the value of shear stress in the previous relationship,
dp d  du 
= µ 
dx dy  dy 
Since the viscosity is constant,
dp d  du 
= µ  
dx dy  dy 
Or,
dp d2u
= µ 2
dx dy

Laminar Unidirectional Flow Between Stationary Parallel Plates

Consider the following figure.

Fluid Dynamics

51.
Chapter 4

Here we have two solid plates separated from each other by a distance b in the y-direction.
The flow is in the x-direction. In the flow situation, let us assume the following:
y The fluid is Newtonian
y The fluid is incompressible
y The plates have a thickness of unity in the z-direction
From the relationship between pressure and shear stress gradients, we have
dp d2u
= µ 2
dx dy
Upon rearranging,
d2u 1 dp
2
=
dy µ dx
dp
Integrating this equation, assuming to be constant,
dx
du 1  dp 

=   y + c1
dy µ  dx 
Further,
1  dp  y 2
u
=   + c1 y + c2
µ  dx  2
We will use the no-slip boundary condition to evaluate the constants c1 and c2, i.e.,
At y = 0, u = 0. This gives
1  dp  02
0
=   + c1 * 0 + c2
µ  dx  2
Or, c2 = 0
Also, at y = b, u = 0. This implies
1  dp  b2

= 0   + c1b
µ  dx  2
1  dp  b
Thus, c1 = −    
µ  dx  2
Substituting in the expression for u, we get
1  dp  y 2  1  dp  b 
u
=   + −   y
µ  dx  2  µ  dx  2 
Upon rearranging, we get
1  dp 
u = − ( 2
 by − y 
2µ  dx 
) --------(1)
Fluid Dynamics

You must notice that this expression gives a parabolic profile of the velocity in variable y.

52.
 Chapter 4
y Maximum Velocity
Upon differentiating equation (1) w.r.t. y, you obtain
du 1  dp 
= −  (b − 2y )
dy 2µ  dx 
du
For maximum velocity, =0
dy
Thus,
1  dp 
−  (b − 2y ) =
0
2µ  dx 
b
Hence, the maximum velocity of the flow is at the location y =
2
Substituting this value of y in equation (1),
b2  dp 
umax
= −  --------(2)
8µ  dx 
This is also called the centre line velocity.
y Average Velocity
The average velocity is calculated using the relationship between the flow rate and the area.
From this relationship, we have
flowr
=   ate velocity × cross sectional area of flow region
Thus, the flow rate in the differential element of dimension dy is
dQ = u.dy.z
But since z = 1,
Fluid Dynamics

dQ = udy
Substituting the value of u from equation (1),

53.
Chapter 4

1  dp 
dQ =  − 2
(
 by − y dy
2µ  dx 
)
Integrating,
1  dp 
∫ dQ =∫ − ( 2
 by − y dy
2µ  dx 
)
1  dp 
∫ (by − y ) dy
b
2
Q= − 
2µ  dx  0

This gives the net flow rate as

b3  dp 
=Q −  --------(3)
12µ  dx 
Now, the average velocity is given by
flow rate
uav =
area
Q
uav =
b.1
Thus,
b2  dp 
uav
= −  --------(4)
12µ  dx 

Note that while comparing the values of average velocity and the maximum velocity, you
obtain the following relationship
Fluid Dynamics

2
uav = umax  --------(5)
3

54.
 Chapter 4
Since the flow is parabolic and has a symmetric profile about the plane y=b/2, there should
exist two positions where the velocity of the flow field is the same as the average flow
velocity. This is also evident from the fact that the velocity profile is represented by a
quadratic equation which has two roots. We are interested in finding out where these
positions are.
Now, let y1 and y2 be the heights at which the velocity of the fluid equals the average velocity.
From equation (1),
1  dp 
u = −  by − y
2µ  dx 
(
2
)
From equation (4),
b2  dp 
uav
= − 
12µ  dx 
Let us equate the expressions,
u = uav
b2  dp  1  dp 
− = −  by − y
12µ  dx  2µ  dx 
2
( )
Simplifying,
b2
=
6
(by − y )2

Upon solving the quadratic equation, we get

b b
y= ±
2 2 3
Thus,
b b b b
y1 = −  and y 2 = +
2 2 3 2 2 3
y Distribution of Shear Stress
From the Newton’s law of viscosity,
du
τ=µ
dy
du
The differential is given as
dy
du 1  dp 
= −  (b − 2y )
dy 2µ  dx 
Substituting in the expression for shear stress,
Fluid Dynamics

1  dp 
τ = µ. −  (b − 2y )
2µ  dx 

55.
Chapter 4

Or,
1  dp 
=
τ −  (b − 2y )  --------(7)
2  dx 
At y = ½ b, τ =0
The shear stress acquires the maximum value at the solid-fluid interface.
Thus, at y = 0 and y = b, the magnitude of shear stress is
b  dp 
τmax = −  --------(8)
2  dx 

y Pressure Drop
From the expression of the average velocity,
b2  dp 
uav
= − 
12µ  dx 
This gives the pressure gradient as

 dp  12µuav
−  =2
Fluid Dynamics

 dx  b

56.
 Chapter 4
The pressure can be assumed to have a linear dependence on length. Thus, the gradient can
be re-written as
 ∆p  12µuav
− =
 ∆x  b2
Let us say that the length ∆x is l . Then,
12µu l
∆p = 2 av  --------(9)
b
If you divide the equation by ρg , you get
∆p 12µuavl
= = hf
ρg ρgb2

Where hf is the viscous loss of head.

Laminar Unidirectional Flow between Two Parallel Plates having Relative Motion
This case is largely similar to the one we observed in the previous section. The situation here
is however different to the previous case as here we assume that there is some relative
motion between the plates, i.e., one of the two plates is moving with a velocity v with
respect to the other.

However, we shall start to develop the expression for velocity and other quantities in a
similar manner as before, that is, from the pressure gradient vs. shear gradient relationship.
Thus,
dp d2u
= µ 2
dx dy
Fluid Dynamics

57.
Chapter 4

Integrating and solving as before,

1 dp y 2
=u + c1 y + c2
µ dx 2

In this case, the boundary conditions are different.

At y = 0 , u = 0

This implies that c2 = 0

At y = b , u = v
This implies that

1 dp b2

= v + c1b
µ dx 2

1 1 dp b2 
c1
=  v − 
b µ dx 2 
Substituting in the equation for velocity profile, we get

1 dp y 2 y  1 dp b2 
u
= +  v − 
µ dx 2 b  µ dx 2 

Upon simplifying, we get

1  dp  yv
u=   − ( 2
 by − y +
2µ  dx  b
)
From here, we can develop the expression for the maximum velocity, umax , flow rate, shear
stress etc, by proceeding in the same manner as before.
Let us solve an example problem.

Example: Laminar flow of a fluid having viscosity 0.9 Pa.s and density 1000 kg/m3 occurs
between a pair of parallel plates separated by 10 mm. The plates are inclined at an angle
of 45O to the horizontal plane. Two pressure gauges are fitted vertically 1.2 m apart on the
upper plate. They record pressures of 75 kPa and 250 kPa. The upper plate is moving with
a velocity of 2 m/s in the opposite direction of the flow. Develop the expression for velocity
distribution, shear stress distribution, maximum flow velocity and shear stress on the upper
plate.
Fluid Dynamics

58.
 Chapter 4
Solution: We have the velocity profile as
1  dp  yv
u=   − ( )
2
 by − y +
2µ  dx  b
Where
µ =0.9P
  a.s
b 10 
= =mm 0.01m
 
v = −2m
  /s
The pressure gradient is given by
dp p*1 − p2*
− =
dx l
Here, the p*1 and p2* are piezometric pressures.
p*1 =
250 * 103 + 9.81 * 1000 * 1.2 =
261772P
 a
p2* = 75 * 103
The length l can be calculated by
Fluid Dynamics

1.2
l=
sinsin 45 

59.
Chapter 4

Substituting these values to calculate pressure gradient, we get

∂p Pa
− = 110.056 * 103
∂x m
Plugging each of these values in the expression for velocity,
1 2y
= u
2 * 0.9
( 110.056 * 103 )(0.01y − y ) − 0.01
2

This gives
=u 411y − 61139 y 2
The derivative of velocity in y-direction is
du
= 411 − 122278 y = 0
dy
y = 3.36 mm
Substituting for the value of umax, we get
umax = 0.691 m / s
For u = 0,
=0 411y − 61139 y 2
y = 6.72 mm
The shear stress distribution is given by
du
τ=µ = ( 0.9) ( 411 − 122278y )
dy
=τ 369.9 − 110056y
Minimum value of shear is at the position where the velocity has the maximum value, i.e.,
at 3.36 mm.

Unidirectional Flow in a Circular Pipe

(Hagen-Poiseuille Flow)
Hagen-Poiseuille flows are the flows in which a Newtonian, incompressible fluid undergoes
a unidirectional flow in a long cylindrical pipe or tube. The Hagen-Poiseuille equation gives
an expression fore pressure drop in a laminar flow.
Let us list down the assumptions before we start developing the Hagen-Poiseuille equation:
y The fluid is Newtonian
y The fluid is incompressible
y The flow is laminar
y The flow is unidirectional, that is, there is no velocity in the radial directions
Fluid Dynamics

y The flow is steady

Consider the adjoining figure. It represents a pipe in which a fluid is flowing in the axial
direction.

60.
 Chapter 4
Let us consider a differential cylindrical shaped element inside the flow of length dx having
a radius r.
Balancing the forces in the flow direction,
 ∂p  2
pπr2 −  p + dx  πr  pressure forces in opposing  directions along  the direction of  flow 
 ∂x 
−τ2πrdx shear force acting  on the area  of  the cylinder = 0
Upon simplification, we get
∂p
− dx πr2 = τ2πr dx
∂x
Thus,
∂p 2τ
= −
∂x r
Or,
dp 2τ
= −
dx r
However, from the Newton’s law of viscosity,
du
τ = −µ
dr
The negative sign indicates that in the direction of increasing r, the value of velocity decreases.
Substituting in the pressure-shear relationship, we get
Fluid Dynamics

dp 2µ du
=
dx r dr

61.
Chapter 4

Separating the velocity gradient,

du r dp
=
dr 2µ dx
Upon integration of this equation, we get
r2  dp 
u
=   +c
4µ  dx 
Applying the no-slip boundary condition,
At=r R, 
=u 0
R2  dp 

= 0   +c
4µ  dx 
This gives the value of the constant c as
R2  dp 
c= −   
4µ  dx 
Upon substitution into the velocity equation,
1  dp  2
u = − 2
 R −r 
4µ  dx 
( ) --------A

You must notice that like in the case of the flow between parallel plates, the velocity profile
here is also parabolic.
y Maximum Velocity
To find the maximum velocity, we will differentiate the expression of velocity in equation A.
du −1  dp  2
= − r = 0
dr 4µ  dx 
∴r =0
Thus, the maximum velocity in the flow is found at the centre of the pipe.
Putting r = 0 in the velocity profile equation,
R2  dp 
umax
= − 
4µ  dx 

y Average Velocity
To compute the average velocity in a Hagen-Poiseuille flow, we shall proceed in the similar
manner as we did for the case of the flow between parallel plates, that is, by using the
relationship

= flow rate cross sectional area × average velocity
Fluid Dynamics

For this, let us consider a differential circular strip in the flow, in a plane normal to the
direction of the flow.

62.
 Chapter 4
Let the differential flow rate be dQ. Thus,
dQ
= u 2πr dr
Integrating,
1  dp  2
∫ dQ= ∫ − (2
 R − r 2πr dr
4µ  dx 
)
Taking the constants out of the integrand,
1  dp 
∫ (R )
R
2
Q= −  2π − r2 r dr
4µ  dx  0

πR4  dp 
=Q − 
8µ  dx 
Q
uav = 2
πr
Thus,
R2  dp 
uav
= −  --------B
8µ  dx 
Notice that if you compare the relations for the maximum velocity and average velocity, you
will find that
umax
uav =  --------C
2
y Shear Stress Distribution
We have
dp 2τ
= −
dx r
This gives
r  dp 
=
τ −  --------D
2  dx 
At r= 0,  τ= 0
At r = R,  τ = τmax
Fluid Dynamics

R  dp 
τmax = − 
2  dx 

63.
Chapter 4

y Pressure Drop
From equation B, we have
R2  dp 
uav
= − 
8µ  dx 
uav 8µ
−dp = dx
R2
Assuming that the pressure varies linearly with the x-direction,
8µuavl
∆p = p1 − p2 =
R2
Or,
32µlu
∆p = 2 av --------E
d
From now on, we shall be denoting the average velocity by V instead of uav .
Thus,
32µlV
∆p = 2
d
The head loss due to friction in pipe flow is given by
∆p 32µlV
=hf =
ρg ρgd2
Multiply and divide the expression by 2V. Afterwards, it can be rearranged as
64 l V2
hf =
ρVd d 2g
µ
Note that there is an expression for Reynolds number in the denominator.
64 l V2
hf =
ρVd d 2g
µ

64 lV2
hf =  
Re 2gd
64
The quantity is called Darcy Friction Factor for laminar flow, F.
Re
FlV2
hf =
2gd
Fluid Dynamics

There is one more friction factor that we are going to encounter in this course. This is the
Fanning Friction Factor, f. It is defined as the ratio of local shear stress and the local kinetic
energy density.

64.
 Chapter 4
Numerically, the Fanning friction factor is one-fourth of the Darcy friction factor for laminar
flow.
F 16
f
= =
4 Re
Continuing the discussion of head loss,
π
Q = d2 V
4
Squaring the terms on both sides,
π2 4 2
Q2 =  d V
16
Separating V2 from the expression,
16Q2
V2 =
π2d4
Substituting this in the expression for head loss,
64flQ2 64 flQ2
hf
= =  1  
2gπ2d5 2gπ2 ≈ 3 d5
Thus,
flQ2
hf =
3d5
Before moving forward, let us see how to calculate the head loss in a channel of length l if
the cross sectional area is not circular in shape.

Hydraulic Mean Diameter

In case we do not have a circular cross sectional area of flow, we would need a suitable
linear dimension to enter in the expression of either head loss or even the Reynolds number.
In such a scenario, we use a quantity called the hydraulic mean diameter, which is the
suitable linear dimension for a specified flow situation. It is defined as four times the ratio
of wetted area and wetted perimeter.
4A wetted
dH =
Pwetted
Example: Find the hydraulic diameter for a channel having a rectangular cross section with
length and breadth given as a and b.
Solution: The wetted perimeter of the duct is given as 2 ( a + b )
The wetted area is the area of the cross section, i.e., ab
Thus, the hydraulic diameter is given by
Fluid Dynamics

ab
dH = 4
2 (a + b)

65.
Chapter 4

Example: What will be the hydraulic diameter for a circular pipe of diameter d ?
πd2
Solution: Area of the circle is given by
4
The perimeter of the cross section is the circumference of the circle, i.e., πd.
Thus, the hydraulic diameter is given as
πd2
 
dH = 4 4
πd
Which gives dH = d .
This implies that the hydraulic diameter of a circular pipe is the same as its diameter.
Example: A pipe is 10 cm in diameter and 1000 m long. It is used to pump oil of viscosity
8.5 P and specific gravity 0.92 at the rate of 1200 L/min. The first 300 m of pipe is inclined
upward making an angle of 10 degrees with the horizontal and the remaining has an angle of
incline of 15 degrees. State whether the flow is laminar or turbulent. Find the head loss due
to friction. Assume suitable data for friction coefficient, if required.

Solution: The flow rate is

l l cm3
Q 1200
= = 20
= 20000
minute s s
The density is given as
Fluid Dynamics

g
ρ =0.92
cm3

66.
 Chapter 4
The viscosity is given as µ =8.5P
 
The differences in the altitude level are given as
= 10o   52.09445m
y 2 − y 1 300sinsin 
=  

= 15o   181.17333m
y 3 − y 2 700sinsin 
=  
The total difference in height between point 3 and point 1 is 233.26 m.
Area of the pipe is given as
π 2
=A =  10 78.539 cm2
4
Q 20000 cm
V
= = = 254.648
A 78.539 s
Reynolds number here is
ρVd (0.92) (254.648) ( 10)
Re
= = = 275.62
µ 8.5

This implies that the flow is laminar.

The frictional head loss is
4flV2
hf =
2gd
Where f = 16/Re
Thus,
16
4 ( 100000) (254.648)2
hf 275.62
= 767.4m  
2 ( 9.81) ( 10)

Flow Losses in Pipes

When a fluid flows inside a pipe, channel or a duct, it encounters some resistance due to
either or both of the two factors:
y friction due to viscosity
y due to the structure of the pipe, i.e., turns, edges, openings, etc.
This resistance to flow causes the flowing fluid to dissipate or lose some of its energy. This
loss of energy is expressed in terms of head losses. Head losses are of two types:
i. Major head loss
ii. Minor head loss
Let us look at them in detail.
Fluid Dynamics

67.
Chapter 4

Major Head Loss

When the fluid has to overcome the viscous friction resistance, it loses some energy in the
process. This loss of energy is expressed as the major head loss. It is the same as the one
we saw as pressure drop in the Hagen-Poiseuille flow. It is represented by hf .

Minor Head Loss

This loss of energy or head is due to resistance caused by
y Sudden contraction and expansion of pipe diameter
y Entry into a piping system or exit from a pipe
y Structure like pipe fittings, valves, pipe bends, etc.
These are broadly characterized as:
a. Sudden expansion loss
b. Sudden contraction loss
We shall now see how they are expressed mathematically.

a. Sudden Expansion Loss

Let us imagine a flow system as the one shown in the figure. Here, the fluid enters from a
narrow cross section to a wider one. This results in some disruption of the fluid flow, the
streamlines start diverging from each other, and we can also notice the formation of eddies
or whirls. Eddies are small whirlpools in the flow of a fluid. The formation of eddies results
in loss of energy, as the translational kinetic energy gets converted into rotational kinetic
energy.
Fluid Dynamics

68.
 Chapter 4
In the setup shown, let us mark two positions, 1 and 2. Since we are talking about the loss
of kinetic head in this situation, we can write it as
V12 V22
hexp
= −
2g 2g
Upon rearranging, we get
2
V12  V2 
hexp
= 1 − 
2g  V1 
We have from the conservation of mass that the flow rates are equal at both the points.
Q1 = Q2
A1V1 = A2 V2
A1 V
= 2
A2 V1
V2
Substituting the value of in the expression for head loss, we have
V1
2
V12  A1 
hexp
= 1 − 
2g  A2 
2
 A 
The quantity  1 − 1  is a constant for a given system. We express it as kexp .
 A2 
Thus,
V12
hexp = κexp
2g
If the situation was such that the fluid was getting discharged into the atmosphere, then the
area A2 would have been infinity. In such a case, the value of κexp becomes unity. In this
case, the expansion head loss is called the exit head loss, hexit.
Thus, for atmospheric discharge of fluid,
V12
h=
exp h=
exit
2g
Note that this kind of head loss is accounted for in Bernoulli’s equation already.

b. Sudden Contraction Loss

Consider the figure shown. In this case, the fluid flows from a bigger cross section into a
smaller cross section. This also results in the loss of energy as eddies are formed here as
well.
Fluid Dynamics

69.
Chapter 4

In this case, the stream lines seem to converge, forming a minimum cross section area
called the vena contracta. You must notice that from the vena contracta, the streamlines
finally diverge or expand. Thus, in a certain way, the contraction loss is also a case of
expansion loss.
Mathematically, the contraction loss is expressed as
( Vc − V2 )2
hcont =
2g
Where Vc is the velocity of fluid inside the vena contracta.
Upon simplification, we get
2
V22  Vc 
hcont
=  − 1
2g V
 2 
From the conservation of mass, we have
Ac Vc = A2 V2
A Vc
∴ 2 =
Ac V2
A
The ratio c can be written as Cc and the typical value of Cc ranges from 0.7 to 0.9.
A2
V 1
Thus, we can rewrite the ratio c as .
V2 Cc
Substituting this value in the expression of contraction loss, we have
2
V22  1 
hcont
=  − 1
2g  Cc 
Fluid Dynamics

Earlier, we had defined exit loss on the basis of expansion. Following the same template, we
shall be defining entry loss on the basis of contraction.

70.
 Chapter 4
V2
hentry = κentry
2g

Multiple Pipe Systems

Let us imagine systems in which more than one pipes are connected. There can be three
possibilities in these scenarios. The pipes could be connected in series or in parallel or there
could be a junction of pipes at a point. Let us look at each one separately.

Pipes in Series
Let us imagine a system of pipes as shown in the figure.

Let the flow rate through pipe 1 be Q1, that in pipe 2 be Q2, and Q3 in pipe 3.
Let the major head loss in each of the pipes be hf1, hf2 and hf3, respectively. In such a
scenario, we know that from conservation of mass,
Q Q=
= 1 Q=
2 Q3
Fluid Dynamics

This implies that the flow rate is the same in each pipe.
Here, the total loss of head from point A to point B is given by

71.
Chapter 4

head loss inp
  ipe 1 + head loss in  pipe 2 + head lost inp
  ipe 3 =
total headl ost
This implies
hf,net = hf1 + hf2 + hf3
So, while applying Bernoulli’s equation for such a flow system, you need to account for the
head loss in each pipe separately.

Pipes in Parallel Arrangement

Consider the arrangement of pipes shown in the figure.

Here, the flow rate in each pipe can be different depending on the cross sectional area of
the pipe. Thus,
Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
On the other hand, the head loss across points A and B is constant for the fluid.
Thus,
hf,net
= h=
f1 h=
f2 hf3
While applying Bernoulli’s equation in such a flow system, you only need to add one head
loss term.
Fluid Dynamics

72.
 5 Flow Past Immersed Bodies:

Chapter 5
The Hydrodynamic Boundary Layer
In this section, we shall study how the properties of fluid flow change when it interacts
with a solid body in its path. The solid body can be submerged in the flowing fluid, or it can
be interacting with a fluid flowing in the vertical direction, for example a vertical wall along
which a fluid is falling.
The developmental study of fluid mechanics around such flows is attributed to the German
physicist, Ludwig Prandtl, who came up with the following observations:
i. The fluid layer in contact with the solid surface is at rest, or has zero velocity relative to
the solid surface. This is also called the no-slip condition. As you move away from the
solid surface, the velocity in the direction normal to the flow gradually increases, to an
extent that it eventually becomes almost equal to the free stream velocity. The region
in the fluid in which the velocity is not equal to the free stream velocity is called the
hydrodynamic boundary layer.
ii. Within this region, velocity is not constant in the perpendicular direction to the solid
surface. Rather, a gradient of velocity exists, which keeps on decreasing as we move
away from the surface, up to the thickness of the hydrodynamic boundary layer.
Beyond the boundary layer, the velocity is constant and the value of velocity gradient
is zero.

Flow Past Immersed Bodies:

iii. The value of shear stress in the boundary layer region is finite and beyond the boundary
layer, it is zero as the velocity gradient is zero. This follows directly from Newton’s law of
viscosity.

73.
 iv. For some distance from the leading edge, the boundary layer is laminar and the velocity
profile is parabolic.
v. Beyond a certain distance in the flow direction, the flow makes a transition from laminar
to turbulent. This zone of transition is called the transition zone.
vi. Beyond the transition zone, the flow becomes turbulent. The boundary layer in this
region is called the turbulent boundary layer. In this region, the velocity profile is
logarithmic.
vii. The turbulent boundary layer does not extend to the solid surface. Instead, within
the turbulent boundary layer, there is a very thin layer having laminar flow. This
layer is called the laminar sublayer. The velocity profile in the laminar sublayer is
parabolic.

All of this is clearly represented in the figures shown here.

Here, u0 is the velocity of the free stream, δ is the thickness of the hydrodynamic boundary
layer and τ is the magnitude of shear stress.
Flow Past Immersed Bodies:

The conditions in the laminar boundary layer region are as follows.

For 0 ≤ y ≤ δ ,
du
≠0
dy
τ≠0
Flow isr otational.

74.
In the region beyond the boundary layer,
For y > δ ,
du
=0
dy
τ =0
Flow is irrotational.

Order of Magnitude Analysis

Let the symbol O[ ] denote the order of magnitude of a quantity.
For steady state, we have the inertial forces equal to the viscous forces, and they are of the
same order. Thus,
O [Inertial forces] = O [ Viscous forces]

From this expression, it follows that

 Inertial forces   Viscous forces 
O  = O  --------1
 volume   volume 
The inertial force is given by mass times the acceleration. Thus,
∂u
FI = ρdxdy u
∂x
Note that the width in the z-direction for the plate is taken to be unity and hence the above
equation has been reduced to two dimensions.

 FI  u
O  = ρu0 0
 volume  l
2
 FI  ρu0
O  =  --------2
 volume  l
The viscous force is given by

 ∂τ 
Fv =  τ + dy  dx − τdx
 ∂y 
Flow Past Immersed Bodies:

∂τ
Fv = dydx
∂y
The viscous force per unit volume is given by
∂τ
Fv =
∂y

75.
 From the newton’s law of viscosity,
du
τ=µ
dy
Thus,
d2u
Fv = µ
dy 2
The order of magnitude of the viscous force per unit volume is
 Fv  u
O  = µ 02  --------3
 volume  δ
From equation 1, 2 and 3,

ρu20 u
= µ 02
l δ
Upon rearranging, we get
δ2 µ
=
l ρu0
Dividing both sides by l,
δ2 µ
2
=  --------4
l ρu0l
This gives
δ 1
=  --------5
l Re
One important result of equation 4 is that the thickness of the boundary layer increases
with the increase in viscosity and decreases with the increase in free stream velocity.
1
δ ∝ µ and δ ∝
µ0
Thus, for the thickness of the boundary layer to be zero, or to prevent the formation of the
boundary layer, you need the following:
µ =0 and u0 = ∞
Flow Past Immersed Bodies:

Boundary layer in Pipes

The formation of boundary layer in pipe flow is as shown in the adjoining figure. The velocity
profile within the boundary layer is parabolic, as you can see. The velocity profile outside the
boundary layer is vertical, that is, there is no change in velocity outside the boundary layer

76.
and it is equal to the free stream velocity.

As you can see, the maximum thickness of the boundary layer inside a pipe is equal to the
radius of the pipe.
R
δmax =

Fully Developed Flow

When the viscous effects due to the shear stress between the fluid particles and pipe wall
create a fully developed, parabolic velocity profile, the flow is called fully developed flow.
The important characteristic of a fully developed flow is that inside it the velocity does not
change in the direction of the flow.

Entrance Length
In order for fully developed flow to occur, the fluid must travel through a length of a straight
pipe. This length is called entrance length. It is represented by l and is given as
l = 0.05 dR
 e
Here, d is the diameter of the pipe or tube, and Re is the Reynolds number.

Boundary Layer Parameters

Boundary Layer Thickness, δ
The distance normal to the flow direction over which the flow velocity varies from zero at
the solid surface to 99% of the free stream velocity is the boundary layer thickness. It is the
Flow Past Immersed Bodies:

function of distance travelled in the direction of flow, generally taken to be the x-direction.
Thus,
δ = δ (x)

Von Karman Momentum Integral Equation

Consider the adjoining figure.

77.
 In the figure, we have considered a cuboid shaped differential element having width as dx,
height as H and depth as unity, located at a distance x from the leading edge. We have also
considered a differential element of thickness dy, situated at a distance y from the solid
plate.
Let us try to carry out force balance on the rectangular differential element.
H
mass entering thel eft face= ∫ ρudy
0

∂  H 
mass entering the top =face 
∂x  0 ∫
ρudy  dx

H ∂  H 

0∫
mass leaving the right face = ρudy +
∂x  0 ∫
ρudy  dx

Multiplying each of these flow rates by their respective velocities gives us the rate of change
of momentum, or force, in the respective directions.
Thus, we have, for the steady state,
[rate of momentum leaving ] − [rate ofm
  omentum entering ] =
viscous force
H ∂  H 
Flow Past Immersed Bodies:

0∫
Momentum in = ρu2dy + u0 
∂x  0 ∫
ρudy  dx 

H ∂  H 
Momentum out = ρu2dy +∫ ∫
2
 ρu dy  dx
0 ∂x  0 
∂u
viscous force = −τwall .area = −µ dx
∂y y =0

78.
Substituting the respective values, we get the following expression:
 H 2 ∂  H    H ∂  H   ∂u


∫
 0ρu dy + ∂x 
 ∫ 0    0 ∫
ρu2dy  dx  −  ρu2dy + u0 
∂x  ∫ ρudy  dx  =
0
[−µ
∂y
| y =0 dx]

Simplifying the complicated expression, we have the following equation:

∂  ∂u
∫ (ρu )
H 
2
− ρu.u0 dy  dx = −µ dx
∂x  0  ∂y y =0
Simplifying further,
∂  H  ∂u

∂x  0 ∫
ρu (u − u0 ) dy  = −µ
 ∂y y =0
The integrand becomes zero after the boundary layer thickness. Thus, within the boundary
layer,
∂  δ  ∂u

∂x  0 ∫
ρu (u − u0 ) dy  = −µ
 ∂y y =0
Rearranging the equation and taking the constants out of the integral and differential
operations,
∂  δu  u   ∂u
ρu20 
∂x  ∫ 0u
0
1 −
 u
 dy  = −µ
0   ∂y y =0

This is the von Karman Momentum Integral Equation.

Solution of the von Karman Momentum Integral Equation
u
Let us approximate the ratio as the following function:
u0
2 3
u y y y y
f  =
= a + b   + c   + d 
u0 δ δ δ δ
We have the following boundary conditions in the flow:
at 
= y 0,  
= u 0
at y =δ,  u =u0
∂u
at y =δ,   = 0
∂y
Flow Past Immersed Bodies:

From the first boundary condition,

2 3
0 0 0 0
a + b   + c   + d 
=
u0 δ δ δ
∴a =0

79.
 From the second boundary condition,
2 3
u0 δ δ δ
a + b  + c   + d 
=
u0 δ δ δ
∴b + c + d =0
Now,
∂u  b 2cy 3d 2
= u0  + 2 + 3 ( y ) 
∂y δ δ δ 
From the third boundary condition, at y = δ ,
u0
0= (b + 2c + 3d)
δ
∴ b + 2c + 3d =0
∂u
At x 0  
= = and  y 0 , we=
have u 0  
= and 0
∂y
Thus,
∂2u
=0
∂y 2
Now,
∂2u u0  2c 2y 
2
=  + 3d 2  = 0
∂y δ  δ δ 

At y = 0, we obtain
c=0
Since a = 0 and c = 0 , we can calculate b and d from
b+c+d=1
b + 2c + 3d =
0
Thus,
b + d 0   and  b=
= + 3d 0
Flow Past Immersed Bodies:

Solving these equations, we get

1 3
d=
−   and b
  =
2 2
Substituting in the guess equation, we get

80.
 3
u 3y 1 y
=  −  
u0 2  δ  2  δ 
Once you plug this value into the von Karman momentum integral equation,

∂  δu  u   ∂u
ρu20
∂x


∫ 0u
0
1 −

 dy  = −µ
u0   ∂y y =0

∂  δ 3  y  1  y 3    3  y  1  y 3    ∂u
ρu20 
∂x  ∫    −     1 −    −     dy  = −µ
02  δ 
 2  δ     2  δ  2  δ   
   ∂y y =0
 
Upon solving the integral, you get
∂  39δ  3u
ρu20  =µ 0
∂x  280  2δ
Rearranging,
∂δ 140 µ
δ =
∂x 13 ρu0
Integrating this equation,
δ2 140 µx

= +c
2 13 ρu0

Initially, at x = 0, δ =0 and thus, c = 0

Thus,
δ2 140 µx
=
2 13 ρu0
Dividing by x2 on both sides,
δ2 140 µ
2
=
2x 13 ρu0x
Rearranging,
δ 280 1
=
x 13 ρu0x
Flow Past Immersed Bodies:

µ
Thus,
δ 4.64
=
x Rex

81.
 Here, Rex is the local Reynolds number, i.e., Reynolds number at a distance x from the
leading edge.
Sometimes, to approximate, we may use the relation
δ 5
=
x Rex
This is also called the Blasius Exact Solution for the von Karman momentum integral
equation for laminar flow.

Displacement Thickness, δ*
If the solid was not there, the boundary layer would not have formed. Also, the net mass flow
rate would have been higher as the velocity of the free stream is higher than the velocity of
the fluid in the boundary layer. To compensate for the loss of mass flow, the boundary layer
displaces by a certain amount.
Flow Past Immersed Bodies:

Thus, displacement thickness is the distance normal to the flow direction through which
the boundary is displaced to compensate the loss in mass due to boundary layer formation.
The mass flow rate through a differential rectangular element of space of width dy when the
solid was not there is equal to
volumetric flow rate × density =
ρQ

82.
In the given figure, the volumetric flow rate is given by
Q = u0bdy

Where b is the width of the plate

Thus, mass flow rate when the solid is ρu0bdy .
Now, once the plate has been placed, the mass flow rate becomes ρu bdy
loss of mass flow = ρu0bdy − ρubdy

ρ (u0 − u) bdy
=
Thus,
δ
total loss of flow = ρ (u0 − u) bdy∫ 0

If to compensate for the flow of mass, the boundary layer displaces by δ* , then the mass
flow rate through the additional displaced volume is given as ρu0bδ* .
Thus,
δ
ρu0bδ* = ∫ ρ (u
0
0 − u) bdy

This can be modified as

δ
ρu0bδ* =ρb ∫ 0
(u0 − u) dy
Simplifying and rearranging,

δ  u 
∫
*
δ= 1 −  dy
0
 u0 

Momentum Thickness, θ
Momentum thickness is the distance normal to the flow through which the boundary is
displaced to compensate loss in the momentum due to boundary layer formation. It is
derived in a manner similar to that in case of displacement thickness.
Momentum of differential element of fluid when the plate is absent is given by ρubdyu0
Momentum of differential element of fluid when the plate is present is given by ρubdyu
Flow Past Immersed Bodies:

The loss in momentum is given by ρu (u0 − u) bdy

δ
The total loss through the boundary layer = ∫ ρu (u
0
0 − u) bdy

If the boundary layer is displaced by a distance θ , then the momentum through displaced
boundary is ρu0bθu0

83.
 Thus,
δ
ρu0bθu0 = ∫ ρu (u
0
0 − u) bdy
δ u
ρbθ = ρb ∫ 0 u2
0
(u0 − u) dy
Simplifying further,
δ u  u 

= θ ∫ 0 u0
1 −
 u
 dy
0 

Energy thickness, δ**

Similar to the displacement thickness and momentum thickness, the energy thickness is
defined as the distance normal to flow direction through which the boundary is displaced
to compensate for the loss of energy due to the formation of boundary layer.
1
Kinetic energy through a differential strip when the plate is absent = ( ρubdy ) u20
2
1
Kinetic energy through a differential strip when the plate is present = ( ρubdy ) u2
2
1
Loss of kinetic energy due to the presence of solid plate =
2
( ρubdy ) u20 − u2 ( )
δ 1
 
Total loss of kinetic energy =
02
( ρub) u20 − u2 dy ∫ ( )
1
Kinetic energy through the compensated strip =
2
ρu0bδ** ( )
Thus, we have
1 1
( ) ∫ ( )
δ
ρu0bδ** = ( ρub) u20 − u2 dy
2 02

Upon simplification, we get

δu  u2 
δ**
= ∫ 0u
0
 1 − 2  dy
 u0 

Example: Determine the displacement, momentum and energy thickness in terms of

thickness of boundary layer for the velocity distribution given by
Flow Past Immersed Bodies:

1
u  y 7
= 
u0  δ 
Further, calculate the energy loss due to boundary layer if at a particular section, δ =3cm
and the velocity of the free stream is 12 m/s. If discharge through the boundary layer region
is 5 m3/s per one metre width, find the energy loss.

84.
 Solution: we have the velocity distribution given as
1
u  y 7
= 
u0  δ 
From the expression of displacement thickness,
δ  u 
∫
*
δ= 1 −  dy
0
 u0 
u
Substituting the value of the ratio in this expression,
u0
 1 
δ
 1 −  y  7  dy
∫
*
δ=  
0  δ  

 
Upon solving the integral,
8 δ
 
*  7y 7 1

δ = y − 1 
8
 δ 7 0

8
7δ 7 1 δ
δ* = δ − 1
=
8 8
δ7
δ
Thus, the displacement thickness is found to be m.
8
For momentum thickness,
δu  u 

= θ ∫ 0u
0
1 −

 dy
u0 
u
Substituting the value of the ratio in this expression,
u0
1  1 
δ y 7  1 −  y  7  dy

= θ ∫  
0 δ    
 δ  
 
 1 2 
δ  y   y 
Flow Past Immersed Bodies:

 7 7 

= θ ∫   −    dy
0  δ 
 δ 
 
δ
 8 9 
 7y 7 7y 7 
=θ  1 − 2 
 8δ 7 9δ 7 
 0

85.
 δ
 8 9 
 7δ 7 7δ 7 
=θ  1 − 2 
 8δ 7 9δ 7 
 0
7δ
θ=
72
7δ
Thus, the momentum thickness is found to be m.
72
From the expression of energy thickness,
δu  u2 
δ**
= ∫ 0u
0
 1 − 2  dy
 u0 
u
Substituting the value of the ratio in this expression,
u0

1  1 2 
δy  7   y 7  
δ**
= ∫    1 −      dy
0 δ 
  δ   
   
Upon solving the integral,
 1 3
δ
 y  7 −  y  7  dy
∫
**
=
δ    
0  δ  δ 
 
δ
 8 10 

**  7y 7 7y 7

δ=  1 − 3 
 8δ 7 8δ 7 0

7δ
δ** =
40
7δ
Thus, the energy thickness is found to be m.
40
For energy loss, we have
Energy loss = energy compensated
1 7δ 1
δ**
energy compensation = ( ) ( 12)3
ρu.u2 = .  1.2
2 40 2
Flow Past Immersed Bodies:

Thus, the energy compensation is found to be equal to 5.4432 J/s.

Drag
Drag is the force acting opposite to the relative motion of an object moving in a surrounding
fluid.

86.
Consider the adjoining figure. Let us define the following terms:
τw = wall shear stress
1 2
ρu0 =dynamicp   ressure
2
Cfx = local drag coefficient or skin friction coefficient 
The local skin friction coefficient is defined as the ratio of the shear stress at the wall and
the dynamic pressure.
Thus,
wall shear stress
Cfx =
dynamic pressure
Flow Past Immersed Bodies:

τw
Cfx =
1 2
ρu0
2
du
µ
dy y =0
Cfx =
1 2
ρu0
2

87.
 We have from the solution of von Karman equation
3
u 3y 1 y
=  −  
u0 2  δ  2  δ 
Upon differentiating, we get, at y = 0,
du 3u0
=
dy 2δ
Plugging this value in the expression for skin friction coefficient, we get
3u0
µ
Cfx = 2δ
1 2
ρu0
2
From the Blasius solution for the boundary layer thickness,
4.64x
δ=
Re x
Substituting this value in the expression for skin friction coefficient, we get
3u0
µ
 4.64x 
2 
Cfx =  Re x 

1 2
ρu0
2
Upon rearranging,
3µ
Cfx =
4.64xρu0
Rex
ρu0x
Since the local Reynolds number is Rex = , we can rearrange it as
µ
3 1
Cfx =
4.64 Rex
Or,
0.646
Cfx =
Flow Past Immersed Bodies:

Rex
Now, the average skin friction coefficient for the length of the plate,
l

Cf =
∫C
0
fx dx

88.
 Substituting the value of Cfx,
1 l 0.646
Cf = ∫
l 0 ρu0x
dx

µ
−1
1 0.646 l
Cf =
l ρu0 ∫ 0
x 2 dx

µ
l
 −1 
1 0.646  x 2 
Cf =  
l ρu0  1 
µ  2 0

2 0.646
Cf =
l ρu0
µ
0.646
Cf = 2
ρu0l
µ
0.646
Cf = 2
Rel

Here, Rel is the Reynolds number at x = l.

Comparing the local skin friction coefficient with the average skin friction coefficient, we
get
Cf = 2Cfx at x =l

The average skin friction coefficient is also called the drag coefficient.
Now, the drag force on the plate is given by
1
FD
= (
Cf ρu02  area    late )
of thep
2
Drag is of two types, as depicted in the figure:
Flow Past Immersed Bodies:

y Skin drag
y Form drag
The drag coefficient Cf in the expression of force accounts for both skin and form drag.

89.
 This concludes our discussion on flows in the laminar boundary layer.

Turbulent Boundary Layer over a Flat Plate

Velocity of the Fluid in Hydrodynamic Boundary Layer
Ludwig Prandtl suggested that the velocity of fluid in the hydrodynamic boundary layer in
the turbulent flow regime can be approximated using a single parametric relationship of the
form
1/7
u y
= 
u0  δ 
This is called the one-seventh power law. Using this result, the thickness of the boundary
layer and the skin friction coefficients can be estimated using the von Karman equation.

Thickness of Boundary Layer as a function of the Local Reynolds Number

The thickness of boundary layer is related to the local Reynolds number as
δ 0.371
= 1
x
Rex5
Skin Friction Coefficient in Turbulent Boundary Layer
The local skin friction coefficient in the turbulent boundary is given by
0.0576
Cfx = 1
Rex5
Flow Past Immersed Bodies:

The drag coefficient is given by

0.072
Cf = 1
Rex
5

90.
Note that these solutions are valid only for 5 × 105 < Re < 107.
For 107 < Re < 109 , the velocity deviates from the one-seventh power law and the empirical
solution suggested by Prandtl is
0.455
Cf =
(Rel  )2.58

Flow Past Immersed Bodies:

91.
 6 Dimensional Analysis and
Model Similitude
Chapter 6

Dimensions
A dimension is a measure of a physical quantity (without numerical values). They are the
qualitative characteristics of physical quantities. There are 7 primary dimensions. The most
commonly used in fluid mechanics are MLT where M stands for mass, L stands for length
and T stands for time. There is no direct relation between these quantities.

Units
Units are the standards of comparison for quantitative measures of dimensions.
The primary dimensions or basic dimensions and their units according to the SI Units system
are tabulated below.

Dimension Symbol SI Unit

Mass M Kilograms, kg

Length L Metres, m

Time T Seconds, s

Temperature θ Kelvin, K

Electric current A Amperes, A

Amount of light C Candela, cd

Amount of matter N Moles, mol

Except for these dimensions, all other dimensions like pressure, velocity, momentum,
energy, etc are secondary or derived. They are expressed in terms of the primary
dimensions.

Dimensional Homogeneity
Dimensional Analysis and Model Similitude

The principle of dimensional homogeneity states that every additive term in an equation
must have the same dimensions. This is to say that you cannot add two quantities of
different dimensions. For example, energy can only be added to energy and can only be
equal to energy and not mass or pressure.

Non-Dimensionalization of Equations
The law of dimensional homogeneity guarantees that every additive term in an equation has
the same dimensions. It follows that if we divide each term in the equation by a collection
of variables and constants whose product has those same dimensions, the equation is
rendered nondimensional.

92.
 Chapter 6
Normalization
If the non dimensional terms in the equation are of order unity, the equation is called
normalized. Normalization is thus more restrictive than nondimensionalization, even
though the two terms are sometimes (incorrectly) used interchangeably. Each term in a
nondimensional equation is dimensionless.

Dimensional Analysis
In many cases in real-life engineering, the equations are either not known or too difficult
to solve; oftentimes experimentation is the only method of obtaining reliable information.
In most experiments, to save time and money, tests are performed on a geometrically
scaled model, rather than on the full-scale prototype. In such cases, care must be taken to
properly scale the results. We use here a powerful technique called dimensional analysis.
The three primary purposes of dimensional analysis are:
y To generate non dimensional parameters that help in the design of experiments (physical
and/or numerical) and in the reporting of experimental results
y To obtain scaling laws so that prototype performance can be predicted from model
performance
y To (sometimes) predict trends in the relationship between parameters
There are two methods of dimensional analysis that we will discuss here:
⚪ Rayleigh’s Method
⚪ Buckingham Pi Theorem

Rayleigh’s Method
The following steps are involved in this method:
i. Gather all independent variables which are likely to influence the value of the dependent
variable.
ii. Write the functional relationship, i.e., if y is a function of independent variables x1, x2,
x3,…, then

Dimensional Analysis and Model Similitude

=y f ( x1 , x2 , x3 , …)
iii. Write the above equation in the form
=y k  xa1
 ( )( x )( x ) …
b
2
c
3

where k is a dimensionless coefficient and can be determined experimentally.

iv. Express each quantity on both sides in fundamental dimensions.
v. Utilize the principle of dimensional homogeneity to obtain a set of simultaneous equations
involving a, b, c, etc.
vi. Solve the equations to obtain the value of exponents and put the values of them in the
main equation and form the nondimensional parameters by grouping the variable with
like exponents.

93.
Chapter 6

Example: Prove that the resistance f to the motion of a sphere of dia d moving with uniform
velocity V , through a fluid of density ρ and viscosity µ is given by
 µ 
F = ρD2 V2f  
 ρVD 
Solution: Let us say that the drag resistance is a function of density, diameter, velocity and
viscosity.
f ( ,D, V, µ )
F =ρ
(
k ρaDb Vc µd
F= )
The dimensions of all the quantities involved in this expression are as follows:
−2
Force: MLT 
−3
Density: ML 

Diameter: [L ]
−1
Velocity: LT 
−1 −1
Viscosity: ML T 

Writing the expression of drag force in dimensional form,

a c
MLT −2  = k  ML−3   L[ ]b
LT −1  ML−1T −1   d 
        

Equating the exponents of respective dimensions,

M: 1= a + d , or, a= 1 − d
L: 1 =−3a + b − d + c
T: −2 =−c − d , or, c= 2 − d
Simplifying the system of equations by substituting the values of a and c,
Dimensional Analysis and Model Similitude

1 =−3 ( 1 − d) + b − d + ( 2 − d)
This gives
b= 2 − d
Now, the equation we had earlier assumed becomes
(
k ρ1−dD2−dV2−dµd
F= )
Upon rearranging, we can group these as
d
 µ 
2 2
F = kρD V  
 ρVD 
We can also say that

94.
 Chapter 6
 µ 
F = ρD2 V2f  
 ρVD 
This is our required result.

Buckingham Pi Theorem
Rayleigh’s method becomes laborious and complicated if the variables are more than three.
This difficulty is overcome by using the Buckingham Pi theorem. It states that:
If there are n variables in a dimensionally homogeneous equation, and if these variables
contain m primary dimensions, then the variables can be grouped into n − m non-dimensional
groups called the pi-terms ( Π − terms ) .
f ( x1 , x2 , x3 , … , xn ) =
0
Number of Π − terms = n – m. Thus, this equation can also be expressed as
φ ( Π 1 , Π 2 , Π 3 , … , Πn−m ) =0
Experience suggests that suitable non-dimensional groups result when a geometric property
like length, diameter, head, a fluid property like density, viscosity, and a flow characteristic
like velocity, acceleration are considered to represent such variables. These variables are
called repeated variables.

Example: Develop an expression for the drag force on a sphere settling in a fluid filled in a
tank.
Solution: Drag force depends on velocity, radius of the sphere, density of the fluid, diameter
of the tank ( l ) and viscosity of the fluid.
FD k (u,R, µ, ρ,l  )
=
The dimensions of the quantities above mentioned are as follows
FD = MLT −2 

Dimensional Analysis and Model Similitude

u = LT −1 

R = [L ]
l = [L ]
µ =ML−1T −1 

ρ =ML−3 

Here, = 6; m = 3 , i.e., M, L, T; thus,

Π= n−m
Π = 6 − 3 = 3 dimensionless terms

95.
Chapter 6

Let the dimensionless terms be Π 1 , Π 2 , Π 3

Let the first dimensionless group be defined as
Π 1 FRbuc=
= µd M0L0T0 

Writing in dimensional form,

b c d
MLT  [L ] LT  ML T  = M L T 
 −2   −1   −1 −1   0 0 0

Upon solving for b, c and d, we get

b = −1
c = −1
d = −1
Thus,
F
Π1 =
µuR
Let the second dimensionless group be defined as
Π 2 =ρRaubµc =M0L0T0 

Writing in dimensional form,

b c
ML−3  [L ]a LT −1  ML−1T −1  = M0L0T0 
       
Upon solving for a, b, c, we get
a=1
b=1
c = −1
Thus,
Dimensional Analysis and Model Similitude

ρuR
Π2 =
µ
The third dimensionless group can be taken as
R
Π3 =
l
We can say that
Π 1 = f ( Π2Π 3 )
Thus,
F  ρuR R 
= f , 
µuR  µ l

96.
 Chapter 6
Note that the second dimensionless group is nothing but the Reynolds number. Thus, the
drag force can be expressed as
 R
FD = µuR.f  Re, 
 l

Model Studies and Similitude

Let us go through some key terms needed in this section.

Prototype
The full sized structure employed in actual engineering design is called prototype. The
prototype operates under actual working conditions.

Model
A system by whose operation the characteristics of other similar systems can be obtained
is called a model. It is generally a small sized replica of the prototype. The experimental
observation made on a model provides a definite relation to the prototype.

Similarity
There are three parameters of similarity for the model and prototype. These are geometric
similarity, kinematic similarity and dynamic similarity.
y Geometric Similarity
It is the similarity of shape or form. Geometrically similar systems may differ in size but are
identical in shape. There is point to point correspondence between the two systems. For
geometric similarity, the ratio of corresponding linear dimensions of the two systems is the
same.
Consider the following figure.

Dimensional Analysis and Model Similitude

For the model and the prototype to be geometrically similar,

bm lm hm
= = = lr
bp lp hp
Where lr = scale ratio

97.
Chapter 6

It follows that the ratios of the areas of the respective faces of the cuboids are also equal.
bm hm bm lm hm lm
= = = A=
r lr2
bp hp bp lp hp lp
Thus, the ratio of the volumes of the two bodies is
bmhmlm
=∀r =lr3
bphplp
y Kinematic Similarity
It is the similarity of motion. Both systems undergo similar rates of change of motion and
evidently there is similarity in patterns of streamlines.
Consider the following figure.

On points 1 and 2 in both figures,

For the velocities at these points,
V1,m V2,m
= = Vr
Dimensional Analysis and Model Similitude

V1,p V2,p
For acceleration,
a1,m a2,m
= = ar
a1,p a2,p
Similarly for flow rate,
Q1,m Q2,m
= = Q=
r Ar Vr
Q1,p Q2,p
y Dynamic Similarity
This is the similarity of masses and forces of corresponding particles of flow. Systems are
dynamically similar if the corresponding particles experience similar forces and ratio of all
the forces acting at homologous particles in the model and prototype remains constant.

98.
 Chapter 6
The forces that may act on a fluid particle are:
⚪ Gravitational force
⚪ Viscous force
⚪ Pressure force
⚪ Elastic force
⚪ Surface tension force
For equilibrium, the sum of these forces must be equal to the inertial force, i.e.,
Fg + Fv + Fp + Fe + Fσ = Fi = ma

For dynamic similarity,

Fg,m Fv,m Fp,m Fe,m Fσ,m Fi,m
= = = = =
Fg,p Fv,p Fp,p Fe,p Fσ,p Fi,p
It follows that
(Fg + Fv + Fp + Fe + Fσ )m Fi,m
=
(Fg + Fv + Fp + Fe + Fσ )p Fi,p

For example, if inertial and viscous forces are dominant,

Fv,m Fi,m
=
Fv,p Fi,p
Or,
Fi,p Fi,m
=
Fv,p Fv,m
This implies that
Rem = Rep

For dynamic similarity, geometric and kinematic similarity are necessary.

Dimensional Analysis and Model Similitude

Similitude
The theory and art of predicting the behavior of a prototype using the observations on the
model is called similitude. It describes the relation between full scale systems and smaller
but geometrically similar boundaries. The results obtained from experiments on models can
be applied to the prototype if complete similarity exists between the both. For complete
similarity, both the prototype and the model need to be geometrically, kinematically and
dynamically similar.

Dimensionless Numbers
y Reynolds Number
It is defined as the ratio of inertial force to the viscous force.

99.
Chapter 6

Fi ρl2 v 2
Re
= =
Fv µvl
ρvl
Re =
µ
Applications of Reynolds number are:
⚪ Incompressible flow through small sized pipes
⚪ Flow through low speed turbo machines
⚪ Motion of completely submerged object in a fluid
⚪ Open channel flows so long as waves and hydraulic jumps do not occur
y Froude Number
It is the ratio of square root of inertial force to square root of gravity force.
1 1
 Fi  2  ρl2 v 2  2
=Fr =   3 
 Fg 
   ρl g 
v
Fr =  
gl
Applications:
⚪ Flow through open channels as waves and hydraulic jumps are considered
⚪ Motion of ships in rough and turbulent seas
⚪ Flow over the spillway of a dam
y Mach Number
Mach number is the ratio of square root of inertial force to square root of elastic force. If k
is the elasticity coefficient of the fluid,
1 1
 Fi  2  ρl2 v 2  2
=M =   2  
 Fe   kl 
v
Dimensional Analysis and Model Similitude

M=
k
ρ
dp
k=
dp
ρ
Thus,
k dp
=
ρ dρ
dp
is the velocity of sound in the fluid, a.
dρ
Hence, the Mach number is also defined as

100.
 Chapter 6
v velocity of object in the fluid
M
= =
a velocity of sound in the fluid
For M < 1, the velocity is said to be subsonic.
For M = 1, the velocity is said to be sonic.
For 1 < M < 3, the velocity is said to be supersonic.
For 3 < M < 5, the velocity is said to be hypersonic.
Applications:
⚪ Aerodynamic testing
⚪ Flow of gases exceeding the velocity of sound
y Weber Number
It is the ratio of inertial force to surface tension force.
ρl2 v 2
W=
σl
ρlv 2
W=
σ
Applications:
⚪ Capillary tube flow
⚪ Capillary movement of water in soil
⚪ Sheet flow
y Euler Number
It is defined as the ratio of pressure force to inertial force.
pl2 p
=E = 2 2
ρl v ρv 2
Applications:
⚪ Flow over submerged bodies
⚪ Pressure rise due to sudden closure of valve
⚪ Discharge through orifice

Dimensional Analysis and Model Similitude

Example: A model of a torpedo is tested in a tank at a velocity of 26 m/s while the prototype
is run at 6.5 m/s.
i. What will be the model scale if kinematic viscosity of ν water is 1.13*10-6 m2/s?
ii. Using the same scale ratio, what would be model speed if tested in a wind tunnel under
a pressure of 200 kPa and at a constant temperature of 27 deg. C? The dynamic viscosity
of air under these conditions is 1.85*10-4 P and the gas constant for air is R = 287 J/kg-K.
Solution:
i. For the model and prototype to be dynamically similar, Re should be equal in both cases.
Rem = Rep

101.
Chapter 6

That is to say,
ρmvmlm ρp vplp
=
µm µp
Since for both the model and the prototype, the fluid is water, the density and viscosity
is the same. Thus,
vmlm = vplp
vp lp
= = lr
v m lm
Thus,
6.5
lr
= = 0.25
26
ii. In this case, we need to compare the Reynolds number for a model in air and a prototype
in water.
Thus,
 ρmvmlm   ρp vplp 
  =  

 µm air  µp water
Alternatively,
 ρvl   vl 
  = 
 µ m,  air  ν p,  water
The density of air is found using the ideal gas equation.
P
= RT
ρ
P 2000 × 103
=
ρ =
RT 287 × 300
Dimensional Analysis and Model Similitude

∴ ρair = 23.228 kg / m3
Plugging the respective values in the equation for the Reynolds numbers,
23.228vm 6.5 lm
−4
= −6
1.85 * 10 1.13 * 10 lp
23.228vm 6.5
−4
= .4
1.85 * 10 1.13 * 10−6
This gives
vm = 18.315 m / s

102.
 7 Fluid Machinery and Flow
Measuring Devices

Chapter 7
Pumps
Machines that move liquids are called pumps.

Fans
These are gas pumps with relatively low pressure rise and high flow rate. Examples of fans
are ceiling fans, propellers, etc.

Blowers
A blower is a gas pump with relatively moderate to high pressure rise and a moderate to high
flow rate. Examples include centrifugal blowers and squirrel cage blowers in automobile
ventilation systems, furnaces and leaf blowers.

Compressors
These are gas pumps designed to deliver a very high pressure rise, typically at low to moderate
flow rates. Examples include air compressors that run pneumatic tools and inflate tires at
automobile service stations and refrigerant compressors used in heat pumps, refrigerators
and air conditioners.

Centrifugal Pump
It is a mechanical device that imparts kinetic energy to a fluid by using an impeller (the
rotating component of the pump) by the action of centrifugal force which ultimately converts
into pressure energy or head.

Performance Parameters of a Pump

The performance of a pump is analyzed using some fundamental parameters. These are as
follows.
y Flow rate
It is the primary performance parameter. The flow rate can either be mass flow rate or

Fluid Machinery and Flow Measuring Devices

volumetric flow rate. For incompressible flow, volume flow rate is used. The volume flow
rate is called the capacity of the pump and is given as
m

Q=
ρ

y Net head
It is defined as the change in Bernoulli head between the inlet and outlet of the pump.

 p V2   p V2 
Hp =  + + y  −  + + y 
 ρg 2g out  ρg 2g in

103.
 If the diameters of the inlet pipe and outlet pipe are equal, then the flow rate in both of
them will be equal.
Q1 = Q2
Applying Bernoulli’s theorem on points 1 and 2,
P1 V2 P V2
+ 1 + y 1 + Hp = 2 + 2 + y 2
ρg 2g ρg 2g
Since flow rates are equal, the diameters are equal, the velocities are also equal.
Moreover, if we assume that there is no significant change in the level of the two points, we
can say that
P − P1
Hp = 2
ρg
Fluid Machinery and Flow Measuring Devices

104.
 Net Positive Suction Head
Consider the following figure.
In this figure,
hs = suction lift
hfs =  suction frictional head
Vs2
= suction kinetic head
2g
Hs = suction head
hd = delivery lift
hfd =  delivery frictional head
Vd2
= delivery kinetic head
2g
Hd = delivery head
The NPSH represents the head required to make the liquid flow from the suction pipe to the
impeller. If due to suction by the pump, the pressure over the liquid surface reduces to a
value smaller than its critical value or vapour pressure, the liquid starts to boil. This causes
cavitation in the pump, thereby reducing its efficiency. Thus, for smooth and cavitation free
operation of the pump, NPSH should have such a value that the flowing liquid doesn’t boil
under reduced pressure.

Fluid Machinery and Flow Measuring Devices

Patm p
NPSH= − hfs − hs − v
ρg ρg
y Efficiencies of a Pump
Let Hi be the most ideal head that a pump can generate and Q + q is the discharge to the
pump, where q is the leakage loss.

105.
 ⚪ Mechanical Efficiency
It is the ratio of the power of the impeller to the power of the shaft of the pump.
impellerp  ower
ηm =
shaftp
  ower
w ( Q + q) Hi
ηm =
shaft power
Here, w = ρg
Shaft power = impeller power + mechanical loss
⚪ Hydraulic Efficiency
Some of the head is lost to overcome the friction inside the piping system. Thus, the
total power of the impeller cannot be transferred to the fluid.
The power delivered by the impeller is given by w ( Q + q) Hi .
The power delivered for generating the actual head H is w ( Q + q) H .
w ( Q + q) H
ηh =
w ( Q + q) Hi
H
ηh =
Hi
⚪ Volumetric Efficiency
Some of the discharge is lost due to leakage in the piping system. If q is the loss due to
leakage, the volumetric efficiency is
wQH
ηv =
w ( Q + q) H
Q
ηv =
Q+q
Fluid Machinery and Flow Measuring Devices

⚪ Overall Efficiency
It is the product of mechanical, hydraulic and volumetric efficiencies.
ηov = ηmηhηv
Also,
wQh
ηov =
shaftp
  ower

Example: A centrifugal pump having an overall efficiency of 72% delivers 0.03 m3/s of water
to a height of 20 m through a 10 cm diameter pipe 80 m long. The friction coefficient of the
pipe is 0.01. Calculate the power required to run the pump.
Solution: Overall efficiency, ηov =0.72

106.
 Thus,
w ( 0.03 ) H
0.72 =
shaft power
The head has to be at least equal to or more than the frictional losses incurred in the pipe
calculated by
4flV2
H=
2gd
For the velocity V, we have
Q
2
V= dπ
4
4 ( 0.03 )

= V = 2
3.82 m / s
π ( o.1)
Then the head becomes
2
4 ( 0.01) ( 80) ( 3.82 )
H = 23.8m  
2 ( 9.81) ( 0.1)
Thus,
( 1000) (9.81) (0.03) (23.8)

= shaftp
  ower = 9727 W
0.72
Example: A centrifugal pump required to lift 0.0125 m3/s of water from a well with a depth
of 30 m. If the pump motor has a power of 5 kW, the overall efficiency of the pump is ____.
Solution: The overall efficiency is given by
wQH
ηov =
shaftp  ower

Fluid Machinery and Flow Measuring Devices

Thus,
(9810) (0.0125) ( 30)
= ηov = 0.7535
5000
ηov =73.575%

Similarity Relations
To establish similarity relations between two pumps having varying characteristics, the
following assumptions are made:
i. The pumps are kept geometrically similar and all the linear dimensions are proportional
to impeller diameter.
ii. All velocities are proportional to the square root of the head.
iii. There is equality of flow Reynolds number through the pumps.

107.
 y Flow or Discharge Coefficient
The following relationship is true for the flow
Q ∝ D2 V
Where
D = diameter of the pump
V = flow velocity
We also have
V∝ H
Thus,
Q ∝ D2 H
The tangential velocity in the pump casing is given by
πDN
u=
60
Where N is the revolutions per second
Thus,
H ∝ DN
Hence,
Q ∝ D3N
Or,
Q
= constant
D3N
y Head or Lift Coefficient
Fluid Machinery and Flow Measuring Devices

H ∝ DN
Or,
H ∝ D2N2
Hence,
H
= constant
D2N2
y Power Coefficient or Power Number
The power of a pump is given by
P = wQH
Thus,
P ∝ QH

108.
This implies that
P ∝ D5N3
Thus,
P
= constant
5 3
DN
Example: Test run on a centrifugal pump indicates that when driven at 2000 rpm, it discharges
10 m3/min against a head of 100 m. At this capacity, the input is 300 kW. If a geometrically
similar pump twice the size runs at 1500 rpm, find its discharge head and power for the
same efficiency.
Solution: We have
D1 1
=
D2 2
Also, from the relationship for flow coefficient,
Q1 Q
3
= 32
D1 N1 D2N2
Substituting the respective values,
10 Q2
3
= 3
D1 N1 ( 2D1 ) ( 0.75N1 )
We thus get
m3
Q2 = 60
minute
From the expression for power coefficient,
P1 P
5 3
= 52 3
D1 N1 D2N2

Fluid Machinery and Flow Measuring Devices

Substituting the respective values,
300 P2
=
D51 N31 (2D1 ) (0.75N1 )3
5

This gives
P2 = 4050 kW
From the expression for head coefficient,
H1 H
2 2
= 222
D1 N1 D2N2
Substituting the respective values,
100 H2
2 2
= 2 2
D1 N1 (2D1 ) (0.75N1 )

109.
 This gives
H2 = 225 m

Flow Measuring Devices

Velocity Measurement
Pitot Tube
A pitot tube is an open-ended right-angled tube pointing in opposition to the flow of a fluid
and used to measure pressure and velocity. Consider the adjoining figure.
The pressure at point 1 is static pressure, Ps .
The pressure at point 2 is total pressure, Pt .
Applying Bernoulli’s theorem,
P1 V2 P V2
+ 1 + y 1 = 2 + 2 + y2
ρg 2g ρg 2g
Since y 1 = y 2 , and V2 = 0 ,
V12 P2 − P1
=
2g ρg
Or,
V12 Pt − Ps
=
2g w
Fluid Machinery and Flow Measuring Devices

In the next figure,

Ps = ρgy
ρg ( y + h)
Pt =

110.
 V12 ρg ( y + h) − ρgy
= = h
2g ρg
V=
1 V= 2gh
In the next diagram,
We have the flowing fluid represented by the subscript f and the measuring fluid represented
by the subscript m .
Ps + wf y + wmhm =Pt + wf ( y + hm )
Pt − P
=s wmhm − wfhm
Thus,
V12 w h − wfhm
= m m
2g wf
w
Since the ratio m is the specific gravity sm , we can also say that
wf
V12
= ( sm − 1) hm
2g
Thus, the theoretical velocity is given as

= V 2g ( sm − 1) hm

Fluid Machinery and Flow Measuring Devices

But this is generally not the actual velocity. The actual velocity is

111.
 Vactual
= C= vV Cv 2g ( sm − 1) hm

Where CV is the coefficient of velocity and its value lies between 0.95 and 1.

Venturimeter
A venturimeter is a flow meter having variable area. Due to its variable area, there is a
variation in pressure as well as velocity. Upon measuring the velocity, discharge can be
calculated.
Consider the adjoining figure.
Applying Bernoulli’s theorem,
P1 V2 P V2
+ 1 + y 1 = 2 + 2 + y2
ρg 2g ρg 2g
Since y 1 = y 2 ,
V22 − V12 P1 − P2
=
2g ρg
Or,
V22  V12  P1 − P2
 1 − 2  =
2g  V2  ρg
 V2  P − P2
V22  1 − 12  =
2g 1
 V2  ρg
Since the flow rates Q1 and Q2 are equal,
A1V1 = A2 V2
V1 A
= 2
V2 A1
Fluid Machinery and Flow Measuring Devices

Thus,
 2
A   P − P2
V22  1 −  2   = 2g 1

  A1   ρg

The theoretical velocity is given as

A1 2 (P1 − P2 )
V=
A21 − A22 ρ

And the actual velocity is given by

Vactual = Cv V

112.
Previous Years’ Questions
GATE 2016

Q1 For a flow through a smooth pipe, the Fanning friction factor (f) is given by
f = mRe −0.2 in the turbulent flow regime, where Re is the Reynolds number
and is a constant. Water flowing through a section of this pipe with a veloci-
ty 1 m/s results in a frictional pressure drop of 10 kPa.
What will be the pressure drop across this section (in kPa), when the veloci-
ty of water is 2 m/s?
(A) 11.5 (B) 20 (C) 34.8 (D) 40

Sol: (C)
We know that
∆P1 4 f V12
=
ρg 2gd
4.ρ.f V2
∆P1 = 1 1
2d
−0.2
 ρV d 
m 2  . V22
∆P2 f2 V22  µ 
= =
∆P1 f1V12  ρV d 
−0.2

m 1  . V12
 µ 
∆P2 V2−0.2
= 22−0.2
∆P1 V1
1.8
V 

Fluid Machinery and Flow Measuring Devices

∆P  2 
∆P2 = =34.8 Kpa
 V1 

113.
 Q2 A vertical cylindrical vessel has a layer of kerosene (of density 800 kg/m3)
over a layer of water (of density 1000 kg/m3). L-shaped glass tubes are con-
nected to the column 30 cm apart. The interface between the two layers lies
between the two points at which the L-tubes are connected. The levels (in
cm) to which the liquids rise in the respective tubes are shown in the figure
below.

The distance (x in cm, rounded off to the first decimal place) of the interface
from the point at which the lower L-tube is connected is _______

Sol: 10 cm
We know that
P1 = P2  (1)
P1 = ρk .g. [20 + (30 − x)] + ρwater .g.x
Fluid Machinery and Flow Measuring Devices

= 800 × 9.81 × [20 + (30 − x)] + 1000 × 9.81 × x

= 800 × 9.81[50 − x] + 9810 x
= 392400 − 7848 x + 9810 x
=P1 392400 + 1962 x
And P2 = ρ water g 42

= 1000 x 9.81 x 42
= 412020 Pa.
Putting P1 and P2 in equation (1)
412020 = 392400+1962 x
1962 x = 19620
X = 10 cm

114.
Q3 Water (density=1000 kg /m3) is pumped at a rate of 36 m3/h, from a tank 2
m below the pump, to an overhead pressurized vessel 10 m above the pump.
The pressure values at the point of suction from the bottom tank and at the
discharge point to the overhead vessel are 120 kPa and 240 kPa, respective-
ly. All pipes in the system have the same diameter. Take acceleration due to
gravity, g = 10 m/ s2. Neglecting frictional losses, what is the power (in kW)
required to deliver the fluid?
(A) 1.2 (B) 2.4 (C) 3.6 (D) 4.8

Sol: B
2.377
We have
P1 = 120 kPa
P2 = 240 kPa
Q 36 0.01
3
= = m m3
hr sec

Required head to develop

P − P1

Fluid Machinery and Flow Measuring Devices

= 2 + ( y2 − y 1 )
ρg
(240 − 120) x 103
= + 12
9810
= 12.232+12
= 24.232 m
Power required = ω Qh
= 9810 X 0.01 X24.232
= 2.377 kW

115.
 Q4 The characteristics curve (Head – Capacity relationship) of a centrifugal
pump is represented by the equation ∆Hpump = 43.8 − 0.19Q , where ∆Hpump is
the head developed by the pump (in m) and Q is the flowrate (in m3/h)
through the pump. This pump is to be used for pumping water through a
horizontal pipeline. The frictional head loss ∆Hpiping (in m) is related to the
water flowrate (in m3/h) by the equation ∆Hpiping
= 0.0135QL2 + 0.045QL . The
flowrate (in m3/h, rounded off to the first decimal place) of water pumped
through the above pipeline, is _______

Sol: 48.917
⇒ 43.8 – 0.19 θ =.0135 θ2 + .045θ
⇒ 0.135 θ2 + .235 θ - 43.8 = 0
 m3 
⇒ θ = 48.917  
 h 

Q5 Water flows through a smooth circular pipe under turbulent conditions. In

the viscous sub-layer, the velocity varies linearly with the distance from the
τω
wall. The Fanning friction factor is defined as, f = where τω is the
ρ u2 / 2
shear stress at the wall of the pipe, ρ is the density of the fluid and u is the
average velocity in the pipe. Water (density = 1000 kg/m3, viscosity = 1 × 10‒3
kg m‒1 s‒1) flows at an average velocity of 1 m s‒1 through the pipe. For this
flow condition, the friction factor f is 0.005. At a distance of 0.05 mm from
Fluid Machinery and Flow Measuring Devices

the wall of the pipe (in the viscous sub-layer), the velocity (in m s‒1, rounded
off to the third decimal place), is _______

Sol: We know that

τ
f = 2ω
ρU / 2
u
τω =µ.
y
1 × 10−3.u × 2
0.05 =
0.05 × 10−3 × 1000 × 12
u = 0.125 m / sec .

116.
GATE 2017

Q1 In a venturi meter ∆P1 and ∆P2 are the pressure drops corresponding to
Q2 ∆P2
volumetric flow rates Q1 and Q. If = 2, then equal
Q1 ∆P1
(a) 2 (b) 4 (c) 0.5 (d) 0.25

Sol: (B)
∆P fLQ2
= ⇒ ∆PαQ2
ρg 12D5
2
∆P2 Q  2
So =  2 = 2= 4
∆P1 Q
 1

Q2 The thickness of the laminar boundary layer over a flat plate varies along the
distance from the leading edge of the plate. As the distance increases, the
boundary layer thickness:
(a) Increases.
(b) Decreases.
(c) Initially increases and then decreases.
(d) Initially decreases and then increases.

Sol: A
As the distance increases, the boundary layer thickness

Fluid Machinery and Flow Measuring Devices

Increases.

Q3 The following table provides four sets of fanning friction factor data, for
k 
different values of Reynolds number (Re) and roughness factor  
D

Re 102 103 105 105

k 
  0 0.001 0 0.001
D

117.
 Set I F 0.16 .016 16 × 105 16 × 10-5

Set II F 0.016 0.16 0.0055 0.0045

Set III F 0.16 0.016 0.0045 0.0055

Set IV F 0.0045 0.0055 0.016 0.16

Which of the above sets of friction factor data is correct?

(a) Set I (b) St II (c) Set III (d) Set IV

Sol: C
Solution
According to calculations, data of set 3 is correct.

Q3 Oil is being delivered at a steady state flow rate through a circular pipe of
a radius 1.25 x 10-2 m and length 10m the pressure drop access the pipe is
500Pa the shear stress at the pipe wall, rounded to 2 decimal place ____Pa

Sol: 0.3125
=r 1.25 × 10−2 m
L 10m, ∆=
= P 500pa, C=
w ?
 ∆P  r 500 × 1.25 × 10−2
Cw
= =  = 0.3125 pa
 L 2 10
Fluid Machinery and Flow Measuring Devices

GATE 2018

Q1 A venturi meter is installed to measure the flow rate of water in a 178 mm

diameter (D) pipe. The throat diameter is 102mm. The differential pressure
measured using a manometer is 154.3kN/m2 The data given are: discharge
coefficient = 0.98; Water density = 1000 kg/m3. The volumetric flow rate of
water (in m3/s) is ____.

Sol: 0.1489
Flow through venturi meter:

= ρ 1000kg
= / m3 103 kg / m3

118.
 Diameter of venturi Dv = 102 mm
Diameter of pipe Dp = 178 mm
Dv 4
=
β = 0.573; β= 0.1078
Dp
(Pa − Pb )= 154.3kN / m3= 154.3 × 103 Pa Cd= 0.48
π
( −3
C.S.A of throat A = × 178 × 10 m =
4
)
8.171 × 10−3 m2

Cd (Pa − Pb )
Discharge through venturi meter Q =
A0 × × 2
1−β 4 ρ

0.98 2 × 154.3 × 103

= 8.171 x 10-3 m2 x ×
1 − 0.1078 103
= 8.171 x 10-3 m2 x 18.22 m/s
Q = 0.1489 m3/sec

Q2 Pitot tube is used to measure:

(A) Liquid level in a tank. (B) Flow velocity at a point.
(C) Angular deformation. (D) Vorticity.

Sol: (B)

Fluid Machinery and Flow Measuring Devices

Pitot tubes are generally used to measure point velocity of flowing fluid.
If pitot tube inlet projection (B) inserted at the center of the pipe one can
measure maximum velocity of fluid. By simple Bernoulli energy balance be-
tween A and B.

119.
 points

Venturi, orifice meter one can measure volumetric flow rate for any fluids
(gas, liquids) then by dividing C.S.A of venturi and orifice throat velocity can
be obtained but that is not point velocity it is only average velocity.

Q3 At a shear rate of 10s −1 , the apparent viscosity of a non-Newtonian liquid

was found to be 1 Pa s. At a shear rate of 100s −1 , the apparent viscosity of
the same liquid was found to be 0.5 Pa s. If the liquid follows power law
behavior, the apparent viscosity (in Pa s) at a shear stress of 10Nm−2 is ___
(rounded off to two decimal places).
Fluid Machinery and Flow Measuring Devices

Sol: 1
γ, ηapp
10s−1 1Pas
100s−1 0.5Pas
Where T = 10 Pa ηapp =
?
ηapp γ
τ= ⇒ T = η0 γn
η0 γn−1
Since, ηapp = η0 γn−1
n− 1
1 = η0 ( 10) ..... (n)

120.
 n− 1
0.5 = η0 ( 100) ........ (2)
n− 1
1  10 
⇒ = 
0.5  100 
2 = (0.1)n-1
Log 2 = (n-1) log 0.1
log 2
=
⇒η = + 1 0.699
= 0.7
log 0.1
From (1).
1
η0 = n−1
10
1
η=
0 = 1.99 ≈ 2
10−03
∴ n 0.7and
= =η0 2
Since, T = η0 γn
0.7
= 2 (γ)
10
 1 
0.7  
 0.7 
5=γ ⇒5 = γ ⇒ γ = 9.99  10s
Then, ηapp = η0 γn−1

= 2(10)-0.3 = 1.0024

Q4 The volume of liquid filled in a spherical storage tank of radius R is comput-

ed from height of liquid, h, in the outside tube (neglecting the volume of
3R − h

Fluid Machinery and Flow Measuring Devices

liquid in the outside tube) as V = πh2 ( )
3

121.
 The estimate of liquid height (in m) to store V = 30m3 water in the R=3m
tank, after performing ONE iteration of the Secant method, using 1 m and 3m
as two initial guesses of liquid height is _____ (rounded off to second deci-
mal PLACE).

Sol: 1.89
πh2
=V ( 3R − h)
3
3
=V 30m
= @ R 3m
πh2
=30 ( 3R − h)
3
90 = 9πh2 − πh3
f (h) =πh3 − 9πh2 + 90

Two initial guesses

h0 = 1m
h1 = 3m

f (h1 ) = f ( 3) = −79.646
f (=
h0 ) f=
( 1) 64.86
Secant Method,
f (h1 ) (h1 − h0 )
h=
2 h1 −
f (h1 ) − f (h0 )
− ( 79.646 ) ( 3 − 1)
Fluid Machinery and Flow Measuring Devices

= 3−
( −79.646 − 60)
= 3 − 1.10232
h2 = 1.8976

122.
GATE 2019

Q1 For a fully developed turbulent hydrodynamic boundary layer for flow past
a flat plate, the thickness of the boundary layer increases with distance x
from the leading edge of the plate, along the free stream flow direction, as:
a. x 0.5 b. x 1.5 c. x 0.4 d. x 0.8

Sol: D
For turbulent flow,
0.376x
δ=
Re0.2
x

Where
ρv 0x
Rex =
µ
Thus,
0.376x
δ= 0.2
 ρv 0x 
 
 µ 
0.8
This implies that δ ∝ x

Q2 For a hydraulic lift with dimensions shown in figure, assuming g = 10 m/s2,

the maximum diameter Dleft in metres that lifts a vehicle of mass 1000 kg
using a force of 100 N is ________ (rounded off to two decimal places).

Fluid Machinery and Flow Measuring Devices

Sol: 0.19 – 0.21

From Pascal’s law,

123.
 Pleft = Pright
F F
  = 
 A left  A right
   
 F   F 
 2
 = 2

 πD   πD 
   
 4 left  4 right
Fleft Fright
2
= 2
πDleft πDright
4 4
m
1000k
  g × 10
100N  s2
2
= 2
πDleft π ( 2Dleft )
4 4
Dleft = 0.2m
 

Q3 An incompressible Newtonian fluid flows in a pipe of diameter D1 at a vol-

umetric flow rate Q. Fluid with same properties flows in another pipe of
diameter D2 = D1/2 at the same flow rate Q. The transition length required for
achieving fully developed flow is l1 for the tube of diameter D1 and l2 for that
of diameter D2. Assuming steady laminar flow in both cases, the ratio l1/l2 is:
a. ¼ b. 1 c. 2 d. 4

Sol:=
B
Fluid Machinery and Flow Measuring Devices

Q area × velocity
πD2
Q= v
4
Thus,
4Q
v=
πD2
ρvD
Re =
µ
4Q
ρ D
πD2 4Qρ
=Re =
µ πµD

124.
 The entrance or transition length is related to the diameter by the following
relationship:
l = 0.05D R
 e
4Qρ
l = 0.05D  
πµD
4Qρ
l = 0.05
πµ
Thus, the entrance length is not a function of D. Therefore, l 1 = l2 .

Q4 A centrifugal pump is used to pump water from an inlet pressure of 105 Pa

to an exit pressure of 2*105 Pa. The exit is at an elevation of 10 m above the
pump. The average velocity of the fluid is 10 m/s. the cross section area of
the pipes at the pump inlet and outlet is 10-3 m2 and acceleration due to
gravity is g = 10 m/s2. Neglecting the losses in the system, the power in Watts
delivered by the pump is ________ (rounded off to the nearest integer).

Sol: 1990 – 2010

We have, from the Bernoulli’s equation,
P1 V2 P V2
+ 1 + y 1 + Hpump = 2 + 2 + y 2
ρg 2g ρg 2g

105 102 2 × 105 102

+ + 0 + Hpump
= + + 10
10000 20 10000 20
Hpump = 20m
 

Fluid Machinery and Flow Measuring Devices

−3 m3
Q vA
The net flow rate is given by = = 10 * 10= 10−2
s
The work done in delivering a head equal to 20 m is
Wpump = ρgQHpump

= Wpump 10000
= ( )
10−2 ( 20) 2000 W

125.
 GATE 2020

Q1 Consider an incompressible flow of a constant property fluid over a smooth,

thin and wide plate. The free stream flow is parallel to the surface of the
plate along its length and its velocity is constant. Value of Reynolds num-
ber at a distance of 2 m from the leading edge of the plate is 8000. The flow
within the boundary layer at a distance of 1 m from the leading edge of the
plate is:
a. Laminar b. Turbulent
c. Transitioning from laminar to turbulent d. Inviscid

Sol: A
5
For flow over a flat plate, Re < 10 implies laminar flow.

Q2 Consider a steady, laminar, fully developed flow of an incompressible New-

tonian fluid through two horizontal straight pipes I and II of circular cross
section. The volumetric flow rates in both the pipes are the same. The diam-
eter of pipe II is twice the diameter of pipe I. The ratio of the shear stress at
the wall of pipe I to the shear stress at the wall of pipe I to the shear stress
at the wall of pipe II is:
a. 0.5 b. 2 c. 4 d. 8

Sol: D
In terms of shear stress, the velocity can be expressed as
τwr τwd
v
= =
Fluid Machinery and Flow Measuring Devices

av
4µ 8µ
The net flow rate is given by
πd2
Q= v av
4
πd2 τwd πd3
∴ Q
= = τw
4 8µ 32µ
Thus,
1
τw ∝
d3
For constant flow rate,
3
τwI  dII  3
=  = 2= 8
τwII  dI 

126.
Q A student performs a flow experiment with Bingham plastic under a fully
developed laminar flow in a tube of radius 0.01 m with a pressure drop of 10
kPa over tube length of 1 m. the velocity profile is flat for r ≤ rc and parabolic
for r ≥ rc as shown in the figure.

Consider r and x the radial and axial directions, and the shear stress is finite
as r approaches zero. A force balance results in the following equation:
d ( rτrx ) −∆P
=r
dr l
If rc is 0.001 m, then the magnitude of yield stress for this Bingham plastic in
Pa is:
a. 1 b. 5 c. 8 d. 12

Fluid Machinery and Flow Measuring Devices

Sol: B

127.
 Q4 A u-tube manometer contains two manometric fluids of densities 1000 kg/
m3 and 600 kg/m3. When both the limbs are open to the atmosphere, the
difference between the two levels is 10 cm at equilibrium, as shown in the
figure.

The rest of the manometer is filled with air of negligible density. The accel-
eration due to gravity is 9.81 m/s2 and the atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa.
How much absolute pressure in kPa has to be applied on the limb P to raise
the fluid In the limb Q by another 20 cm?
a. 100.175 b. 103.924 c. 347.231 d. 833.206

Sol: B
Fluid Machinery and Flow Measuring Devices

Since the fluid in the limb Q has higher level, we know that this fluid has the
lesser density. Let the denser fluid be fluid 1 and the lighter fluid be fluid 2.
To find the height of column of fluid 2, we have
ρ1gx =ρ2g ( x + 0.1)
Where x is the difference of level between the level of fluid 1 in limb P and
the bottom level of fluid 1 in limb Q
1000x
= 600x + 60
x = 0.15 m
This implies that
x + 0.1 =0.25 m
Now, if the fluid 2 has to be raised by 20 cm, the fluid 1 is lowered by 20 cm
as well. Thus, the net difference between the levels of the two fluids is
0.2 + 0.2 + 0.1 =0.5m
  .

128.
 Thus, the additional pressure to be applied on limb P is
P =0.25 * 600 * 9.81 + 0.25 * 1000 * 9.81 =3924P
 a
The absolute pressure is given by adding the atmospheric pressure to this
value, that is
P=
abs Patm + P
=Pabs 100000P
  a + 3924P
 a
Pabs = 103.924 kPa

Q5 Liquid water is pumped at a volumetric flow rate of 0.02 m3/s from tank I to
tank II, as shown.

Both tanks are open to the atmosphere. The total frictional head loss for the

Fluid Machinery and Flow Measuring Devices

pipe system is 1 m of water. Use the following data and assumptions:
y Density of water is 1000 kg/m3
y Acceleration due to gravity is 9.81 m/s2
y Efficiency of the pump is 100%
y The liquid surfaces in the tanks have negligible velocities
The power supplied in Watts by the pump to lift the water is ________
(rounded off to 1 decimal place).

Sol: 1175 – 1180

Let us mark the points 1 and 2 on the surface of water in tank 1 and tank 2
respectively. Applying the Bernoulli’s equation across points 1 and 2, we have
P1 V2 P V2
+ 1 + y 1 + Hpump = 2 + 2 + y 2 + hf
ρg 2g ρg 2g

129.
 Where hf is the loss of head due to friction.
Since both surfaces are exposed to the atmosphere,
P=
1 P=2 Patm
Since both the surfaces have negligible velocity,
V
=1 V=
2 0
The level difference is 5 m and the frictional head loss is 1 m.
Thus, the equation simplifies as
Hpump = 5 + 1 = 6m
 

The power delivered by the pump is given by

P = ρgQHpump
= P 1000
= * 9.81 * 0.02 * 6 1177.2 W
Fluid Machinery and Flow Measuring Devices

130.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS

Q1 An oil of specific gravity 0.9 has viscosity of 0.28 stokes at 38oC. What will
be the viscosity in Ns/m2?
A. 0.2520 B. 0.0311 C. 0.0252 D. 0.0206

Sol: C
Specific gravity is 0.9
Density = 900 kg/m3 (w.r.t. water)
1 Stokes = 10-4m2/sec
Dynamic Viscosity = Kinematic viscosity * density
= 900 x 0.28 x 10-4
= 0.0252 Ns/m2

Q2  du  n
We know that τ = µ   
 dy 
When n<1, the fluid is
A. Bingham Plastic B. Dilatant Fluid
C. Newtonian Fluid D. Pseudo plastic Fluid

Sol: D

Fluid Machinery and Flow Measuring Devices

131.
 Q3 Which one of the following set of conditions clearly apply to ideal fluid?
A. Viscous and compressible. B. Non-Viscous and compressible.
C. Non-Viscous and incompressible. D. Viscous and incompressible.

Sol: C
For Ideal Fluid, density does not change with pressure i.e, incompressible
and has zero viscosity i.e, non-viscous.

Q4 Which one of the following equations represent the continuity equation for
steady compressible fluid flow?
∂ρ ∂ρV
A. ∇ ( ρ.V ) + =0 B. ∇ ( ρ.V ) + =0
∂t ∂t
C. ∇V =0 D. ∇ ( ρ.V ) =0

Sol: D
General continuity equation
∂ρ
∇ ( ρ.V ) + =0
∂t
∂ρ
As it is steady state i.e =0
∂t
∇ ( ρ.V ) =0
Fluid Machinery and Flow Measuring Devices

Q5 Basic assumption for Bernoulli’s equation:

A. The flow is steady, incompressible and rotational.
B. The flow is steady, compressible and irrotational.
C. The flow is unsteady, incompressible and irrotational.
D. The flow is steady, incompressible and irrotational

Sol: D
Four assumptions for Bernoulli’s equation:
1. Steady flow
2. Incompressible flow (density is constant)
3. Irrotational flow
4. Streamline flow

132.
Q6 The velocity of the water stream is measured by an L shaped pitot tube and
reading is 10cm. Then what is approximate value of velocity in (m/sec):
A. 1.9 B. 19.8 C. 1.4 D. 20.4

Sol: C
V2
=h
2g
V = 2gh

V= 2 × 9.81 × 10 × 10−2
V = 1.4m
  / sec

Q7 Re for flow of a certain fluid in a circular tube is specified as 2000. What will
be the Re when the tube diameter is increased by 10% and velocity is de-
creased by 30% keeping the fluid same?
A. 200 B. 1540 C. 1400 D. 600

Sol: B
 ρVD 
Re1 =    1
 µ 
 ρVD 
Re2 =    2
 µ 

Fluid Machinery and Flow Measuring Devices

Re1 VD
=
Re2 ( 0.7V ) ( 1.1D )

Re2 = 1540

133.
 Q8 For flow of fluid over a heated plate, the following fluid properties are
known:
Viscosity = 0.002 Pa sec
Cp = 2 KJ/KgK
k = 2 W/mK, Thermal Conductivity
The hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness at a specified location on the
plate is 2mm. The Thermal boundary layer thickness at the same location is:
(give answer in mm)
A. 0.6299 B. 0.5000 C. 2.001 D. 1.5874

Sol: D
δ
( ) 1/3 =
 Pr
δt
µcp 0.002 × 2 × 1000
Pr
= = = 2
k 2
2
(2)1/3 =
δt
δt =1.58mm

Q9 In the boundary layer. The flow is:

A. Viscous and rotational. B. Inviscid and irrotational.
C. Inviscid and rotational. D. Viscous and irrotational.
Fluid Machinery and Flow Measuring Devices

Sol: A
Rotationality occurs due to the presence of viscosity among the fluid layers.
As the flow inside the boundary layer is viscous so the fluid is rotational in
that region where outside the boundary layer where inertia effect dominates
the flow remains irrotational.

134.
Q10 The hydrodynamic Boundary layer thickness is defined as the distance from
the surface where the:
A. Velocity equals to approach velocity.
B. Velocity equals local external velocity.
C. Velocity equals to 99% local external velocity.
D. Velocity equals to average external velocity.

Sol: C

µ=
o 0.99µ∞

Q11 Thickness of laminar boundary layer at a distance ‘4 units’ from the leading
edge over a flat surface varies as:

Fluid Machinery and Flow Measuring Devices

A. 4 B. 41/5 C. 41/4 D. 2

Sol: D
δ 5
=
x Rex
δ 5
=
x ρvx
µ
i.e    δ ∝   x

135.
 Q12 In the region of boundary layer nearest to the wall where velocity is not
equal to zero, the viscous forces are:
A. of the same magnitude as inertia forces.
B. More than inertia forces.
C. Less than inertia forces.
D. Negligible.

Sol: C
InertiaF
  orce
Reynold No. =   
ViscousF   orce
As the flow in the boundary layer is turbulent that’s why Re>1
Hence, viscous force < inertia force

Q13 A fully developed laminar viscous flow through a circular tube has the ratio
of maximum velocity to average velocity as:
A. 4.0 B. 1.0 C. 2.0 D. 0.5

Sol: C
Maximum Velocity
Ratio =
Avg Velocity
Vmax
=   (As Avg Velocity = 0.5 Max. Velocity)
0.5Vmax
=2
Fluid Machinery and Flow Measuring Devices

Q14 Flow takes place and value of Reynold Number is 1500 in two different pipes
with relative roughness of 0.001 and 0.002. The friction factor:
A. Will be higher for pipe with relative roughness of 0.001.
B. Will be higher for pipe with relative roughness of 0.002.
C. Will be the same in both pipes.
D. In the two pipes cannot be compared on the basis of given data.

Sol: C
16
Here flow is laminar and for laminar flow, friction factor f = and is inde-
Re
pendent of roughness factor.

136.
 Q15 Two pumps are connected in parallel, then what will be resulting discharge
and head:
A. Q = Q1 + Q2, H= H1 + H2 B. Q = Q1 - Q2, H= H1 - H2
C. Q = Q1 = Q2, H= H1 = H2 D. Q = Q1 + Q2, H= H1 = H2

Sol: D
If pumps are connected in series H= H1 + H2 and if pumps are connected in
parallel Q = Q1 + Q2

Questions 1-15 are of 2 Marks

Q1 Refer to the figure, the absolute pressure of gas A in the bulb is:

A. 771.2 mm Hg B. 752.65 mm Hg Fluid Machinery and Flow Measuring Devices

C. 767.35 mm Hg D. 748.8 mm Hg

Sol: PC + PB + PD =PA + PF + PE + Patm

PC + (0.15*9.81*1000) + (0.02*9.81*1000) = (0.1*1.22*9.81) + (0.01*1000*9.81) +
(0.02*13600*9.81) + 101.325
PC = 102817.3 = ρghm
102817.3
hm =   = 0.771 m of hg = 771 mm of hg
13600 × 9.81

137.
 Q2 The gap between a moving circular plate and a stationary surface is being
continuously reduced. The circular plate comes down at a uniform speed V
towards the stationary bottom surface, as shown in figure. In the process,
the fluid contained between two plates flows out radially. The fluid is as-
sumed to be incompressible and inviscid. (Given that h is referred as gap
width.)

The radial component of the fluid acceleration at r = R is:

3V 2R V 2R V 2R V 2h
A. B. C. D.
4h2 4h2 2h2 4R 2

Sol: ar(acceleration) =
∂vr
 
∂t
Fluid Machinery and Flow Measuring Devices

Vr = ?
At Distance r, take a strip of dr.
Volume of liquid pass through 2 π r length within one second is π r2V
V= radial velocity
πr2 V rV
Vr= =
2πrh 2h
dh
And V = − (as velocity is in opposite direction of h)
dt
∂  rV  1 ∂  rV 
= ar =
∂t  2h   2 ∂t  h 
 
rV ∂  1  rV  ∂h  rV × V
=   = − =
2 ∂t  h  2h2  ∂t  2h2
rV2
ar =
2h2
138.
Q3 Consider steady, incompressible and irrotational flow through a reducer in a
horizontal pipe where diameter is reduced from 10cm to 5cm. The pressure
in the 10cm pipe upstream of a reducer is 100KPa. The fluid has a vapour
pressure of 50KPa and specific weight is 10KN/m3. Neglecting frictional ef-
fects, the maximum discharge in (m3/sec) that can pass through the reducer
without causing cavitation is:
A. 0.05 B. 0.02 C. 0.16 D. 0.08

Sol: ρg = 10 × 1000N / m3
  / m3
= 10000N
 10 
Continuity equation- A1V1 = A2 V2 , V2 =   2 V1
 5
V2 = 4V1

Applying Bernoulli theorem:

Fluid Machinery and Flow Measuring Devices

P1 v2 P v2
+ 1 + z1 = 2 + 2 + z2
ρg 2g ρg 2g
50 × 103 ( 4v 1 ) 
2
100 × 103 v 21
+= +
10000 2g 10000 2g
v 21 ( 4v 1 ) 2
10 + =5 +
2g 2g
15 v  2
=5
2g
V1 = 2.557m/sec
Q A=
= 1 V1 0.02

139.
 Q4 List 1 List 2

Fourier No. Surface Tension

Weber No. Forced Convection

Grashof No. Natural Convection

Schmidt No. Radiation

Transient Heat Conduction

Mass Diffusion

A. a-1 , b-2 , c-6 , d-4 B. a-4 , b-5 , c-2 , d-1

C. a-5 , b-1 , c-3 , d-6 D. a-4 , b-2 , c-3 , d-1

Sol: C
Heat conduction
Fourier No =  
H
  eat Storage
InertialF
  orce
Weber No =
Surface tension
buyoncy force 
Grashof No =
Viscous force
(for free convection )
Viscous diffusionR
  ate
Schmidt No =
mass diffusion rate
Fluid Machinery and Flow Measuring Devices

Q5 Point A of Head HA is at higher elevation than point B of head HB. The head
loss between these points is HL. The flow will take place:
A. Always from A to B B. From A to B if HA = HB – HL
C. From B to A if HA = HB – HL D. From B to A if HB + HL = HA

Sol: C
Flow may take place from lower elevation to higher elevation. If total Head
at point A = Total Head at point B + Loss of Head between A and B (HL) then
flow will be from A to B, But if total head at point B = Total Head at point A +
Loss of head between B and A, Then flow will be from B to A.

140.
Q6 What is the discharge from laminar flow through the pipe of diameter 90mm
having center-line of velocity of 2m/sec?
A. 0.0127 m/sec B. 0.00636 m/sec
C. 0.00318 m/sec D. 0.0254 m/sec

Sol: B
Centre line velocity = max velocity = 2m/sec
For laminar flow
vmax
v avg
= = 1m / sec
2
Q = A× v avg
π
( −3 2
=    × 90 × 10   ×1
4
)

Q7 The value of friction factor is misjudged by the factor + 15% in using Dar-
cy-Weisbach Equation. Resulting error in the discharge will be:
A. +15% B. -15% C. -6.74% D. +13.49%

Sol: C.
4fLV2
hρ =
2gD

Fluid Machinery and Flow Measuring Devices

4fL  16Q2  64fL Q2

= hρ =  
2gD  π2D4  2g π2D5
1 1 1
Q∝ Q1 = , Q2 =
f f1 f2
Q2 f1 f1
= = = 0.9325
Q1 f2 1.15f1

Qerror = −6.74%

141.
 Q8 Water is pumped from lower reservoir to upper reservoir as shown in figure
f = friction factor = 0.002
Q = 23 ft3/sec
g= 32.17 ft/s2
Pipe diameter = 24 inch
Pipe length = 3600ft
Find the pump head in ft required as that pump efficiency is 75% . Neglect
Minor losses
A. 43.5 ft B. 45.5 ft C. 46.5 ft D. 50 ft

Sol: P1 v2 P v2
+ 1 + z1 + Ep = 2 + 2 + z2 + hf ---(1)
ρg 2g ρg 2g

4fLV2 4 × 0.002 × 3600 × V2

=hf = ---(2)
2gD 24
2 × 32.17 ×
12
Q 23
Fluid Machinery and Flow Measuring Devices

V
= = = 7.32 ft / sec
A π
(2) 2
4
From eq (2)
hf = 11.994 ft
P1 and P2 are open to atmosphere and cancels out
V1 and V2 are zero as static point is given
Z1 97.5 and Z2 = 132
From eq (1) 97.5+ =Ep 132.0 + 11.994

Ep = 46.5 ft

142.
Q9 A fluidized bed consists of spherical catalyst particles of uniform size with
diameter of 1.5mm and density of 3000 Kg/m3 and are used to catalyse a
liquid hydrocarbon reaction. If the density of liquid hydrocarbon mixtures of
reactants and products is 800Kg/m3 and it has viscosity of 0.02Ns/m2 and
porosity of bed is 0.476. Determine the minimum fluidizing velocity of bed
using the Ergun equation? (m/sec)

Sol: 0.0157
∆P
= ( 1− ∈) ( ρp−ρ ) g …(1)
L
Pressure drop over the bed is given by-

∆P 150µ ( 1− ∈)  V 1.75ρ ( 1− ∈) V

2 2

= + …(2)
L ∅  dp  2 ∈3 ( )
  ∅  dp ∈3

Equating (1) and (2)

150µ ( 1− ∈) 2 V 1.75ρ ( 1− ∈) V2
(= (
1− ∈) ρp− ρ g ) +
( ∅  dp ) 2 ∈3 ( )
   ∅  dp (∈)
3

150 × 0.002 × ( 1 − 0.476 ) 2 V 1.75 × 800 × ( 1 − 0.476 ) V2

3
+ 3
(0.0015) 2 ×1 × (0.476)   ( 0.0015 )  ×1 × ( 0.476 )
= 9.81 × ( 1 − 0.476 ) ( 3000 − 800)
339453.626V + 4534685.84V2 – 1 =0

−b ± b2 − 4ac
V= , V = 0.0157m / sec

Fluid Machinery and Flow Measuring Devices

2a

143.
 Q10 A venturi meter of 40mm throat diameter is used to measure the velocity of
water in a horizontal pipe of 60mm diameter. If the pressure difference b/w
the pipe and throat sections is found to be 50KPA then the flow velocity is:
A. 2.42 m/s B. 3.96 m/s C. 4.52 m/s D. 4.96 m/s

Sol:=
D
d 40mm
= 0.04m
2

d1 = 0.06m
∆P = P1 − P2 = 50kPa= 50 × 103 Pa
From continuity equation:
A1V1 = A2 V2
d 
V2 =  1   2  V1
 d2 
 0.06  2
V2 =      V1
Fluid Machinery and Flow Measuring Devices

 0.04 
9
V2 =  V1 …(1)
4
P1 v2 P v2
+ 1 + z1 = 2 + 2 + z2
ρg 2g ρg 2g
{ z1 = z2 }
P1−P2 v 2 − v 21
= 2
ρg 2g
∆P 1  9  2  2 50 × 103 1  81 
=      −1 
 v
= 1 = 3  − 1 v21
ρ 2  4   10 2  16 
65 2 1600
100 = v 1 ; v 21 =
16 65
v 1  =4.96m/sec

144.
Q11 Consider a velocity field
=

v K yiˆ + xk ( )
ˆ Where K is constant. The vorticity

Ωy is ?
A. K B. K/2 C. -K D. -K/2

Sol: C
Ω = ∇  x V
 d d d 
= i j k        u v  w  
 dx dy dz 
Here, u = Ky , v = 0 , w = K x
 d d d 
Ω = i j k       K  y 0K
  x 
 dx dy dz 
= o î – K ĵ - K k̂
Ωy = -K

Q12 Flow velocity on nozzle axis is given by

v= u0(1 +5 x/L) Where x is the distance along the axis of the nozzle from its
inlet plane and L is the length of the nozzle. The time required for fluid par-
ticle on axis to travel from inlet to exit plane of the nozzle is:
A. L/ u0 B. (L/6 u0) ln5 C. (L/5 u0) ln6 D. L/25 u0

Sol: C
5x
v = u0 [1 + .]

Fluid Machinery and Flow Measuring Devices

L
dx
Also v=
dt
dx 5x
= u0 [1 + ]
dt L
L dx t
∫0 5x
1 +  
∫
  = u0 dt
0

L
L 5x L
[ln(1 + )] 0 = u0 t
5 L
L
ln 6 = u0 t
5
L
t= lnln 6 
5u0  

145.
 Q13 Water at 20oC is being pumped from a tank to an elevated tank at the rate
o5Litre/sec through a 4 inch schedule 40 pipe. (Inside diameter = 0.1023m)
as shown in figure. Calculate the power required for the pump considering
pump efficiency as 60?
Given data:
ρw 998.2 kg/m3
µ =1 CP 
16
Friction factor f = {For Laminar flow}
Re
f = 0.079 Re-0.25 { 4000 < Re < 105}
Neglect other losses:

A. 877 W B. 977 W C. 1077 W D. 1177 W

Sol: D
Fluid Machinery and Flow Measuring Devices

PA VA2 PR VR2
+  + ZA + hp
= +  + ZB + hf   − − − − − − −1
ρg 2g ρg 2g
ρvD
Re =      ------- 2
µ
Q = Av
m3 π
5 x 10-3  = (0.1023)2 x v
sec 4
v = 0.6083 m/sec
ρVD
Re =
µ
998.2 x  0.6083 x  0.1023
=
10 − 3

146.
 Re = 62.117 x 103
Hence f = 0.079 Re-0.25
f = 5 x 103
4flv2
hf =
2gD
4 x  5 x  10 − 3 x  (  5 +  50 +  15 +  100) x  0.6083
( ) 2 
=
2 x  9.81 x  0.1023 
1.258
=
2.007
h f = 0.6267 m
From eq 1
PA VA2 PR VR2
+  + ZA + hp = +  + ZB + hf   
ρg 2g ρg 2g
hp
= ZB + hf   
hp = 15 + 0.6267
hp = 15.6267 m
ρ g  Q h p 998.2 x  9.8 x  5 x  10−3  x  15.62
Pump Power = =
η 0.05 
= 1177.09 W

Q14 A piece of wood floats on an interface between layers of oil and water. The
specific gravity of wood and oil are 0.90 and 0.70. Determine the volume
fraction of wood in the water layer.

Fluid Machinery and Flow Measuring Devices

A. 0.5 B. 0.667 C. 0.75 D. 0.80

147.
 Sol: B
According to Archimedes’ principle. The mass of floating object equal the
mass of fluids displaced by object:
(v1 + v2) ρ wood g = v1 ρ water g + v2 ρ oil g
(v1 + v2)(0.9) x (103)g = [v1 x 103 x g] + [v2 x 103 x 0.7] g
0.9 (v1 + v2) = v1 + 0.7 v2
v1[1-0.9] = v2[0.9-0.7]
0.1 v1 = 0.2v2
v1
=2
v2 
Fraction of wood immersed in water
v1 2
= = = 0.667
v1 +  v2 3

Q15 The velocity profile in fully developed laminar flow in pipe of diameter D is
4r2
given by u = u0[1 - – ] where r is radial diameter from the center. The
D2
viscosity of fluid is , the pressure drop across the length L of the pipe is
µu0L 4µu0L 8µu0L 16µu0L
A. B. C. D.
D2°  D2°  D2°  D2° 

Sol: D
du
τ = -µ . ----------1
dy
Fluid Machinery and Flow Measuring Devices

dP −2τ
=  
dx r
dP r
τ =- . ---------2
dx 2
For fully developed laminar flow
1=2
du ∂P r
µ = -( )
dr ∂x 2
du 1 ∂P r
=- ( )
dr 2µ ∂x 2

148.
d 4r2 1 ∂P
[u (1 – )] = - ( )r
dr 0 D2 2µ ∂x
8r 1 ∂P
u0(0 - )=- ( )r
D2°  2µ ∂x
ρr 2uL
∆P =uo ( )( )
D2°  r
16uu0L
∆P =
D2

Fluid Machinery and Flow Measuring Devices

149.