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Simultaneous small UAV and autopilot system design

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DOI: 10.1108/AEAT-04-2015-0097

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 Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology
Simultaneous small UAV and autopilot system design
Turgul Oktay, Mehmet Konar, Murat Onay, Murat Aydin, Mohamed Abdallah Mohamed,
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 Simultaneous small UAV and autopilot
system design
Turgul Oktay, Mehmet Konar, Murat Onay, Murat Aydin and Mohamed Abdallah Mohamed
College of Aviation, Erciyes University, Kayseri, Turkey

Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to increase flight performance of small unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) using simultaneous UAV and autopilot
system design.
Design/methodology/approach – A small UAV is manufactured in Erciyes University, College of Aviation, Model Aircraft Laboratory. Its wing and
tail is able to move forward and backward in the nose-to-tail direction in prescribed interval. Autopilot parameters and assembly position of wing
and tail to fuselage are simultaneously designed to maximize flight performance using a stochastic optimization method. Results are obtained are
used for simulations.
Findings – Using simultaneous UAV and autopilot system design idea, flight performance is maximized.
Research limitations/implications – Permission of Directorate General of Civil Aviation in Turkey is required for testing UAVs in long range.
Practical implications – Simultaneous design idea is very beneficial for improving UAV flight performance.
Originality/value – Creating a novel method to improve flight performance of UAV and developing an algorithm performing simultaneous design idea.
Keywords UAVs, Autopilots, Flight performance, Performance maximization, PID controller, Simultaneous design
Downloaded by Erciyes University At 02:34 14 May 2019 (PT)

Paper type Research paper

Nomenclature monitoring and spraying), coast guarding (e.g. coastline

Symbols and see-lane), conservation (e.g. pollution and land
monitoring), customs and excise (e.g. surveillance for
Introduction illegal imports), electricity companies (e.g. powerline
inspection), fire services and forestry (e.g. fire detection and
incident control), fisheries (i.e. fisheries protection), gas
Symbol Definition Dimension
and oil supply companies (e.g. land survey and pipeline
x, y, z Coordinates in aircraft frame [m] security), etc., with civilian purposes. They have also been
p, q, r Angular velocities in aircraft frame [rad/s] applied to military tasks. For example, they have been used
u, v, w Linear velocities in aircraft frame [m/s] for navy (e.g. shadowing enemy fleets, decoying missiles by
␾A, ␪A, ⌿A Euler angles of UAV fuselage [rad] the emission of artificial signatures, protection of ports from
J Cost of performance [] offshore attack), army (e.g. reconnaissance, surveillance of
%J Relative save of performance [] enemy activity, monitoring of Nuclear, Biological and
KPi, KIi, KDi Proportional, integral and derivative gains [] Chemical (NBC) contamination, location and destruction
of PID controller of land mines) and air force (e.g. long-range, high-altitude
surveillance, radar system jamming and destruction, airfield
base security, airfield damage assessment). For more UAV
For the preceding four to five decades, unmanned aerial applications, Austin (2010) can be examined. Many
vehicles (UAVs) have been widely benefited for military scientific research on UAV design and control have been
operations and also in commercial applications due to their also conducted recently (Goetzendorf-Grabowski et al.,
many advantages with respect to the manned vehicles. 2006; Ding et al., 2013; Drak et al., 2014; Filippis et al.,
Some of these advantages are having lower cost in 2014; Higashino and Funaki, 2013; Wilburn et al., 2013;
manufacturing and operating, elasticity in configuration Hadi et al., 2014).
depending on customer demand and not risking the pilot’s
life on difficult missions. UAVs have been used in aerial
photography (e.g. film and video), agriculture (i.e. crop This work was supported by Research Fund of the Scientific and
Technological Research Council of Turkey (TÜBİTAK) under Project
Number 114M856.
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available on
The authors would like to thank Mr Orhan Kizilkaya and Mr Hasan Murat
Emerald Insight at: www.emeraldinsight.com/1748-8842.htm
Sert for their technical supports during this study and also would like to
thank Prof. Dr Mustafa Kemal Apalak for serving opportunities of Erciyes
University, College of Aviation.

Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal Received 8 April 2015
88/6 (2016) 818 –834 Revised 27 April 2015
© Emerald Group Publishing Limited [ISSN 1748-8842] 27 April 2015
[DOI 10.1108/AEAT-04-2015-0097] Accepted 4 May 2015

818
 UAV and autopilot system design
Turgul Oktay et al.
In traditional approach, a model of any physical system
will be controlled (e.g. fixed wing aircraft, UAV, hybrid
UAV, structure, etc.), also called as the “plant”, and is
given a priori to the control engineer who has no effect on
this physical system’s design. Nonetheless, it is a
well-known fact that the plant design problem and control
system design problem are relevant (Grigoriadis et al.,
1993, 1996). Changes in some aircraft plant parameters
may recover performance considerably as examined, for
example, in Krog et al. (2004), Park et al. (2008) and Qun
and Hong-Quang (2011). The conventional chronological
approach – first, design the plant, and second, design the
control system after the first step – does not deliver the best
complete design (Grigoriadis et al., 1993, 1996). Elegantly,
the system to be controlled and the control system should
be simultaneously designed such that a given objective (e.g.
cost function) is minimized, while there are additional
constraints on the system parameters. In this article, this idea
is tracked and a small UAV (i.e. ZANKA-I) manufactured in
Erciyes University, College of Aviation, and PID-based
hierarchical autopilot system are simultaneously designed over
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wing-fuselage and tail-fuselage assembly parameters and also
autopilot P, I, D parameters to minimize a cost function
consisting of performance parameters (i.e. maximum overshoot,
settling time and rise time during trajectory tracking).
Autopilots are systems to guide UAVs during flight without
any assistance of human workers. Autopilots is an onboard
intelligent system and consists of state sensors and controller.
State sensors continuously measure numerous parameters of
UAV using multiple sensors such as GPS, accelerometer,
magnetometer, gyros and pitot-tube. Controller uses these
measurements and calculates the error between current and
required states. The control signal depends on the error signal,
and it is produced to actuate the numerous control surfaces of the
aircraft. Due to fact that aircraft dynamics is highly nonlinear,
many intelligent control methods (e.g. PID control, neural
network, fuzzy logic, sliding mode control, etc.) have been
Table I Longitudinal stability derivatives
共⫺CDu⫺ 2CD0⫹ CTu兲QS ⫺共CD␣⫺ 2CL0兲QS
Xu ⫽ Xw ⫽
mu0
共QSc៮兲
Mu ⫽ Cmu Mw ⫽ Cm␣
u0Iyy
X␦e ⫽ 0
Z␦e ⫽ CZ␦
e m
Z␦T ⫽ 0 M␦T ⫽ X␦TzT
Table II Lateral stability derivatives
QS QSb
Y␤ ⫽ C Yp ⫽ C Yr ⫽
m y␤ 2mu0 yp
QSb2 QSb2
Lp ⫽ C Lr ⫽ C N␤⫽
2Ixxu0 lp 2Ixxu0 lr
QSb2 QSb
Nr ⫽ C L␦a ⫽ C N␦a ⫽
2Ixxu0 nr Ixx l␦a
QSb
N␦r ⫽ C
Izz n␦r
Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal
Volume 88 · Number 6 · 2016 · 818 –834
applied to autopilots to promise a smooth appropriate trajectory
navigation (Chao et al., 2007). In this article, an autopilot system
having a PID-based hierarchical control structure is applied.
Recently, PID-based controllers have been applied by different
researches successfully (Jung et al., 2009; Sartori, 2014).
This article is an extended and enriched version of our Sixth
European Conference for Aeronautics and Space Sciences in
Krakow, Poland conference paper (Oktay et al., 2015). At the
first stage of this article, obtaining state-space model of any UAV
is presented in detail. Then, some information about
manufactured UAV are given. Following this, some knowledge
about turbulence modeling is expressed. At the second stage of
this article, autopilot system applied is introduced.
Moreover, some structural test results are given to prove
that our UAV do not fail during flight. At the last stage of
this article, the optimization technique to simultaneously
design UAV and autopilot system is summarized, and its
application results to our problem are given. This is the first
article simultaneously designing an UAV and autopilot
system. Moreover, for this purpose, a stochastic
optimization method [i.e. simultaneous perturbation
stochastic approximation (SPSA)] is first time applied, and
on using it, optimal results are found safely and fast.
Furthermore, simultaneous design idea improves
autonomous flight performance considerably so that less
overshoot, less settling time and less rise time are obtained.
Dynamic modeling of unmanned aerial vehicle
In this section, parametric state-space models of UAVs
(both longitudinal and lateral), stability derivatives required
to get these models and using data of ZANKA-I some
numerical values for these models are given. Flight
dynamics modes of ZANKA-I is validated, and some
technical drawings and photos of ZANKA-I are also given
at the end of this section. At the end of this section,
turbulence modeling is introduced.
⫺共CLu⫹ 2CL0兲QS 共CL␣⫹ 2CD0兲QS
Zu ⫽ Zw ⫽
mu0 mu0 mu0
(QSc៮) c 共QSc兲 c 共QSc兲
Mẇ ⫽ Cm␣˙ Mq ⫽ Cmq
u0Iyy 2u0 Iyy 2u0 Iyy
QS QSc ⭸T 1
M␦e ⫽ Cm␦ X␦T ⫽
e Iyy ⭸␦T m
QSb QSb
C L␤ ⫽ C
2mu0 yr Ixx l␤
QSb QSb2
C Np ⫽ C
Izz n␤ 2Ixxu0 np
QSb QSb
C L␦r ⫽ C
Izz n␦a Ixx l␦r
819
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Turgul Oktay et al.

UAV and autopilot system design

Table III Longitudinal stability coefficients

⭸CD CTu ⫽ ⫺CD0 ⭸Cm xcg xac d␧

CDu ⫽ M ⫽0 Cmu ⫽ M ⫽0 Cm␣⫽CL␣ ⫺ ⫹ Cm␣ ⫺ ␩VHCL␣ 1 ⫺
⭸M ⭸M w c c fus t d␣
p. 111 for
冉 冊 冉 冊
p. 111 p. 126 for low p. 45, 47, 58, 59, 126

820
propellers
speed
lt St lt di3.5
Cmq ⫽ CZq CZ␦ ⫽ ⫺ CL␣ ␶␩ Cm␦ ⫽ CZ␦ T ⫽ 4.3924 ⫻ 10⫺8 ⫻ rpm ⫻ 共4.2333 ⫻ 10⫺4 ⫻ rpm ⫻ pitch ⫺ V0兲
c e T S e ec 公pitch
p. 126 p. 126
CZq ⫽ ⫺2CL␣ ␩VH ⭸T di3.5
T ⫽ 4.3924 ⫻ 10⫺8 ⫻ rpm ⫻ ⫻ 共4.2333 ⫻ 10⫺8 ⫻ rpm ⫻ ␦T ⫻ pitch ⫻兲
⭸␦T 公pitch
p. 125, 126
⫹ 1.8594 ⫻ 10⫺11 ⫻ rpm2 ⫻ ␦T ⫻ di3.5 ⫻ 公pitch
Volume 88 · Number 6 · 2016 · 818 –834
Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal
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Turgul Oktay et al.

Table IV Lateral stability coefficients

UAV and autopilot system design

AR⫹cos 共⌳兲 vt Svt Cl␤

Svt Cyp ⫽ CL0 tan 共⌳兲 Cyr ⫽ ⫺ 2 L␣ ␩vt
vt S
AR⫹cos 共⌳兲
冉lb 冊C Cl␤⫽( )⌫⫹⌬Cl␤
Cy␤⫽⫺ CL␣ ⌫
S vt p. 121 ⌳ ⫽ 0 for our models p. 118,121 p. 121, 122 ⌬Cl␤⫽ 0 and
Svt/S Cyp ⫽ 0 ⌫ ⫽ 0 for our models
0.724 ⫹ 3.06
1 ⫹ cos ⌳c/4w Cl␤ ⫽ 0
⫻
zw
⫹ 0.4 ⫹ 0.0009ARw

821
冢 d 冣
p. 76, 121

CL0 lvt zvt Svt Cn␤⫽Cn␤ ⫹␩vtVvtCL␣ CL0

wf vt
CL␣ 1⫹3␭
Cl p ⫽ ⫺ ,␭⫽0 Clr ⫽ ⫺2 C ␩ Cnp ⫽ ⫺
12 1⫹␭ 4 b b L␣vt vt S 8
p. 121 p. 118, 121 Svt/S p. 121
0.724 ⫹ 3.06
1 ⫹ cos ⌳c/4w
⫻
zw
⫹0.4 ⫹ 0.0009ARw
冢 d 冣
p. 74, 76,121 Nelson

vt Cn␦ ⫽ 2KCL0Cl␦ 2CL␣ ␶a y2 Svt zvt

Cnr ⫽ ⫺ ␩vtVvt L␣ a a Cl␦ ⫽ ␶C
冉lb 冊C vt Cl␦ ⫽ cydy r S b r L ␣w
冉 冊
p. 121, 122 a Sb y1
p. 76, 121
兰 p. 64, 121
p. 64, 121

Cn␦ ⫽ ⫺ Vvt␩vt␶rCL␣
r vt
Volume 88 · Number 6 · 2016 · 818 –834

p. 64, 76, 121

Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal
 UAV and autopilot system design Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal
Turgul Oktay et al. Volume 88 · Number 6 · 2016 · 818 –834

Parametrical state-space models Ala

È

冤冥冤 冥
In this subsection, longitudinal and lateral parametric state-space Y␤ Yp Yr g
ẋ
la ⫺(1 ⫺ ) ⫺ cos (␪0) 0
u0 u0 u0 u0
models of any generic UAV are given, respectively. È

⌬␤˙ Ixz Ixz Ixz

L␤ⴱ ⫹ N␤ⴱ Lpⴱ ⫹ Npⴱ Lrⴱ ⫹ Nrⴱ 0 0
⌬ṗ Ixx Ixx Ixx
⫽
Longitudinal state-space model ⌬ṙ I xz Ixz I xz
Nvⴱ ⫹ Lvⴱ Npⴱ ⫹ Lpⴱ Nrⴱ ⫹ Lrⴱ 0 0
Longitudinal linearized state-space model of a fixed-wing aircraft ⌬␾˙ Izz Izz Izz
is given in equation (1): 0 1 0 0 0
⌬␺
˙
0 0 sec (␪0) 0 0
ẋl Bla
Al
È È

冤 冥
È
Y ␦r

冤冥冤
⌬u̇

冥
Xu Xw 0 ⫺g 0 xla
0
⌬ẇ Zu Zw u0 0 0
È
u0 (2)

冤冥
⌬␤
⌬q̇ ⫽ Mu ⫹ MẇZw Mw ⫹ MẇZw Mq ⫹ Mẇu0 0 0 Ixz ⴱ Ixz ula

冋 册
⌬p L␦ⴱa ⫹ N␦a L␦ⴱr ⫹ N␦ⴱr È

⌬␪˙ 0 0 1 0 0 Ixx Ix ⌬␦a

⫻ ⌬r ⫹
⫺sin (␪0) cos (␪0) ⫺u0 cos (␪0) Ixz ⴱ Ixz ⌬␦r
⌬ḣ 0 0 ⌬␾ N␦a ⫹ L␦a N␦r ⫹ L␦ⴱr
ⴱ ⴱ
Izz Izz
xl
È
Bl ⌬␺
È 0 0

冤冥冤 冥
⌬u X ␦T X ␦e (1)
ul 0 0

冋 册
⌬w Z ␦T Z ␦e È
⌬␦T
⫻ ⌬q ⫹ M ␦T ⫹ MẇZ␦T M␦e ⫹ MẇZ␦e
⌬␦e
⌬␪ 0 0
⌬h 0 0 Stability derivatives
Longitudinal stability derivatives are summarized in Table I
Lateral state-space model (most of data are taken from Nelson, 2007, p. 123).
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Lateral linearized state-space model of a fixed-wing aircraft is Lateral stability derivatives are summarized in Table II (most
given in equation (2): of data are taken from Nelson, 2007, p. 123).

Figure 1 Longitudinal flight dynamics modes

Figure 2 Lateral flight dynamics modes

822
 UAV and autopilot system design Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal
Turgul Oktay et al. Volume 88 · Number 6 · 2016 · 818 –834

In Table III, longitudinal stability parametrical coefficients are Figure 5 Photo of ZANKA-I
summarized (most of data are taken from Nelson, 2007, and for
precision, page numbers are given, and thrust term is taken from
Staples, 2013).
In Table IV, lateral stability parametrical coefficients are
summarized (all of data are taken from Nelson, 2007 and for
precision, page numbers are given).

Numerical state-space models

In equations (3) and (4), for 60 km/h, straight level flight
condition longitudinal and lateral linearized state-space models
of ZANKA-I are given, respectively (note that for this situation
wing and tail are assembled to fuselage as much as close to nose).
Geometrical data of ZANKA-I are given in Appendix 1,
Table AI. Linearized models for also 40 and 80 km/h are given in
Appendix 1: Figure 6 Photo of wing movement mechanism of ZANKA-I

ẋl
Al
È È

冤冥冤
⌬u̇

冥
⫺6.5179e-2 8.3424e-1 0 ⫺9.81 0
⌬ẇ ⫺1.9744 ⫺7.3459
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1.6667e⫹1 0 0
⌬q̇ ⫽ 3.2691e-1 ⫺1.0848 ⫺7.4293 0 0
⌬␪˙ 0 0 1 0 0
⌬ḣ ⫺5.2336e ⫺ 2 9.9863e ⫺ 1 0 ⫺16.6438 0
xl Bl
È È

冤冥冤 冥
⌬u 6.9709 0 ul

冋 册
⌬w 0 ⫺8.0041 È (3)
⌬␦T
⫻ ⌬q ⫹ 1.4268 ⫺6.0562e⫹1
⌬␦e
⌬␪ 0 0
⌬h 0 0

Figure 3 Upper view of ZANKA-I

Figure 7 Photo of tail movement mechanism of ZANKA-I

Figure 4 Movement mechanisms of ZANKA-I

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 UAV and autopilot system design Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal
Turgul Oktay et al. Volume 88 · Number 6 · 2016 · 818 –834

Table V Power spectral densities of turbulence velocities

Longitudinal
⌽ug共␻兲 ⫽ ␴u2
2Lu 1
␴ 0.8 冉 冊
␲Lw 1/3

关1⫹共1.399L ␻V 兲 兴
2
␲V 2 5/6 w 4b
⌽pg共␻兲 ⫽
共 兲
u
VLw 4b␻ 2
1⫹
␲V
8 ␻
共兲 共兲 ␻ 2
2
Lateral ⫿
L 1⫹ 3 1.399Lv V
2 v V
⌽vg共␻兲 ⫽ ␴v ⌽rg共␻兲 ⫽ ⌽ 共␻兲
␲V
关 共 ␻ 2
兲兴 共 兲3b␻ 2 vg
11/6
1⫹ 1.399Lv 1⫹
V ␲V

L 1⫹ 3 共1.399L V 兲 ⫾共 兲
Vertical 8 ␻ 2 ␻ 2
w
w V
⌽wg 共␻兲 ⫽ ␴ 2
⌽ 共␻兲 ⫽ ⌽ 共␻兲
␲V
关1⫹共1.399L ␻V 兲 兴 1⫹共
␲V 兲
w qg wg
2 11/6 4b␻ 2
w

Table VI Transfer functions for Von Karman gusts

冪 冉 冊
Longitudinal 2 Lu Lu Hp共s兲 ⫽ ␴w公 0.8 / V 共 ␲ / 4b 兲1/6 / Lw共1 ⫹ 共 4b / ␲V 兲s兲
␴u 1⫹0.25 s
␲V V
Hu共s兲 ⫽
Lu
1⫹1.357 s⫹0.1987
V 冉冊
Lu 2 2
V
s

冪 冉 冉冊 冊
s
Lateral 1 Lv Lv Lv 2 2 ⫿
␴v 1⫹2.7478 s⫹0.3398 s V
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␲V V V Hr共s兲 ⫽ Hv共s兲
Hv共s兲 ⫽
Lv
1⫹2.9958 s⫹1.9754
V 冉冊
Lv 2 2
V
s ⫹0.1539
V 冉冊
Lv 3 3
s 共 共 兲兲
1⫹
3b
␲V
s

冪 冉 冉LV 冊 s 冊
s
Vertical 1 Lw Lw w
2
⫾
␴w 1⫹2.7478 s⫹0.3398 2
V
␲V V Hq共s兲 ⫽ Hw共s兲
H w 共s 兲 ⫽
Lw
1⫹2.9958 s⫹1.9754
V 冉冊Lw 2 2
V
s ⫹0.1539 冉LV 冊 s w
3
3 共 共 兲兲
1⫹
4b
␲V
s

Figure 8 Hierarchical control structure of ZANKA-I

ẋla
From these figures, it can be seen that qualitative behaviors of flight
Ala
È
È dynamics modes are similar with the ones given in Zagi website, and

冤冥冤
⌬␤˙

冥
⫺4.1954e-3 0 ⫺9.9985e-1 5.8824e-1 0
⌬ṗ
as in Vural and Hajiyev (2008, 2013), Cardenas et al. (2012) and
2.3668e-2 ⫺2.3285e⫹1 4.6459 0 0
⌬ṙ ⫽ 1.8318e-1 ⫺3.5980 2.2331e-1 0 0 Jeni and Budiyono (2006).
⌬␾˙ 0 1 0 0 0
⌬␺
˙ 0 0 1.0014 0 0 Technical drawings and photos of ZANKA-I
xla
È
Bla
È
In this subsection, technical drawings and photos of ZANKA-I
(4)

冤冥冤 冥
⌬␤ 0 2.0062e-3 ula manufactured in Erciyes University, College of Aviation, are given.

冋 册
⌬p 3.4630e⫹2 1.2164e⫹1 È
⌬␦a
⫻ ⌬r ⫹ ⫺9.8826 4.7664e-1 Technical drawings of ZANKA-I
⌬␦r
⌬␾ 0 0 In Figure 3, upper view of ZANKA-I is given. Moreover, in Figure
⌬␺ 0 0 4, movement of wing and tail can be seen.
Flight dynamics models of unmanned aerial vehicle Photos of ZANKA-I and its mechanisms
In Figures 1 and 2, longitudinal and lateral flight dynamics modes In Figures 5-7, photos of ZANKA-I and its assembly mechanisms
are illustrated, respectively. are given.

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Turbulence modeling Parametrical state-space models with gust disturbance vectors

For turbulence modeling, Von Karman approach (US Military In equations (5) and (6), longitudinal and lateral state-space models
Handbook MIL-HDBK-1797, 1997) is benefited. In Table V, are given, respectively, when there is turbulence on the system
power spectral densities of turbulence velocities are given. (Nelson, 2007):
For altitudes below 1,000 feet (304.8 m), turbulence modeling
ẋl
parameters are: È
Al
ÈÈ
xl

⌬u̇

冤冥冤
⫺g ⌬u

冥冤 冥
Xu Xw 0
h ⌬ẇ Zu Zw u0 0 ⌬w
Lu ⫽ Lv ⫽ , Lw ⫽ h ⫽
共0.177 ⫹ 0.000823h兲1.2 ⌬q̇ Mu ⫹ MẇZw Mw ⫹ MẇZw Mq ⫹ Mẇu0 0 ⌬q
⌬␪˙ 0 0 1 0 ⌬␪
␴w ⫽ 0.1W20
(5)
For light, moderate and severe turbulences W20 ⫽ 15kts, W20 ⫽
Bl Bl
gust
È ul

冥冋 册
È gust

冤 冥冋 册 冤
X ␦T X ␦e ⫺Xu ⫺Xw
30kts, W20 ⫽ 45kts, respectively:
ul È
0
È ug
Z ␦T Z ␦e ⌬␦T ⫺Zu ⫺Zw 0
⫹ ⫹ wg
␴w M ␦T ⫹ MẇZ␦T M␦e ⫹ MẇZ␦e ⌬␦e ⫺Mu ⫺Mw ⫺Mq
qg
␴u ⫽ ␴v ⫽ 0 0 0 0 0
共0.177 ⫹ 0.000823h兲0.4

In Table VI, transfer functions for Von Karman gusts are Ala
È

冤 冥冤 冥
summarized. ẋla Y␤ Yp Yr g
È ⫺(1 ⫺ ) ⫺ cos (␪0) xla
u0 u0 u0 u0 È

冤冥
⌬␤˙ Ixz Ixz Ixz ⌬␤
⌬ṗ L␤ⴱ ⫹ N␤ⴱ Lpⴱ ⫹ Npⴱ Lrⴱ ⫹ Nrⴱ 0 ⌬p
⫽
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Ixx Ixx Ixx

Figure 9 Autopilot equipment with ZANKA-I ⌬ṙ ⌬r
I xz I xz I xz
⌬␾˙ Nvⴱ ⫹ Lvⴱ Npⴱ ⫹ Lpⴱ Nrⴱ ⫹ Lrⴱ 0 ⌬␾
Izz Izz Izz
0 1 0 0
Bla
È

冤 冥
Y ␦r
0
u0 ula

冋 册
Ixz ⴱ Ixz È
⌬␦a (6)
L ⫹ N␦a L␦r ⫹ N␦ⴱr
ⴱ ⴱ
⫹ ␦a
Ixx Ix ⌬␦r
Ixz Ixz
N␦ⴱa ⫹ L␦ⴱa N␦ⴱr ⫹ L␦ⴱr
Izz Izz
0 0
Bla
gust
È

冤 冥冋 册
Y␤
⫺ 0 0 ula
u0 È
gust

I xz I xz Ixz vg /u0
⫺L␤ⴱ ⫺ N␤ⴱ ⫺Lpⴱ ⫺ Npⴱ ⫺Lrⴱ ⫺ Nrⴱ
⫹ Ixx Ixx Ixx pg
Ixz Ixz Ixz rg
⫺Nvⴱ ⫺ Lvⴱ ⫺Npⴱ ⫺ Lpⴱ ⫺Nrⴱ ⫺ Lrⴱ
Izz Izz Izz
0 0 0

Figure 10 Deflection results of ZANKA-I (for 60 km/h) (Maximum displacements)

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Figure 11 The Von Mises stress results of ZANKA-I (for 60 km/h) (Principal stresses)
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Figure 12 Response of ZANKA-I for desired pitch angle

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Turgul Oktay et al. Volume 88 · Number 6 · 2016 · 818 –834

Figure 13 All longitudinal responses of ZANKA-I (Pure Turbulence exists)

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Autopilot/Avionic system and structural test accelerometer, magnetometer, gyro, pitot-tube) to

determine states and onboard processors for estimation and
In this section, general properties of autopilot and avionic control.
system are introduced. Structure of autopilot system is also
illustrated. Structural tests of manufactured UAV are also
presented in this section. Software system
Software of our typical off-the-shelf autopilot system
General system comprises state estimator (i.e. Kalman filter) and path-
In this subsection, general systems (i.e. hardware and following controller. These controllers can be divided to
software) of autopilot are summarized. three different layers:
1 the inner loop for stabilization of roll and pitch attitudes;
Hardware system
Hardware of our typical off-the-shelf autopilot system 2 the middle loop for stabilization of heading and altitude; and
comprises sensor packages (i.e. GPS receiver, 3 the outer loop for tracking of x- and y- positions of the UAV.

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Turgul Oktay et al.
Figure 14 All lateral responses of ZANKA-I
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Structure of the autopilot system
The general structure of our PID-based autopilot system is given
in Figure 8 (taken from Jang and Liccordo, 2006; Chao et al.,
2007). It uses three layers PID controller to accomplish waypoint
navigation. The photos of applied autopilot system are shown in
Figure 9.
Structural analyses of ZANKA-I
The finite element software ANSYS was used for structural
analysis of ZANKA-I. Analyses were carried out by a workstation
having 16 processors with a 2.5 GHz CPU speed and 32 GB
RAM. Solid elements (SOLID 186) with higher-order 3D 20
nodes were used for modeling, and experimental conditions were
specified as much as possible. Figure 10 shows the deflection
values over the wings of UAV. Deflection increases toward the
tip of the wing and reaches peak value (approximately 5 cm) at
the tip point of wings. Figure 11 shows Von Mises stress values
over the wings of UAV. The Von Mises stresses vary over the
wing length due to the changing bending stiffness.
Consequentially, the largest Von Mises stresses (approximately
80 kPa) were obtained at the wing root. For the best location of
the carbon tubes, the maximum stress value is under the yield
stress of foam and carbon tubes.
Problem formulation and results
PID-based hierarchical autopilot system in most general form
permits height and yaw angle tracking and also velocity tracking.
Autopilot system has six PID controllers in three layers. These
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PIDs have upper and lower bounds (Appendix 1 and Table AII
for these limitations) and permit trajectory tracking. If any
interested user demands to benefit from all of them, it is required
to tune 18 parameters. However, in our simultaneous design
idea, there are two additional structural parameters (assembly
points of wing and tail to fuselage). A cost function consisting of
settling time, rise time and overshoot is good choice for desirable
trajectory tracking [equation (7)]:
兺 g(T
J⫽ st ⫺ Tstu)2 ⫹ g(Trt ⫺ Trtu)2 ⫹ g(%OS ⫺ %OSu)2
(7)
It is also significant to note that there are also constraints on
PID parameters and also structural assembly parameters such
that 1 ⱕ KP1 ⱕ 100 and 0 ⱕ x_w_play ⱕ 6cm. The
optimization problem can be expressed as follows:
min兵 J其 where J ⫽ f共x_w_play, x_t_play,
KP1, KI1, KD1, KP2, KI2, KD2, . . . . . . . . . . . . , KP6, KI6, KD6兲 (8)
and it is the function of 20 terms (2 aircraft design parameters
and 18 autopilot system design parameters). Terms of cost
function are calculated as follows:
If Tst ⱕ Tstu, g(Tst ⫺ Tstu)2 ⫽ 0 else Tst ⱕ Tstu, g(Tst ⫺ Tstu)2 ⫽ (Tst ⫺ Tstu)2
(9a)
 UAV and autopilot system design
Turgul Oktay et al.
If Trt ⱕ Trtu, g(Trt ⫺ Trtu)2 ⫽ 0 else Trt ⱕ Trtu, g(Trt ⫺ Trtu)2 ⫽ (Trt ⫺ Trtu)2
If %OS ⱕ %OSu, g(%OSrt ⫺ %OSrtu)2 ⫽ 0 else %OS
ⱕ %OSu, g(%OS ⫺ %OSu)2 ⫽ 0
Simultaneous perturbation stochastic approximation
Due to the fact that there is complicated dependency between J
[equation (7)] and the constraints on the optimization variables
(six PID gains and two aircraft design parameters), computation
of cost function derivatives with respect to these variables is
impossible analytically. This advocates the demand of certain
stochastic optimization techniques.
To solve the problem defined in Problem Formulation
Section, we selected a stochastic optimization method named
SPSA, which was successfully used in similar complex
constrained optimization problems previously (Sultan, 2010;
Oktay 2012; Oktay and Sultan, 2013). SPSA has many
advantages with respect to the other existing method in the
literature. First, SPSA is inexpensive because it uses only two
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evaluations of the objective to estimate the gradient (Spall,
1992). Moreover, it is also successful in solving constrained
optimization problems (Sultan, 2010; Oktay, 2012; Oktay and
Sultan, 2013). Its short description is given next.
Let ␺ denote the vector of optimization variables. For the
old-fashioned SPSA, if ␺关k兴 is the estimate of ␺ at k-th iteration,
then ␺关k⫹1兴 ⫽ ␺关k兴 ⫺ ␺kg关k兴, where:
g[k] ⫽ 冋
⌫⫹ ⫺ ⌫⫺
2dk⌬[k]1
... ...
⌫⫹ ⫺ ⌫⫺
2dk⌬[k]p 册 T
ak and dk are gain sequences, g关k兴 is the estimate of the
objective’s gradient at ␺关k兴, ⌬关k兴 僆 Rp is a vector of p mutually
independent mean-zero random variables 兵⌬关k兴1 . . . . . . ⌬关k兴p其
satisfying certain conditions (Sadegh and Spall, 1998; He and
Fu, 2003), ⌫⫹ and ⌫⫺ are estimates of the objective evaluated
at ␺关k兴 ⫹ dk⌬关k兴 and ␺关k兴 ⫺ dk⌬关k兴, respectively. The adaptation is
by using gain sequences ak and dk, which should change
according to:
兵
ak ⫽ min a/(S ⫹ k)␭, 0.95 min 兵min (␮li), min (␮ui)其
i 其
(11a)
兵
dk ⫽ min d/k⌰, 0.95 min 兵min 兵␩li其, min 兵␩ui其其 (11b)
i 其
where ␩l and ␩u are vectors whose components are 共␺关k兴i ⫺
␺mini 兲/⌬关k兴i for each positive ⌬关k兴i and 共␺max i ⫺ ␺关k兴i兲/⌬关k兴i for each
negative ⌬关k兴i, respectively. Similarly, ␮l and ␮u are vectors
whose components are 共␺关k兴i ⫺ ␺min i兲/g关k兴i for each positive g关k兴i
and 共␺关k兴i ⫺ ␺max i兲/g关k兴i for each negative g关k兴i, respectively, and d,
a, ␭, ⌰, S are other SPSA parameters.
Simultaneous perturbation stochastic approximation
algorithm
Step 1: Set k ⫽ 1 and choose initial values for the optimization
parameters, 共␺ ⫽ ␺关k兴兲, and a specific flight condition (e.g. straight
level flight at speed V关A兴 ⫽ 60 km/h).
Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal
Volume 88 · Number 6 · 2016 · 818 –834
Step 2: Compute Ap and Bp, design the corresponding
(9b) autopilot system and obtain the current value of the objective,
⌫k given by equation (7) (note that ⌫k ⫽ Jk for our autopilot
system).
(9c) Step 3: Perturb ␺关k兴 to ␺关k兴 ⫹ dk⌬关k兴 and ␺关k兴 ⫺ dk⌬关k兴 and solve
the corresponding autopilot system to obtain ⌫⫹ and ⌫⫺,
respectively. Then compute the approximate gradient, g关k兴,
using equation (10) with dk given by equation (11b).
Step 4: If 㛳akg关k兴㛳 ⬍ ␦␺, where ak is given by equation (11a)
and ␦␺ is the minimum allowed variation of ␺, or k ⫹ 1 is
greater than the maximum number of iterations allowed, exit,
else calculate the next estimate of ␺, ␺关k⫹1兴, using ␺关k⫹1兴 ⫽
␺关k兴 ⫺ akg关k兴, set k ⫽ k ⫹ 1 and return to Step 2.
Simultaneous small unmanned aerial vehicle
and autopilot system design
For MIMO Systems, transfer matrix of closed-loop system is
(Kuo and Golnaraghi, 2010):
Y(s) ⫽ G(s)U(s), Y(s) ⫽ R(s) ⫺ B(s), B(s) ⫽ H(s)Y(s)
(12a)
Y(s) ⫽ 关I ⫹ G(s)H(s)兴⫺1G(s)R(s),
Y(s)
M(s) ⫽ ⫽ 关I ⫹ G(s)H(s)兴⫺1G(s),
R(s)
Y(s) ⫽ M(s)R(s) (12b)
For our system, H共s兲 ⫽ eye共5兲 and G共s兲 ⫽ C共s兲P共s兲 where
(10)
C共s兲 is autopilot system transfer matrix of size 5 ⫻ 4 and P
共s兲 is aircraft dynamics transfer matrix of size 4 ⫻ 5. C共s兲
includes six PID controllers and uses measurements of yaw
angle coming from GPS and magnetometer in most outer
hierarchy, height coming from GPS and altimeter in middle
hierarchy, speed from pito-tube and roll and pitch angle from
magnetometer in most inner hierarchy.
Results
In this subsection, SPSA and step input results and also
simulation results are presented, respectively.
Simultaneous perturbation stochastic approximation
and step input results
A small UAV and an autopilot system are simultaneously
designed to minimize cost function [equation (7)] using
SPSA. For this problem, the UAV was tracking a 5 degrees
of pitch angle, and there were a PID controller parameters
and two assembly parameters during this optimization
problem. SPSA parameters applied were S ⫽ 5, a ⫽ 100,
␭ ⫽ 0.602, d ⫽ 20, ⌰ ⫽ 0.101. After some iterations,
optimum parameters found were x_w_play ⫽ 30 ⫺
14.9442 ⫽ 15.0558 mm, x_t_play ⫽ 30 ⫺ 14.9442 ⫽
15.0558 mm, KP␪ ⫽ 74.9750, KI␪ ⫽ 2.5070 and KD␪ ⫽
74.9950. In Figure 12, response of ZANKA-I for desired
pitch angle, cost minimization during using SPSA, and
relative energy save at each iteration are given. The relative
energy save %J is %J ⫽ 100共J0 ⫺ Jf兲/J0 where J0 and Jf are
costs of performance for initial and final situations,
respectively.
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 UAV and autopilot system design
Turgul Oktay et al.
From Figure 12, it can be ascertained that autopilot system is
very successful during tracking reference trajectory. Moreover,
SPSA is very fast and effective during energy minimization.
Finally, substantial energy (around per cent75) is saved using
simultaneous UAV and autopilot system design.
Simulation results
Success of autopilot system when there is turbulence on the
system is also considered. In Figure 13, the closed loop system
responses when there is pure turbulence on the system are given.
From this figure, it can be seen that when there is also turbulence
on the system, the autopilot system is able to track reference
trajectory successfully. Moreover, other states do not experience
catastrophic behavior (fast and large oscillations) during this
trajectory tracking. Finally, while there is a constraint on control
surface (⫾30 degrees for elevator), it is also successful for desired
trajectory tracking.
In Figure 14, the closed loop system responses for lateral
motion when there is pure turbulence on the system are given.
From this figure, it can be seen that when there is also turbulence
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on the system, the autopilot system does not permit catastrophic
behavior for lateral motion.
Conclusion
Simultaneous small UAV and autopilot system design is
considered to improve autonomous flight performance of UAV.
Dynamic modeling of a fixed-wing aircraft is presented in detail.
Linearized state-space models of manufactured UAV (i.e.
ZANKA-I) are given for several flight conditions. Obtained
models are validated using existing data in the literature. A
PID-based hierarchical autopilot system is chosen for this study.
A stochastic optimization method namely simultaneous
perturbation and stochastic approximation (i.e. SPSA) is chosen
for performance maximization. Considerable improvement in
flight performance (around per cent75) is obtained using
simultaneous design idea. This satisfied the general requirements
of less overshoot, less settling and less rise time. Closed-loop
responses when there is turbulance during flight is also
examined, and satisfactory results (meaning that small rise and
settling time and small overshoot) are found. This article study
presents UAV users confidence, high performance and easy
utility.
Further work
In the following study of this research, active morphing
permitting geometrical alteration during flight will be considered
to increase autonomous flight performance of small UAV.
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Turgul Oktay et al. Volume 88 · Number 6 · 2016 · 818 –834

Appendix 1

Table AI Data of ZANKA-I UAV

Symbol Definition Value Dimension
ARw Aspect ratio of wing 5.2 []
b Wingspan 1.3 [m]
c Wing mean aerodynamic 0.25 [m]
chord
CD0 Aircraft reference 1.3229e-2 []
drag coefficient
CDu Drag stability coefficient 0 []
CD␣ Airplane drag curve slope 0.1 [1/rad]
CL0 Aircraft reference lift 6.4949e-1 []
coefficient
CL␣ Airplane lift curve slope 4.8242 [1/rad]
CL␣ Wing lift curve slope 4.8242 [1/rad]
w
CL␣ Tail lift curve slope 4.8242 [1/rad]
t
CL␣ Vertical tail lift curve slope 0.045, Perkins used [1/rad]
vt
Cm␣ Fuselage contribution to ⫺7.0473e-5 [1/rad]
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fus
rate of pitching moment
coefficient
CTu Thrust stability coefficient ⫺1.3229e-2 []
d Maximum fuselage depth 160.38 [mm]
di Propeller diameter 11 [ in]
Ixx Moment of inertia of the 9.8775e-2 [kgm2]
aircraft about the x-axis
Iyy Moment of inertia of the 1.4218e-1 ⫹ 2.5599e-4ⴱx_t_play- 1.5414e-7ⴱx_t_playⴱx_w_play [kgm2]
aircraft about the y-axis ⫹ 2.14422e-7ⴱx_t_play^2 ⫹ 4.7536e-7ⴱx_w_play^2- 3.7496e-5ⴱx_w_play
Izz Moment of inertia of the 2.2970e-1 ⫹ 2.5599e-4ⴱx_t_play- 1.5414e-7ⴱx_t_playⴱx_w_play [kgm2]
aircraft about the z-axis ⫹ 2.1442e-7ⴱx_t_play^2 ⫹ 4.7536e-7ⴱx_w_play^2- 0.3750e-4ⴱx_w_play
Ixz Product of inertia of the 1.2762e-2 ⫹ 1.1245e-5ⴱx_t_play ⫹ 3.0003e-5ⴱx_w_play [kgm2]
aircraft about the x- and
z-axes
lt Distance from center of (800.67/1,000) ⫹ (140/4,000) ⫺ (3.3263e-1 ⫹ 1.1028e-4ⴱx_t_play [m]
gravity to tail quarter chord ⫹ 3.19802e-4ⴱx_w_play)
lvt Distance from center of ((958.84 ⫹ x_t_play) / 1,000) ⫺ (3.3263e-1 ⫹ 1.1028e-4ⴱx_t_play [m]
gravity to vertical tail ⫹ 3.1980e-4ⴱx_w_play)
aerodynamic center
m Aircraft mass 2.1853 [kg]
pitch Propeller pitch 5.5 [in]
rpm Propeller rpm 9,400 [1/min.]
Q Dynamic pressure 1.7014e⫹2 for 60 km/h [N/m2]
Sr Reference area 3.8800e-1 [ m2]
S Wing area 3.25e-1 [m2]
St Horizontal tail area 6.3e-2 [m2]
Svt Vertical tail area 1.9087e-2 [m2]
u0 Aircraft speed 60/3.6 ⫽ 16.6667 [m/s]
VH Horizontal tail volume ratio 3.9005e-1 []
Vvt Vertical tail volume ratio 2.8291e-2 []
xcg Nondimensionalized distance ((3.3263e-1 ⫹ 1.1028e-4ⴱx_t_play ⫹ 3.1980e-4ⴱx_w_play) ⫺ ((194.33/1,000) ⫹ []
c from wing leading edge to the (x_w_play/1,000) ⫹ (250 / 4,000))) / c
center of gravity
(continued)

832
 UAV and autopilot system design Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal
Turgul Oktay et al. Volume 88 · Number 6 · 2016 · 818 –834

Table AI
Symbol Definition Value Dimension
xac Nondimensionalized distance 1/4 []
c from wing leading edge to the
aerodynamic center
x_w_play Backward movement of wing – [mm]
x_t_play Backward movement of tail – [mm]
y1 Aileron beginning point 0.1 b/2 ⫽ 0.065 [m]
y2 Aileron end point 0.9 b/2 ⫽ 0.585 [m]
zT Distance parallel to the z-axis 29.10 [mm]
from thrust line to cg of
aircraft
zvt Distance parallel to the z-axis 152.61 [mm]
from center of pressure of
vertical tail to fuselage centerline
zw Distance parallel to the z-axis 74.1600 [mm]
from wing quarter chord point
to fuselage centerline
␩ Tail efficiency 1 []
␩vt Vertical tail efficiency 1 []
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␭ Taper ratio of wing 0 []

⌳ Wing sweep angle 0 [rad]
⌳c/4w Sweep of wing quarter chord 0 [rad]
␶a Aileron effectiveness parameter 0.5, p. 64 []
␶e Elevator effectiveness parameter 0.4, p. 64 []
␶r Rudder effectiveness parameter 0.4, p. 64 []
␻ Temporal frequency of turbulent field 0.2 [1/s]
Notes: ⴱ Inertial terms are found using Solidworks and Parallel Axis Theorem (Burton, 1979; Kane and Levinson, 2005)

Table AII Constraints on aircraft and autopilot design parameters

Design parameter Upper bound Lower bound Design parameter Upper bound Lower bound
x_w_play 6 cm 0 cm KD3 0 99
x_t_play 6 cm 0 cm KP4 0 99
KP1 0 99 KI4 0 9
KI1 0 9 KD4 0 99
KD1 0 99 KD5 0 99
KP2 0 99 KP5 0 9
KI2 0 9 KI5 0 99
KD2 0 99 KP6 0 99
KP3 0 99 KI6 0 9
KI3 0 9 KD6 0 99

Longitudinal and lateral numerical state-space models ẋla

Ala
for different flight conditions È
È

冤冥冤
⌬␤˙

冥
⫺2.7970e ⫺ 3 0 ⫺9.9985e ⫺ 1 8.8236e ⫺ 1 0
For 40 km/h straight level flight: ⌬ṗ 8.1416e ⫺ 2 ⫺1.5774e ⫹ 1 6.9655 0 0
ẋl
Al ⌬ṙ ⫽ 0 ⫺4.3328 3.6378e ⫺ 1 0 0
È È
⌬␾˙ 0 1 0 0 0

冤冥冤
⌬u̇

冥
⫺7.9454e ⫺ 2 1.3779 0 ⫺9.81 0
⌬ẇ ⌬␺
˙ 0 0 1.0014 0 0
⫺2.9597 ⫺4.9092 1.1111e ⫹ 1 0 0
⌬q̇ ⫽ 4.9004e ⫺ 1 ⫺7.2124e ⫺ 1 ⫺4.9529 0 0 xla Bla
È È
⌬␪˙

冤冥冤 冥冋
0 0 1 0 0 ⌬␤ 0 1.3375e ⫺ 3
⫺5.2336e ⫺ 2 9.9863e ⫺ 1 ⫺13.3151
ula (A2)
册
⌬ḣ 0 0 ⌬p 1.5180e ⫹2 5.4064 È
⌬␦a
⫻ ⌬r ⫹ ⫺2.0688 2.1184e ⫺ 1
⌬␦r
xl Bl
È È
⌬␾ 0 0

冤冥冤 冥冋
⌬u 5.1230 0 ul (A1) ⌬␺ 0 0
册
⌬w 0 ⫺3.5574 È
⌬␦T
⫻ ⌬q ⫹ 1.0547 ⫺2.6917e ⫹ 1
⌬␦e
⌬␪ 0 0
⌬h 0 0 For 80 km/h straight level flight:

833
 UAV and autopilot system design Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology: An International Journal
Turgul Oktay et al. Volume 88 · Number 6 · 2016 · 818 –834

ẋl
È
Al
È
He is also interested in developing sophisticated, control-oriented,

冤冥冤
⌬u̇

冥
⫺6.1705e ⫺ 2 5.3712e ⫺ 1 0 ⫺9.81 0 physics-based helicopter models. He has more than ten published
⌬ẇ ⫺1.4822 ⫺9.7861 2.2222e ⫹ 1 0 0 research articles about aerospace engineering. He is currently an
⌬q̇ ⫽ 2.4541e ⫺ 1 ⫺1.4478 ⫺9.9057 0 0 Assistant Professor with the College of Aviation, Erciyes University
⌬␪˙ 0 0 1 0 0
⌬ḣ ⫺5.2336e ⫺ 2 9.9863e ⫺ 1 0 ⫺26.6301 0 Mehmet Konar is a Lecturer at Erciyes University.
xl
È
Bl
È He received an MS in Aviation from Erciyes

冤冥冤
⌬u

冥冋
8.9134 0 University (2010) and currently is pursuing a PhD
ul (A3)
⌬w
册
0 ⫺1.4229e ⫹ 1 È
⌬␦T for Electrical and Electronical Engineering at
⫻ ⌬q ⫹ 1.8244 ⫺1.0766e ⫹ 2
⌬␦e Erciyes University. He is working on fuzzy logic
⌬␪ 0 0
⌬ḣ 0 0 theory and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) design
and production. Mehmet Konar is the corresponding author
ẋla
and can be contacted at: mkonar@erciyes.edu.tr
Ala
È
È

冤冥冤
⌬␤˙

冥
⫺5.5939e ⫺ 3 0 ⫺9.9985e ⫺ 1 4.4118e ⫺ 1 0 Murat Onay is an Assistant Professor at Erciyes
⌬ṗ 4.2076e ⫺ 2 ⫺3.0872e ⫹ 1 3.4868 0 0 University. He received an MS in Electrical and
⌬ṙ ⫽ 4.2076e ⫺ 2 ⫺3.4434 1.4730e ⫺ 1 0 0
Electronical Engineering from Erciyes University
⌬␾˙ 3.2566e ⫺ 1 1 0 0 0
0 0 1.0014 0 0
(2004) and a PhD for Electrical and Electronical
⌬␺
˙
xla Bla
at Erciyes University (2011). His main research
È È
areas are optimization methods, unmanned aerial

冤冥冤 冥冋
⌬␤ 0 2.6749e ⫺ 3 ula (A4) vehicle production and autopilot systems. He has more than five
册
⌬p 6.1859e ⫹ 2 2.1626e ⫹1 È
⌬␦a
Downloaded by Erciyes University At 02:34 14 May 2019 (PT)

⫻ ⌬r ⫹ 5.2455 8.4735e ⫺ 1 research articles in these fields.

⌬␦r
⌬␾ 0 0
⌬␺ 0 0
About the authors
Turgul Oktay received an MS in Aeronautical and
Astronautical Engineering from Istanbul Technical
University (2009) and a PhD for Aerospace
Engineering from the Aerospace and Ocean
Engineering Department at Virginia Tech (2012).
He had scholarship from Ministry of National
Education, Republic of Turkey. His main research areas are
unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), autopilot systems, constrained
modern control techniques (e.g. variance constrained control,
model predictive control, Hinf control) and stochastic optimization
methods (e.g. simultaneous perturbation stochastic approximation).
Murat Aydin is an Assistant Professor at Erciyes
University. He received an MS in Mechanical
Engineering from Erciyes University (2009) and a
PhD for Mechanical Engineering at Erciyes
University (2014). His main research areas are
finite element analysis and mechanical properties.
He has more than five research articles in these fields.
Mohamed Abdallah Mohamed is an MS
Candidate at Erciyes University. He received a BS
in Aeronautical and Astronautical Engineering
from Istanbul Technical University (2013). He is
currently pursuing on an MS for Aviation in
Erciyes University. His research areas are
unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) design and control.

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1438-1444. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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