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Bio-oil production from fast pyrolysis of maple fruit (acer platanoides

samaras): product yields

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DOI: 10.1108/WJE-08-2016-0047

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 World Journal of Engineering
Bio-oil production from fast pyrolysis of maple fruit (acer platanoides samaras): product yields
Ali Bahadir, Turgay Kar, Sedat Keles, Kamil Kaygusuz,
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Ali Bahadir, Turgay Kar, Sedat Keles, Kamil Kaygusuz, (2017) "Bio-oil production from fast pyrolysis of maple fruit (acer
platanoides samaras): product yields", World Journal of Engineering, Vol. 14 Issue: 1, pp.55-59, https://doi.org/10.1108/
WJE-08-2016-0047
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 Bio-oil production from fast pyrolysis of
maple fruit (acer platanoides samaras):
product yields
Ali Bahadir
Gumushane Universitesi, Gümüşhane, Turkey, and
Turgay Kar, Sedat Keles and Kamil Kaygusuz
Department of Chemistry, Karadeniz Technical University, Trabzon, Turkey

Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to investigate fast pyrolysis of maple fruit as an energy sources. This could serve as a solution to the energy
sources problem.
Design/methodology/approach – Fast pyrolysis of maple fruit (samara) was achieved in a fixed bed reactor. The pyrolysis experiments have been
Downloaded by KARADENIZ TEKNIK UNIVERSITY At 04:36 24 October 2017 (PT)

conducted on the sample of maple seeds to particularly determine the effects of pyrolysis temperature, particle size and sweep gas flow rate on
the pyrolysis product yields.
Findings – The oil of maple fruit from fast pyrolysis has good properties to be a potential candidate as a biofuel or as a source of chemicals. In
addition to being environmentally desirable, it can reduce the energy cost, e.g. that Turkey imports a majority of its energy.
Originality/value – The use of maple fruit for fast pyrolysis and pyrolysis conditions impact on the yields of pyrolysis liquid can be considered as
novel aspects of this paper.
Keywords Biomass, Acer platanoides, Bio-oils, Fast pyrolysis, Maple fruit, Samara
Paper type Research paper

1. Introduction renewable fuel source to reduce CO2 emissions and reduce

Fossil fuels, which meet a considerable part of the world’s
energy needs, are being used up more and more rapidly, but
these reserves are not renewable (Kasap and Duman, 2013).
Because of this depletion of the reserves of fossil fuels and
energy consumption increases, the importance of renewable
forms of energy has become more marked. Technologies and
practices to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are
continuously being developed. Many of these technologies
focus on improving the efficiency of fossil fuel energy or
electricity use and the development of low-carbon energy
sources, as the majority of GHG emissions are related to the
use of energy (Yuksel, 2008; Ozturk, 2014). Environmental
pollution in any form represents a potential threat to plants,
animals and humans (Menkiti et al., 2014). Renewable energy
is being targeted as a significant contributor to the country’s
total electricity supply (Albani et al., 2014). Renewable energy
sources lessen our dependence on foreign energy and do not
emit GHGs. Biomass is the term used for all organic material
originating from plants, trees and crops and is essentially the
collection and storage of the sun’s energy through
photosynthesis (Mirhabibi et al., 2015; Bahadır et al., 2013).
Biomass is being grown in greater quantities worldwide as a
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available on
Emerald Insight at: www.emeraldinsight.com/1708-5284.htm
World Journal of Engineering
14/1 (2017) 55–59
© Emerald Publishing Limited [ISSN 1708-5284]
[DOI 10.1108/WJE-08-2016-0047]
dependency on fossil fuels (Bridgeman et al., 2007). The
thermochemical conversion of biomass is rapidly becoming an
alternative source for renewable energy and fuel production
worldwide.
Even though Turkey’s geographical position offers significant
potential for renewable energy sources, Turkey’s energy
demand is met, to a great extent, by imported energy sources,
which places a substantial economic burden on that country
(Ates, 2015). The common factor amid all the feedstock
processing is the quality of the biofuel produced and the need
to upgrade the fuel to meet standard specifications for
different applications (Bakar et al., 2013). The carbon content
of biomass originates primarily from carbon dioxide captured
from air via photosynthesis during plant growth. Therefore,
the combustion of biomass gives no net carbon emissions, so
biomass can be regarded as a carbon-neutral resource (Briens
et al., 2008).
Biomass fuels and residues can be converted to more
valuable energy forms via a number of processes, including
thermal, biological and mechanical or physical processes
(Bridgwater, 2012). Fast pyrolysis is one thermochemical
conversion technology, which requires 350-550°C in the
absence of oxygen.
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support for this work
given by the Karadeniz Technical University Research Fund under Grant
No. 9081.
Received 4 August 2016
Accepted 17 October 2016

55
 Bio-oil production from fast pyrolysis of maple fruit World Journal of Engineering
Ali Bahadir, Turgay Kar, Sedat Keles and Kamil Kaygusuz Volume 14 · Number 1 · 2017 · 55–59

There are four essential features of a fast pyrolysis process. Figure 1 Photo of maple fruit taken from the city of Trabzon,
First, very high heating and heat transfer rates are used, which located in northern Anatolia in Turkey
usually requires a finely ground biomass feed. Second, a
carefully controlled pyrolysis reaction temperature is used,
often in the 425-500°C range. Third, short vapor residence
times are used (typically ⬍2 s). Fourth, pyrolysis vapors and
aerosols are rapidly cooled to give bio-oil (Mohan et al., 2006).
Under these conditions, organic materials are rapidly
thermo-decomposed to volatile compounds, which are
condensed to bio-oil (liquid) by passing through a quenching
system. In addition, char (solid) and non-condensable gases
(CH4, H2, CO and CO2) are formed as by-products due to
side reactions (Asadullah et al., 2007; Czernik and Bridgwater,
2004). Lignocellulosic biomass is an alternative carbon-based
resource that can be converted to various products such as
feedstock, energy, fuel and chemicals. Fast pyrolysis of
different kinds of lignocellulosic biomasses usually produces
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bio-oil yields in the 60-80 Wt.% range, a gas yield of 5-25

Wt.% and a char yield in the 15-35 Wt.% range, depending on QGCV 共MJ/kg兲 ⫽ 关349.1C ⫹ 1442.3H ⫹ 100.5S
the amount of ash in the raw material (Alvarez et al., 2014). ⫺ 103.4O ⫺ 15.1N ⫺ 21.1ASH兴 ⫻ 0.001
Moreover, lignocellulosic biomass contains a negligible (1)
amount of nitrogen and sulfur, which results in lower
emissions of environmentally harmful substances such as NOx The raw materials’ proximate and ultimate analyses results are
and SOx (Zhang et al., 2006). given in Table I.
Bio-oils are dark brown, free-flowing organic liquids that
are highly oxygenated, viscous, corrosive, relatively unsta- 2.2 Apparatus
ble and chemically complex. Their chemical compositions The experimental plant shown in Figure 2 mainly consists of
contain organic species groups, which include organic ac- a flowmeter, the fixed-bed reactor, a liquid collecting system
ids, esters, alcohols, ketones, aldehydes, phenols, aromatic and a power supply. The experimental setup consisted of a
hydrocarbons, nitrogen compounds, furans and anhydro- cylindrical reactor made of 316 stainless steel. The pyrolyzer
sugars (Bridgwater, 2012; Mohan et al., 2006; Goyal et al., was installed inside an electrical heater, which was insulated to
2008). enable the heating of the reactor up to 400, 500, 600 and
In this study, fast pyrolysis of maple fruits (samara) was 700°C. During the experiments, the heating rate and the
achieved in a fixed bed reactor. In Turkey, the maple (Acer
platanoides) is found as ten different species, so it is an Table I Proximate and ultimate analyses of maple fruit samples
important biomass. Because of its low amounts of sulfur,
producing bio-oil from maple fruit is advantageous for clean Characteristics Values
energy. In particular, fixed-bed, fast-pyrolysis experiments a
Moisture content (%) 8.72
have been conducted on a sample of maple fruit to determine Holocellulose contenta (%) 57.66
the effects of pyrolysis temperature, particle size and sweep gas Cellulose contenta (%) 21.11
flow rate on the pyrolysis product yield. Hemicellulose contenta (%) 36.55
Lignin contenta (%) 17.10
2. Materials and methods Organic extractivea (%) 29.80
2.1 Raw material Proximate analysisb (%)
Fixed-bed, fast-pyrolysis experiments have been conducted on Volatiles 78.13
a sample of maple fruit (Figure 1) taken from Trabzon, Fixed carbon 6.88
located in northern Anatolia, to determine particularly the Ash 6.27
effects of pyrolysis temperature, particle size and sweep gas
flow rate on pyrolysis product yields. Prior to use, the maple Ultimate analysisc (%)
fruit sample was air-dried and ground. The grinding process Carbon 45.32
was applied to homogenize the sample. Ground maple fruit Hydrogen 6.22
samples were separated into the following different sizes by Nitrogen 3.05
sieving: 2-1 mm, 1-0.425 mm, 0.425-0.250 mm and Oxygend 45.41
0.250-0.125 mm. H/C molar ratio 1.65
Proximate analysis was performed on the maple fruit sample O/C molar ratio 0.75
to determine the weight fractions of its volatile, ash and fixed Empirical formula C70H114O52N4
carbon contents. The ultimate analysis was performed using Higher calorific value (MJ/kg) 19.92
an elemental analyzer (Costech Elemental Combustion
Notes: a As received; b weight percentage on dry basis; c weight
System) to determine its elemental composition. The gross
percentage on dry and ash-free basis; d by difference
calorific values were calculated by using Dulong’s formula:

56
 Bio-oil production from fast pyrolysis of maple fruit
Ali Bahadir, Turgay Kar, Sedat Keles and Kamil Kaygusuz
Figure 2 Process flow diagram for the fixed-bed reactor
Downloaded by KARADENIZ TEKNIK UNIVERSITY At 04:36 24 October 2017 (PT)
temperature were controlled by a PT100 temperature
controller. The fixed-bed reactor’s volume was 90 cm3. The
thermocouple in the middle of the fixed-bed reactor helped us
to control the pyrolysis temperature from the controlling panel
(Kar and Keles, 2013)
2.3 Pyrolysis experiments
The pyrolysis experiments were performed using a fixed-bed
reactor. Three groups of experiments were applied to
investigate the effect of the pyrolysis conditions on the product
yields and to determine the pyrolysis conditions that gave the
maximum bio-oil yield. For the first series of experiments, the
reactor was heated at a rate of 200°C/min⫺1to pyrolysis
temperatures of 400, 500, 600 and 700°C, and finally, 1 g of
the air-dried sample was projected into the reactor. After the
sample was put into the reactor, each sample was heated up to
a final temperature (400, 500, 600 and 700°C) at a constant
heating rate of 200°C/min⫺1 and held there for a minimum of
30 min or until no further significant release of gas was
observed. The second series of experiments was performed to
establish the effect of particle size on the pyrolysis yields in a
nitrogen atmosphere. In the experiments, four fractions of 2-1
mm, 1-0.425 mm, 0.425-0.250 mm and 0.250-0.125 mm
were used to study the influence of particle size. In the third
series of experiments, varying sweeping gas flow rates of 100,
200, 300 and 400°C/min⫺1 were used for each temperature.
In all the experiments, the liquid phase was collected in a cold
trap maintained with liquid nitrogen, and it was cooled at
room temperature. After pyrolysis, the solid char was removed
and weighed. The gas yield was determined by calculating the
difference in the readings taken.
3. Results and discussion
3.1 Product yields
According to the elemental analysis, the empirical formula was
calculated as C70H114O52N4. The H/C value for maple fruit
57
World Journal of Engineering
Volume 14 · Number 1 · 2017 · 55–59
(1.65) was comparable with the H/C value (1.57) for
conventional heavy oil. However, the O/C value (0.75) was
much higher than that for conventional heavy oil. Because the
O/C ratio for maple fruit was much higher than that of
conventional fossil fuels, the deoxygenating process of bio-oils
should be performed to enhance the bio-oil calorific values
(Hassan et al., 2016).
The product yields and the pyrolysis conversions of biomass
samples are shown in Figure 3. The yields and conversions
obtained in a fixed-bed reactor are related to the final
temperature of pyrolysis at a heating rate of 200°C/min⫺1 with
nitrogen flow rates of either 100, 200, 300 and 400 cm3/min⫺1,
using an average particle size of 0.250-0.125 mm. All the
yields are expressed on a dry, ash-free basis. In Figure 3,
pyrolysis conversions were increased from 63.40 to 75.9
Wt.%, when the final pyrolysis temperature was increased
from 400 to 700°C. While oil yield was 41.1 Wt.% at the
pyrolysis temperature of 400°C, it appeared to go through a
maximum of 50.20 Wt.% at the temperature of 600°C. Then
at the final temperature of 700°C, the oil yield decreased to
45.4 Wt.%. Figure 3 shows that the gas yields were increased
when the temperature varied from 400 to 700°C. As shown in
Figure 3, the char yield had a declining trend as the final
pyrolysis temperature increased from 400 to 700°C (Chang
et al., 2007). The maximum char yield was achieved as 34.8
Wt.% at the pyrolysis temperature of 400°C and the minimum
char yield was achieved as 24.4 Wt.% at the pyrolysis
temperature of 700°C. It is known that lower temperatures
favor char production.
The effect on yield of the sweeping gas flow rate, the
pyrolysis temperature, the particle size range and the
heating rate were chosen as 600°C, 0.250-0.125 mm and
200°C/min⫺1, respectively. Figure 4 shows the effect of the
sweeping gas (nitrogen) flow rate on product yields. It is
known that sweeping gas caused the removal of the products
from the reaction zone to minimize secondary reactions such
as thermal cracking, repolymerization and recondensation to
maximize the liquid yields (Kar and Keles, 2013; Keleş et al.,
2011). When the sweeping gas flow rate was increased from
100 to 400 cm3/min⫺1, the char yield changed from 26.1 to
25.7 Wt.%. Figure 4 shows the maximum oil yield that was
achieved was 50.2 Wt.% at the sweeping gas flow rate of 100
cm3/min⫺1. The oil yield decreased as the sweeping gas flow
rate increased.
Figure 5 shows the effect of particle size on product
yields. Four particle size ranges (2-1 mm, 1-0.425 mm,
0.425-0.250 mm and 0.250-0.125 mm) were selected, and
pyrolysis experiments were conducted at an optimum
pyrolysis temperature of 600°C with a constant heating rate
of 200°C/min⫺1 and a sweeping gas flow rate of 100 cm3/min⫺1.
The maximum bio-oil yield obtained was 50.2 Wt.% with a
particle size range of 0.250-0.125 mm. Finer sample particles
offered less resistance to the escape of condensable gases,
which therefore escaped relatively easily to their surroundings
before undergoing secondary cracking. This resulted in a
higher liquid yield (Basu, 2010).
4. Conclusions
In this study, fast pyrolysis experiments were carried out on
maple fruit in a fix-bed reactor system. The effects of
 Bio-oil production from fast pyrolysis of maple fruit World Journal of Engineering
Ali Bahadir, Turgay Kar, Sedat Keles and Kamil Kaygusuz Volume 14 · Number 1 · 2017 · 55–59

Figure 3 Effect of temperature on pyrolysis yield

pyrolysis conversion liquid char gas

80

70

60
Yield(%)
50

40

30

20

10
Downloaded by KARADENIZ TEKNIK UNIVERSITY At 04:36 24 October 2017 (PT)

0
400 500 600 700
Temperature ºC

Figure 4 The effect of the sweeping gas (nitrogen) flow rate on product yields

pyrolysis conversion liquid char gas

80

70

60

50
Yield (%)

40

30

20

10

0
100 200 300 400
Sweeping gas flow rate (cm3/min)

Figure 5 The effect of particle size on product yields

pyrolysis conversion liquid char gas

80
70
60
Yield (%)

50
40
30
20
10
0
2.0-1.0 1-0.425 0.425-0.250 0.250-0.125

pyrolysis temperature, sweeping gas flow rate and particle
size on the product yield were discussed. Pyrolysis yields
and conversion efficiencies depended mainly on pyrolysis
temperatures, of which 600°C was the most suitable
temperature for the decomposition of the maple fruit to
achieve a maximum oil yield. As pyrolysis temperatures
increased, the yield of bio-oil and gas increased, whereas
the yield of char decreased, but at a certain high
temperature (600°C), the bio-oil yield started to decrease
because of secondary reactions that produced more gases.

58
 Bio-oil production from fast pyrolysis of maple fruit
Ali Bahadir, Turgay Kar, Sedat Keles and Kamil Kaygusuz
The experimental data obtained showed that the highest
yield of pyrolytic oil of 50.20 per cent was obtained with a
heating rate of 200°C/min⫺1, at the pyrolysis temperature
of 600°C under a nitrogen flow rate of 100 cm3/min⫺1. The
oil of maple fruit from fast pyrolysis has good properties for
a potential biofuel candidate or as a source of chemicals. In
addition to being environmentally desirable, it could help
Turkey to reduce its energy costs, as Turkey imports most
of its energy at present.
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Corresponding author
Sedat Keles can be contacted at: sedat725@hotmail.com