GENDER: Disability, Sexuality and Parenting

Learning Objectives:
1. Define Disability.
2. Discuss the impact of disability on gender, especially women.
3. Differentiate gender, sex and sexuality.

Define Disability

According to Miriam Webster dictionary, disability is a physical, mental, cognitive, or

developmental condition that impairs, interferes with, or limits a person's ability to engage in
certain tasks or actions or participate in typical daily activities and interactions.

In simple words, disability is a physical or mental problem that makes it difficult or impossible
for a person to walk, see, hear, speak, learn, or do other important things. Some disabilities are
permanent, or last forever. ... A disability can be something a person was born with. Or it can be
the result of an illness or an accident.

Some examples of common disabilities you may find are:

vision Impairment.
deaf or hard of hearing.
mental health conditions.
intellectual disability.
acquired brain injury.
autism spectrum disorder.
physical disability.

The United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities defines disability as:
long-term physical, mental, intellectual or sensory impairments which in interaction with
various barriers may hinder [a person's] full and effective participation in society on an equal
basis with others.

Impact of disability on gender especially women

Women with disabilities — nearly 1 in 5 women worldwide — experience multiple forms of

discrimination that create additional challenges for their activism and lives. These include
barriers to accessing education and employment opportunities, as well as experiencing high
levels of violence. Due to discriminatory attitudes and institutional barriers to participation, the
voices and lived experiences of women with disabilities have been largely ignored by their
communities, societies, and within human rights movements.
How does disability affect issues of gender?
Women and girls with disabilities experience higher rates of gender-based violence, sexual
abuse, neglect, maltreatment and exploitation than women and girls without disabilities.
Women and girls with disabilities are three times more likely to experience gender-based
violence compared to non-disabled women.

What disabilities are more common in women?

About 36 million women in the U.S. have disabilities – and the number is growing. About
44% of those aged 65 years or older are living with a disability. The most common cause of
disability for women is arthritis or rheumatism.

Discrimination is an enduring issue for all

people with disabilities. Women and girls with
disabilities however, are subjected to double
discrimination: sexism as well as disability bias.
Needless to say, women and girls of color who
are disabled face a third layer of bias in the form
 of racism.
While there are many ways in which this
discrimination manifests itself, one key result
is that women with disabilities are significantly
poorer than men with disabilities and women
without disabilities. A variety of factors contribute to this situation: women with disabilities are
more likely to be unemployed; if employed, they receive considerably
lower wages than men with disabilities; and women with disabilities have not been part of
nondisabled women’s increases—in numbers or salaries—
in the paid labor force.
But employment is not the
only culprit. The educational system—both formal and informal—
must also be held accountable. On the one
hand, education plays a pivotal role in contributing to the lack of equal opportunity for
women and girls with disabilities. On the other,
it is just as clearly the arena that offers the greatest potential for positive change.

Addressing gender equality in the context of disability

(Inputs from UN Women)

Overview

The integration of women with disabilities in the 2015 development framework and beyond
must be reinforced. While all human rights and development norms and standards apply to
women and girls with disabilities, they have not enjoyed the full rights on an equal basis with
others.

For far too long, women and girls with disabilities have been invisible, both to the advocates
of women’s rights and of disability rights, and this has increased their vulnerability. Women and
girls with disabilities (W&GWD) are likely to experience the “double discrimination,” which
includes the gender-based violence, abuse and marginalization. As a result, women with
disabilities often must confront additional disadvantages even in comparison to men with
disabilities and the women without disabilities.

The outcome document of the High-Level Meeting on Disability and Development must
ensure that the gender equality is included as a key challenge. At the same time, gender
equality should be an integral part of each of the other key challenges, including through the
sex and age disaggregated data and statistics.
Statistics related to the intersectionality of gender and disability

1. The 2011 World Report on Disability indicates that female disability prevalence rate is
19.2 per cent whereas it is 12 per cent for men.
2. The global literacy rate is as low as three per cent for all adults with disabilities, and one
per cent for women with disabilities.
3. Although all persons with disabilities face barriers to employment, men with disabilities
have been found to be almost twice as likely to be employed as women with disabilities.
4. Women and girls with disabilities experience higher rates of gender-based violence,
sexual abuse, neglect, maltreatment and exploitation than women and girls without
disabilities. Women and girls with disabilities are three times more likely to experience
gender-based violence compared to non-disabled women.

Factors contributing to the existing gender gap in disability

Yet, actions and initiatives to promote the rights of persons with disabilities and disability
inclusive development, often do not give adequate attention to the gender gap in disability.
Some examples of factors contributing to the existing gender gap in disability include:

1. Invisibility of women and girls with disabilities in the work on women, disability rights
and development
2. Double discrimination faced by women and girls with disabilities often compounded by
other factors such as being minorities, indigenous people, refugees, persons living with
HIV and AIDS and older people.
3. Lack of empowerment and capacity development of women and girls with disabilities,
including in leadership and their participation in the decision making in political,
economic and social spheres.

Gender equality as a key challenge for disability inclusive development

It is vital that gender equality should be recognized as a discrete issue and the gender
dimensions of the disability inclusive development should be addressed as well with the
following reasons.

a. As a result of aging and the longer life expectancy of women, the number of women with
disabilities is likely to be higher in many populations than the number of men with
disabilities. Many older women who are disabled may lack access to services/support. As
life expectancy increases, this challenge will become more evident across more
countries.
 b. Gender equality and empowerment of women can reduce the female disability
prevalence rate because many women become disabled because of gender
discriminatory practices, including early and child marriage, early pregnancy and female
genital mutilation.
c. Strategies solely focusing on the disability don’t necessarily result in the enhanced
gender equality among people with disabilities.
d. Women and girls with disabilities are discriminated differently from men: ie: women are
at higher risk of sexual violence, forced sterilization, forced abortion and exposure to
HIV/AIDS, among others. Thus, targeted interventions will result in more effective and
efficient advocacy, including implementation and monitoring of the Convention on the
Rights of Persons with Disabilities.
e. Evidence indicates that the greater gender equality in education and employment make
a marked contribution to development and economic growth. This is why the MDGs and
the QCPR has gender equality as a standalone goal. As stressed in the “Incheon strategy
to “Make the Right Real” for Persons with Disabilities in Asia and the Pacific , promotion
of gender equality and empowerment of women with disabilities is necessary for the
achievement of the disability inclusive development.
f. To advance the rights of women with disabilities in society and development, it is
essential that their perspectives be included in all aspects of work for women’s
empowerment, and that all work on disability incorporate a gender perspective. Without
the meaningful participation of women with disabilities in the disability dialogue, the
goal of “nothing about us without us” cannot be achieved.

g. The new key challenge promotes gender equality and the empowerment of women and
girls as women’s human rights and must address the underlying structural causes of
gender inequality.

Recommended Actions.

In order to incorporate gender mainstreaming and targeted, women-specific policies and

programs, as well as positive legislation in all aspects of disability inclusive development,

1. Use CRPD, CEDAW and other relevant normative instruments to impact the rights of
women with disabilities and achieve gender equality, including measures to end physical
and sexual violence experienced by women with disabilities.
2. Strengthen the collection, compilation and analysis of national disability data and
statistics, disaggregated by sex and age, using existing guidelines on disability
measurement.
 3. Increase the leadership and participation in decision-making of women and girls with
disabilities, identifying key factors, strategies or approaches that can be shared in this
regard.
4. Include the rights and empowerment of women and girls with disabilities, and their
inclusion in development policies, programs, monitoring and evaluation with gender-
based budgeting at all levels, including international cooperation.
• Increase cooperation, partnerships, and synergies between UN entities, organizations of
women and girls with disabilities, women’s, development, and human rights organizations,
among others to provide sustained and sustainable support for the empowerment of women
with disabilities.

GENDER, SEX and SEXUALITY

Sex refers to a set of biological attributes in humans and animals. It is primarily associated
with physical and physiological features including chromosomes, gene expression, hormone
levels and function, and reproductive/sexual anatomy. Sex is usually categorized as female or
male but there is variation in the biological attributes that comprise sex and how those
attributes are expressed.
Sex is used to describe what you are assigned at birth, based on what is in between your legs
(a penis = male, or a vagina = female). However, this is not the full picture. Sex is defined by
genitals, including internal sex organs, chromosomes, and hormones.

There are three sex variations:

1. Male (penis, XY chromosomes, high levels of testosterone)
2. Female (vagina, XX chromosomes, high levels of estrogen)
3. Intersex (a person born with the sexual anatomy or chromosomes that don't fit the
traditional definition of male or female. A combination of reproductive sex organs, including
internal sex organs, chromosomes. and hormones).
 Gender refers to the socially constructed roles, behaviors, expressions and identities of girls,
women, boys, men, and gender diverse people. It influences how people perceive themselves
and each other, how they act and interact, and the distribution of power and resources in
society. Gender identity is not confined to a binary (girl/woman, boy/man) nor is it static; it
exists along a continuum and can change over time.
Gender sensitivity is all about getting rid of wrong notions and perceptions, as well as learning
to interact with the opposite gender. The sooner this is learnt and practiced, the better.
Gender is used to describe the traditional social roles for males and females. Gender Identity
describes how someone feels on the inside, and Gender Expression describes how someone
chooses to present their gender to the world. You know how society tends to announce a baby
boy with blue or a baby girl with pink? Or how boys are given trucks and girls are given dolls?
And how men are encouraged to play sports and be a tough 'man' and women are encouraged
to paint their nails and do their hair and where makeup? These are societal constructs of
gender.

There are three gender variations:

1. Cisgender - a person who identifies with the sex they were assigned at birth. For
example, a person who was assigned as a male at birth, and identifies as male, or vice versa.
2. Transgender - a person whose gender identity does not match the sex they were
assigned at birth. For example, a person who was assigned as a male at birth, but identifies as
female, or vice versa.
3. Gender Fluid - a person whose gender identity is not fixed and / or shifts depending on
the situation. These people do not feel the need to act according to the sex they were assigned
at birth and the associated traditional social roles.
Some transgender people might have surgery, take hormones, or change the way they look
or dress to bring their body into alignment with how they identify, but not all transgender
people can or want to do this. Being transgender is not dependent on your physical appearance
or medical procedures. Hence, the importance of not reducing a person to their genitals
(whether they have a penis or vagina). Anyway, does it really matter? How is this any of my
business?
Pronouns become important when talking about someone’s gender identity. Some may
identify as 'he', 'she', or 'they'. If someone asks you to call them by a particular pronoun, it's
important to respect their wishes. You would not continue to call someone 'Elizabeth' if they
asked you to call them 'Liz' or 'Beth' now, would you?

Sexuality is the part of you expressed through your sexual activities and relationships. It is
represented in your feelings, behaviors, and your sexual identity. Your sexual identity is how
you choose to describe or label your sexuality. There are many different labels that a person
can choose, including not choosing a label at all! Similarly, to pronouns, it is important to refer
to a person’s sexuality by their chosen label (just ask them if you're not sure, so you're not
assuming). A person’s sexuality can be:

1. Heterosexual - A person attracted to people of the opposite sex.

2. Homosexual - A person attracted to people of the same sex.
3. Bisexual - The word 'bi', meaning 'two', refers to a person’s attraction to both genders
(male and female).
4. Asexual - Asexuality is the absence of sexual attraction. For example, some asexual
people are in romantic relationships where they never desire sex, and some are not in romantic
relationships at all.
5. Pansexual - 'Pan', meaning 'all-inclusive', refers to a person's attraction to multiple
genders. Some pansexual people describe their attraction as being based on chemistry rather
than gender, but everyone is different.
6. Questioning - Some people may be unsure about their sexuality and / or are exploring it,
so might identify as 'questioning'.
+ many more variations of sexuality!
Sexuality is not necessarily black or white. Instead, it can be thought about on a continuum or in
shades of grey.

Three of the most common aspects used to describe sexuality are:

1. Feelings and fantasies: who we fall in love with, who we are attracted to, who we think
about when we are aroused, and who we intimately connect with.
2. Behaviors: include any form of sexual contact (kissing, touching, oral sex, vaginal sex,
anal sex etc.), flirting, who we date, and have relationships with.
3. Identity: is the label or description of our sexuality.
Like many good things in life, sexuality can be confusing. Everyone expresses their sexuality
differently with various levels of diversity. Often sexuality and sexual identity changes at
different times of our lives. And this is ok!
“It's not just about being sexy, it's about being confident and me being confident in my
sexuality.”
Megan The Stallion.

Environmental factors and parental influences

The first major exposure to gender roles typically comes from a child's parents. Children are
often dressed in gender specific clothing and given gender specific toys from birth. Parents may
encourage children to participate in gender stereotypical play, such as girls playing with dolls
and boys playing with trucks. Parents may also model gender normative behavior, both
unintentionally and intentionally. Parental disapproval for failing to comply with gender norms
and parental approval for successful compliance with these norms can serve to solidify
children's understanding of gender roles.

The parental affect and level of discipline children receive may be related to their gender. In
2001, Claire Hughes found parents of young girls were more likely to have more positive overall
affect and stronger discipline. Hughes also found parental warmth to be associated with the
development of theory of mind for girls, but not for boys. Hughes suggested this may have to
do with a greater tendency for girls to use understanding of mind to seek emotional support,
empathize, and cooperate.
Children can learn about emotions in a few different ways, by witnessing others’ feelings and
emotions, having their emotional displays responded to, and lastly the ways they are taught
about their feelings and emotions. Parents have been found to talk about emotions differently
to their sons and daughters. Both mothers and fathers use more emotion words and make
more references to sadness and disliking of events, with their daughters than their sons. As a
result of this, girls use more emotion words than boys do. Girls’ emotional socialization has in a
way been more developed because of this. Not only do girls understand emotions better but,
they are also better than boys at applying cultural standards of emotion expression in everyday
life. Girls and boys may also differ in the ways they apply their awareness of mind to their
relationships with others. One example of this is, girls may show a greater tendency than boys
to use their increasing understanding of mind to elicit emotional support, or to develop their
skills of empathy and cooperation.

Children between the ages of 3 to 6 may have difference in their levels of interest in infants
and practicing nurturance behaviors. Judith Blakemore found that when children were given
opportunities to interact with infants, boys were less likely to show interest in the younger
child. In general, children without younger sibling were more likely to show interest, which may
be related to the novelty of an infant. Of children with younger siblings, the gender difference
was strong, and may be related to the child having learned gender roles by viewing the
upbringing of their siblings. No group showed less interest in the infants than the male children
with siblings. Children with egalitarian parents tended to show the least gender differences in
interest in the infants.

Gender identity
Gender identity typically develops in stages:

Around age two: Children become conscious of the physical differences between boys and girls.
Before their third birthday: Most children can easily label themselves as either a boy or a girl.
By age four: Most children have a stable sense of their gender identity
During this same time of life, children learn gender role behavior—that is, doing "things that
boys do" or "things that girls do." However, cross-gender preferences and play are a normal
part of gender development and exploration regardless of their future gender identity. The
point is that all children tend to develop a clearer view of themselves and their gender over
time. At any point, research suggests that children who assert a gender-diverse identity know
their gender as clearly and consistently as their developmentally matched peers and benefit
from the same level of support, love, and social acceptance.

How do children typically express their gender identity?

In addition to their choices of toys, games, and sports, children typically express their gender
identity in the following ways:

- Clothing or hairstyle
- Preferred name or nickname
- Social behavior that reflects varying degrees of aggression, dominance, dependency,
and gentleness.
- Manner and style of behavior and physical gestures and other nonverbal actions
identified as masculine or feminine.
- Social relationships, including the gender of friends, and the people he or she decides to
imitate.
-
Gender development is a normal process for all children. Some children will exhibit
variations―similar to all areas of human health and behavior. However, all children need
support, love, and care from family, school, and society, which fosters growth into happy and
healthy adults.

Social impacts
The social impacts of imposing gender roles on children become evident very early in life and
usually follow the child as they continue their development. It is most observable when they
interact with other members of their age group. A child's peers serve as both an archetype and
a sounding board for the proper way to express themselves. Alice Eagly affirms the idea that
gender roles are a direct result of one's social interactions. She calls social behavior "gender-
stereotypic" and says that most of the expectations of gender roles come from the stereotypes
associated with them, such as a woman to be kind and compassionate and a man to be in
control and independent. "This theory implicates conformity to gender-role expectations as a
major source of the sexes' differing behavior."[This quote needs a citation] As a child explores
those things in life that they may enjoy, the acceptance or criticism or their peers is crucial in
whether or not they will continue to perform an activity.

Children are especially apt at noticing when one of their peers violates their established
gender role. As Fagot (1990) found, children had a pronounced response when one of their
peers violated their established gender role. Same-sex peers acted as the distributors of both
rewards for proper gender role behavior and punishments for improper gender role behavior.
Boys who preferred to play with dolls rather than trucks were five to six times more likely to be
harassed by their peers than those who conformed to the norm. Girls who preferred to play
firefighter rather than nurse were ignored rather than criticized. Most importantly, Fagot's
study shows the effect of gender segregation on children; boys tended to respond more readily
to feedback from other boys while girls likewise responded to feedback from other girls. By
surrounding themselves with members of the same sex, children are placing themselves in a
situation where they more readily accept and conform to accepted gender roles.

A study by Carol Martin (1990) shows that cross-sex behavior is generally discouraged in
both sexes, though more so in males. Those that do exhibit cross-sex behavior are branded as
either a sissy (a rather derogatory term used for boys exhibiting feminine characteristics) or a
tomboy (a term for girls exhibiting male characteristics, though not as stigmatized as sissy).
Gender roles place constraints upon what a child is allowed to do, based upon what their peers
deem is acceptable.

As children grow older and are more able to grasp the concept of gender and gender roles,
they begin to spend more time with children of the same sex, further exacerbating the
proliferation of gender roles. Martin and Fabes observed that by the age of two, children were
already beginning to show a preference for interacting with children of the same sex. By the
time a child is three or four, the vast majority of their peer interactions are with members of
the same sex. As Maccoby observed, by the age of four and a half, children spend three times
as much time with same-sex play partners; by six and a half, that amount increases to eleven
times. Martin and Fabes observed that as the children began to segregate themselves by
gender, the activities they performed also aligned with their chosen play partners; boys tended
to choose playmates who were more active and rowdier while girls chose playmates that were
more calm and cooperative.

Children generally fall into these patterns with little guidance from either parents or
teachers; they are encouraged to interact with members of the same sex and begin to adopt
behavior that is considered gender appropriate. This phenomenon is known as self-socialization
and drives the interaction between children throughout their young lives. This instinctive
segregation encourages the gap between males and females and helps to reinforce gender
roles as the child continues to grow.

References:

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Cgdnd3Mtd2l6EAEYATICCAAyAggAMgIIADICCAAyAggAMgIIADICC

https://disabilityrightsfund.org/our-impact/insights/women-with-disabilities-leading-change/

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