A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO BROILER FOCUSED MANAGEMENT

BROILER SIGNALS
A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO BROILER FOCUSED MANAGEMENT
 Credits Broiler Signals

Publisher
Roodbont Publishers B.V. Roodbont Publishers B.V.
P.O. Box 4103
Authors 7200 BC Zutphen
Maarten de Gussem, Edward Mailyan, The Netherlands
Koos van Middelkoop, Kristof van Mullem, T +31 (0)575 54 56 88
Reinout Renard, Ton van Schie, Ellen van ‘t Veer E info@roodbont.com
I www.roodbont.com
Advisors
Henk Rodenboog, Mark Roozen

Translation
Agrolingua
Vetworks BVBA
Knokstraat 38
Content editor of the English edition
B-9880 Poeke
Richard Udale Belgium
T +32 (0)473 99 93 79
Final editing E info@vetworks.eu
Ton van Schie, Judith Oudkerk I www.vetworks.eu

Illustrations
Marinette Hoogendoorn, Dick Rietveld

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Erik de Bruin, Varwig Design

Photography Special thanks to

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2 B roile r Si gnal s
Contents Introduction 4 5. Week 2:
Further growth and development 62
1. Seeing more by looking more closely 6 Points to watch out for: behaviour 63
Picking up the signals 7 Points to watch out for: physical traits 64
Using the signals 8 No more than six hours of darkness 65
Senses 11 Light intensity 66
Anatomy 12 Vaccination 68
Feed structure: intake and digestion 14 Vaccination methods 69
Phase feeding 15 Good vaccination – a science in itself 70
What the figures tell you 16 Use therapeutic antibiotics in a
Frequency 17 responsible way 71
Main parameters 18
6. Week 3:
2. The broiler’s environment 20
Gut health and development 72
Outdoor climate determines type of housing 21
In one end... 73
Indoor climate 22
Signs from droppings 74
Other husbandry systems 23
Orange matter 75
Ventilation and heating 24
Feed ingredients 77
Temperature + moisture = heat 26
Feed additives/growth promoters 78
Comfortable climate 27
Wet manure 79
Ventilation systems 28
Coccidiosis 80
Effective temperature (wind chill factor)
Anticoccidial rotation programme 81
and air velocity 29
Treating gut problems 82
Assessing ventilation in the broiler house 30
Risks at feed transitions 83
Ventilation 31
Water consumption 32 7. Week 4: Focusing on breathing 84
Ensuring water quality 33 Anatomy 85
Vulnerable: young chicks 34 Indoor climate 86
Water/feed ratio and gut health 35 Above 30°C: danger zone 88
Particles in drinking water (biofilm) 36 Breathing is silent – problems aren’t! 89
Floors and litter 38
Litter quality 39 8. Week 5: Leg quality 90
Light 40 Remove lame birds 91
Biosecurity for profit 41 Lameness and its causes 92
Enterococcal infection 93
3. Preparing for the new cycle 42 Feet and hocks 94
Stocking density 43 Prevent footpad lesions 95
Useful information from the slaughter report 44 Skin scratches with leg problems 96
Clean out time reduces infection pressure 45 Litter quality 97
Cleaning and disinfecting 45 Litter as a source of heat 98
Don’t only clean inside the house 46 Wet manure due to excess urine 99
Vermin 47
Chick paper 48 9. Final phase and slaughter 100
Cool, fresh water 48 Increase in mortality rate 101
Transport risks: hygiene and stress 49 Withdrawal period causing more coccidiosis? 102
Other husbandry systems and breeds 104
4. Week 1: Getting off to a good start 50 Diseases in older broilers 105
Quality of day-old chicks 51 Catching, loading and beyond 106
The first day 52 Preparing for loading 107
Empty the trays carefully 53 The art of catching 108
‘Cold-blooded’ chicks 54 Arrival at the processing plant 109
A good spread 55 Sold hot or cold? 110
Eating well 56 White and dark meat 111
Drinking well 57
To measure is to know! 58 10. Parent birds 112
Yolk inflammation or navel infection 59 Slowing growth during rearing 113
Weak chicks 60 Reaching sexual maturity simultaneously 114
Identifying causes of death 61 Males 115
Transmitting disease from female to broiler 116
Chick immunity 117
Young breeder flock 118
Hatching eggs 119
Index 120

C onte n t s 3
 Introduction Spotlight on the broiler
Broilers grow very rapidly in a short time.
That can’t be emphasised often enough. So when
you take action, don’t think in days but in hours
or even less. The slightest interruption can disrupt
the delicate process. Result: growth stagnates,
and birds get sick and die. As a poultry keeper,
there’s little more you can do once something
has gone wrong. So it’s all the more important to
prevent problems, or at the very least react quickly
to the signs. And if it’s already too late, make sure
that by recognising and acknowledging the prob-
lem you avoid it next time around. Broilers tell
you a great many things through the signals they
send out, in their behaviour, their physical charac-
teristics and their environment.
This is precisely what Broiler Signals is all about.
Look-Think-Act
The red thread running through this book is ‘look,
think, act’. Besides close observation, which you
need to allow enough time for, it’s important to
put the signals in the proper context. What exactly
are you seeing, and what does it mean? Only then
can you take appropriate action.
Everyone can learn how to observe and under-
stand broilers better. By doing so, you can do
even more to improve the production, health and
welfare of your birds. But often poultry keepers are
so involved in their business that they can’t see
the wood for the trees: everything looks normal to
them. So avoid ‘farm blindness’: identify your own
blind spots and eliminate them. Open your mind
to new things. Be critical. And don’t be afraid to
change. In short, keep asking yourself: Is what I’m
seeing normal or should it be different?

Day-old chicks Week 2 Week 3

Many things are known about day-old
chicks: parent animals, hatching egg
quality and hatchery and transport all
affect the quality of the day-old chick.
The task on the broiler farm is to give
these animals the best possible care.
Mistakes made when the chicks arrive
and during the first week can’t be
undone later on.
The basis has been laid and now the
bird needs to start growing and devel-
oping its organs, skeleton and muscles
properly if they are to keep pace with
this rapid growth.
The focus now shifts to the gastro-
intestinal system, the prerequisite for
growth. Feed intake increases rapidly
and the feed type is often changed at
this stage, so there is a lot of pressure
on the gastrointestinal tract, increasing
the risk of gut problems. This is a vul-
nerable time for the chicks. Pay special
attention to the droppings.

1 day 7 days 14 days 21 days

4 Broile r Si gnal s
 Not a textbook
Broiler Signals isn’t a textbook full of tables of
standards and guidelines. The main aim of this
book is to train you to pick up signals from your
birds. It also invites you to dip in and out of it and
linger now and again to read a little deeper into
the subject. Or you can just read a page or two
now and then and put it aside again. You’ll dis-
cover something new every time.
live in. At this point it’s time to prepare for the
new cycle so that the birds get a warm welcome.
There is also a chapter on parent birds. Although
they deserve a book of their own, they can’t be left
out of a book about broilers. After all, the parent
birds have a huge influence on the results you get
from your broilers.

How the book is structured
The book follows the cycle on a broiler farm. At
every age a different theme that you’ll need to pay
particular attention to or that may arise is high-
lighted.
The book starts by teaching you how to look. After
that we focus on the environment the broilers will
And finally, there are two important things to
remember: the broiler is always right, and the only
one who can make decisions is you. This book is
just an aid, and everyone who has worked on it
hopes that it will benefit your birds and help you
with your broiler management.

Week 4 Week 5 Week 6

The broilers need to be kept warm in
the first few weeks of their lives. But by
now they are producing so much heat
themselves that they have difficulty get-
ting rid of it. They do this mainly via the
airways, and it’s around this time that
most respiratory problems occur.
The broiler house is getting fuller and
fuller with broilers that are busy eating
and drinking ... and excreting. With
such a thick blanket of birds, the litter
doesn’t dry out so easily any more.
Coupled with the fact that the broilers
are getting heavier and rest a lot, this
regularly leads to foot problems and
breast and hock irritations.
You’ll see another strong growth spurt
in the last week. It’s too late to make
any more adjustments now, although
avoiding problems around this time
makes all the difference between profit
and loss. At slaughter even more sig-
nals become apparent that are literally
under the skin. They won’t help you
this time around but they can help you
do things even better next time.

28 days 35 days 42 days

Introd u c t i o n 5
 CHAPTER 1

Seeing more by looking more closely

Broilers grow incredibly fast and there is almost no time to fix mistakes. So you You want to identify
irregularities as soon as
have to start by making sure you have everything in place to receive the young possible so as to avoid
chicks and prevent things from going wrong later on. And if there is a problem, problems.

respond to the signals fast so you can make the necessary adjustments. Or in any
event learn from them for the next cycle.

Use all your senses

If you only look out for technical aspects (daily
growth, feed and water consumption, etc.), you
may miss other important signals from the broilers
and their living environment. Always use all your
senses. Even before you enter the broiler house,
you’ll hear whether the birds sound different. Stand
outside the door for a moment; don’t go inside
straight away. Look through the window and listen
without disturbing the flock. Pay attention to the
distribution of the birds. When you go in, you’ll
smell whether the climate in the house is OK or if
there is a problem with the manure or the ventila-
tion. Use your eyes and ears to see and hear how
active the birds are and whether they are reacting
more, less or differently to your arrival than usual.
Also use your senses to observe the heat and cold
or draught in the broiler house. Every irregularity
needs to be attended to.
6 Broile r Si gnal s
Picking up the signals
You’ll pick up a lot of signals during the daily rou-
tine of feeding, removing dead and abnormal birds
and adding extra litter. But make sure you also do
some inspections without doing other things at
the same time. Then you will be more aware of the
signals because you are giving observation your full
attention. If you are doing other things at the same
time you will disrupt the birds’ behaviour, caus-
ing relevant signals to be lost. The birds will also
react less to your presence if you come into the
house more often without doing anything specific.
An inspection is a tour of the whole house. Make
sure you pay attention to all the birds and all areas
of the house. So look everywhere: front, back and Check the flock through the window. This way you can observe the flock unnoticed
middle. Stay calm and take your time! without disturbing the birds.

Look from flock to chicken

Start your inspection by observing the whole flock.
How are they spread out in the space? Are they
avoiding certain places, maybe because the cli-
mate is different there (draught, cold, light)? Try to
spot the differences between birds. Are they uni-
form? How do they differ? Is it in alertness, condi-
tion or in another way? Pick up birds that seem
different and take a closer look. If you discover an
irregularity, see whether it is an incidental case or
a signal of a bigger underlying problem.
Also pick up some birds at random and assess
them. Not all abnormalities are immediately obvi-
ous. Things you observe in detail can only be Before you enter the house and chase the birds around, observe how they
properly assessed in their context. So look from are spread out in the house. There is clearly a problem here. The birds are lying
chicken to flock as well. Sometimes you will need together in groups because they are cold.
to take a step back to be able to see things better.

By hitting a bucket at the beginning of your inspection, Put a chair in the house and sit on it for a few minutes at regular intervals to
you can assess the chicks’ reaction and immediately observe the birds. Only then will you pick up on any irregular behaviour.
select the ones that do not respond.

C h ap t e r 1 . S e e i n g m o re by l o o ki n g m o re cl o s el y 7
 Using the signals
Use what you see to improve your flock manage- birds: the first ones to tell you that something is
ment. Ask the following questions about every- wrong; all the more reason to be aware of them.
thing you see: Think about which birds and problems these are,
1. What am I seeing, hearing, smelling, or in terms of your particular farm and how you can
feeling? What is the signal? respond to them promptly.
2. Why is this happening? What is the Some birds will also pose a risk to others, e.g. as
explanation? a source of infection.
3. What should I do? Can I leave it or
should I take action?
If you think of things to do, do them. Otherwise
there is no point in looking for the signals. And
then assess whether your actions have had the
desired effect. Take small steps. Pay attention to
the reactions to small adjustments.

A genuine signal will be repeated. Think about

what you are seeing and how it relates to the
circumstances: does it happen often, at different
times, to different birds, on other farms? Go and
see for yourself or ask people.
Know when risks are likely to occur and keep one
step ahead by eliminating them or being extra
alert if you are expecting them.

Vulnerable birds
There will always be some vulnerable birds in a
flock, such as poorly developed ones. They will
be the first to suffer from disease, lack of water This is a high risk bird. It may give rise to problems. Not
or other shortcomings. These are also the signal so much as a victim but as the cause.

Signs humans can’t see

Aids such as an infrared camera show what the human eye can’t see. The roof of this house has not been properly
insulated. Result: it cools down and condensation forms, possibly dripping on the floor.

8 Broile r Si gnal s
Farm blindness
You can only recognise an irregularity if you know LOOK-THINK-ACT
what is normal. You will learn what is normal by
observing as often and as objectively as possible.
But be aware of the dangers of farm blindness.
Farm blindness is when you see the situation on
your own farm as the norm. Limit farm blindness
by talking to colleagues and advisors. Act on criti-
cal comments. Also go and look at other poultry
keepers’ operations.
Tip: join a study group. If there isn’t one near you,
set one up yourself. That way you will be able to
share opinions and ideas with other poultry keep-
ers.

How to observe your birds in a What do these chicks tell you?

structured way:
The chicks are creeping up to the wall and pecking at it. This is
1. Look at them both with and without doing often a sign of anxiety or stress. Broilers are flight animals and
other things. seek protection when there is an unexpected visit. If the birds are
2. Look at the whole flock, the individual chick- pecking calmly at the wall, this may be an indication of a problem
en and then back to the flock. with the feed.
3. Look for averages and extremes.
4. Look at the front, back and middle of the
house. The same applies to processes such
as feeding. Look at the front, middle and
back of the feeding system that is being
filled. What is happening there?
5. Look at different times and in different cir-
cumstances.
6. At regular intervals, stand still in the broiler
house and also get down and move about at
the level the birds live at.
7. Identify critical times, susceptible birds and
danger zones and keep an extra eye on
them.

When you walk through the house, look at the birds that
don’t run away quickly from under your feet. These are
signal birds that can tell you things. The birds that run
away first are the stronger birds. The track you leave
Limit farm blindness by talking to colleagues and behind you will close again. Whether this happens fast,
advisors. slowly or not at all is also a signal of the birds’ vitality.

C h ap t e r 1 . S e e i n g m o re by l o o ki n g m o re cl o s el y 9
 Danger zones
In every broiler house there are areas where you
can expect problems. Places you know could pose
a risk should be a permanent part of your daily
inspections. Make improvements to places that
pose unnecessary risks. Examples of such places
are corners, draughty areas, under the drinkers
and feeders, and so on.
Critical times
There are certain times of the day, season or cer-
tain times during an inspection that can be risky.
Feeding time is an example: are the feeders and
the weigh scale working properly?
But critical times can also be longer periods of
time. Winter is a critical time as it is more difficult
to keep the house climate and the litter in optimal
condition at that time of year, and moisture is
harder to remove. In the summer, heat stress lies
in wait.
Unclassified notable observations
Sometimes you encounter things you don’t imme-
diately understand. Of course not every unclear
signal will necessarily cause harm. A term for this
is unclassified notable observations (UNO, ‘you
know’). When you see such observations, you need
to find out why they occur. You will learn most by
trying to understand how good situations come
about: in other words, what the success factors
are.

This is what you see Caused by Actual cause

An indirect signal is encrusted or compacted ...a poor distribution of birds in the house, ... a cold downdraught, which makes birds
manure. This indicates... which may be caused by... avoid cold places in the house.

Risk analysis and action

Susceptible group Risk Action

Poorly developed birds Less uniform flock Remove small birds

Birds with vent pasting Inadequate feed usage, wet litter Determine and eliminate or treat
cause of intestinal dysfunction

Slow or limping birds Severe motor disorder with weight Check bone development and
gain look for joint inflammation Check
feed composition and adjust if
necessary

10 Broile r Si gnal s
Senses
Most of a chicken’s senses work differently from those of humans. Its eyesight is much better,
for example, but its hearing possibly less so.

Eyes – sight Nose – smell

Chickens can see many more details and more colours Chickens have a good sense of smell but not
and make more observations per second than we can, as sensitive as that of mammals. Chickens
such as fluorescent lights (50 Hz) flickering. Chickens use their noses to search for food and to rec-
can see ultraviolet light and are more sensitive to other ognise others of their species. Not only can
colours than we are. What we experience as white light they smell high concentrations of substances
can be light blue or red to a chicken, such as ammonia, they also have special
depending on the light source. nerves which make it painful to do so.

Beak – touch
Chickens can distinguish several
contrasts with their beaks: hard/
soft, hot/cold, structural differ-
ences (rough/smooth) and pain.
The tip is the most sensitive part
of the beak.

Ears – hearing Tongue – taste

Chickens perceive sounds Chickens taste with taste buds. A chicken
from 15 to 10,000 Hz. The has 350 at most, a human 9,000. Like
human ear can hear sounds humans, chickens can distinguish sweet,
up to 20,000 Hz and can salty, sour and bitter.
therefore hear slightly higher
tones than a chicken. The
sounds a chicken makes are
between 400 and 6,000 Hz.

Field of vision
Chickens have panoramic vision of about 300°, but the overlap
between the two eyes is minimal. They can only see depth in a
narrow angle (shown in dark yellow). When you go into a broiler
house, you may sometimes see all the chickens briefly shaking
their heads at the same time. This enables them to see what is
happening better (with depth).

Field of vision without depth

Depth perception

C h ap t e r 1 . S e e i n g m o re by l o o ki n g m o re cl o s el y 11
 Anatomy 1 beak 11 breast
When you talk to your advisor or vet, try to use the 2 nostrils 12 wing
correct terminology to avoid confusion. To be able 3 comb 13 preen gland
to observe irregularities, you first need to be able to 4 ear 14 tail
recognise a normal bird. 5 earlobe 15 vent
6 wattles 16 belly
7 crop 17 shank
8 neck 18 footpad
9 back 19 toe
10 shoulder 20 hock
3

2
4
8
5
9

13
10 14
1 6

15

11

12
16

17

20
19

18

12 Broile r Si gnal s
 Skeleton

8 1 cranium 13 ischium
1 2 2 eye socket 14 pubis
7 3 3 nasal cavity 15 femur
5 4
9 4 nostrils 16 fibula
5 cervical vertebrae 17 tibia
6 10 6 thoracic vertebrae 18 hock joint
11
7 radius 19 metatarsus
24 8 metacarpus 20 Knee joint
12
9 ulna 21 Sternum
23 10 humerus 22 Clavicle
11 pelvis 23 Coracoid
22
12 tailbone 24 Scapula

21
13 15

14 20
17
16

19

18

4
5
2
1 3

16

15
14
6
12 7
17 13
Organs 11 8
18 10
1 lungs 10 pancreas
2 caecum 11 liver 9
3 ovary 12 gallbladder
4 kidneys 13 spleen
5 oviduct 14 heart
6 vent 15 crop
7 rectum 16 trachea
8 small intestine 17 proventriculus
9 duodenum 18 gizzard

C h ap t e r 1 . S e e i n g m o re by l o o ki n g m o re cl o s el y 13
 Feed structure: intake and digestion
Structure of the feed stimulates the development
of good digestion. A lack of structure because of
too finely ground mash slows down intestinal peri-
stalsis so the feed is less thoroughly mixed with
the intestinal juices. That’s why it’s important to
grind the feed down relatively coarsely (i.e. not too
finely).
Adding whole grain wheat promotes stomach and
gut development. When ground coarsely enough,
mash feed also stimulates the intestines, but pel-
lets are more easily digested by the birds.
Too finely ground mash feed can be pelleted, so
that birds can still digest it, but it does not stimu-
late the intestines enough.
In what form do you
provide the feed
Body weight
Adjust the growth curves according to the end weight
you are aiming for. This can be done with lighting pro-
grammes and by adjusting the feed composition and
the feeding regime.
Pellets are preferable to mash for a higher, more bal-
anced feed intake (top). The particles have to be of
good quality so they don’t turn into powder before
the bird can eat them.
In the bird’s crop, the particles should fall apart and
turn into mash that passes into the stomach and
the intestines. If the pellet size varies too much you
run the risk of selective feeding: the broilers pick
the pellets they prefer out of the feed (the bigger
ones). Pellet size does not tell you anything about
the coarseness of the feed. That depends on how
coarsely or finely it is ground.
14
Controlling the growth curve
Feeding programmes depend on what the abat-
toir (processing plant) wants. Does it sell birds
whole or are they cut up?
Broilers being raised for a high end weight need
to have their growth slowed down slightly just
after the first week. The first three weeks are
mainly about the formation of the organs and
the skeleton; immediately after that you start the
sprint towards a high weight. (concave curve) If
you don’t do this, you will get a lot of foot prob-
lems, sudden death syndrome and metabolic
problems such as ascites resulting in higher
losses. These birds will also be less active.
Skeleton formation is less of a limiting factor in
birds that are slaughtered lighter, so you can
allow these birds to grow as rapidly as possible
(a convex curve). This way you get the birds to
slaughter weight earlier and you can raise more
crops/cycles per year.
Convex curve:
fast initial growth
low delivery weight
Concave curve:
slow initial growth
high delivery weight
Slaughter Slaughter
age, grillers age, broilers
Age
Keep samples of feed
Keep a sample from every feed delivery. If there
are problems you can investigate whether the
feed is the cause (e.g. toxic substances). Store
the samples in sealable plastic pots or zip-lock
bags and keep them in a cool, dark place until
after slaughter.
Broile r Si gnal s
Phase feeding
The need for nutrients changes during the growth
period. Broilers at different phases of life therefore
need different feeds. The more transitions there
are, the easier it is to match the feed to the birds’
needs. Be aware that changes in the feed compos-
ition can disturb the gut flora and upset the birds.
In addition, the flavour of the feed also changes,
which in turn can affect feed intake. The transition
between two different feeds must be gradual so as
to minimise the stress on the gastrointestinal sys-
tem and avoid digestive problems.
Feed strategy
A broiler’s needs change during its life: the need for protein
drops and the need for energy increases. This also occurs
in the wild. Young birds are mainly fed worms (protein) and
gradually learn how to eat grain (energy). To meet these
changing requirements, poultry farmers often work with three
or four types of feed.
Starter feed (0-10 days)
• Crumb or mini-pellet (better feed intake and end weight)
• Optimal development of organs, bones and muscles
• High in protein, vitamins and minerals for maximum growth dur-
ing this very critical period
• Add very little or no wheat
• Expensive

Grower feed (11-22 days)

• Crumb (2-3.5 mm diameter)
• Gradually decrease protein content and increase energy
• Feed structure aimed at maximum intake
• Start wheat addition at maximum 10%

Finisher feed (23-end)

• Crumb or pellet (3.5 mm diameter)
• Continue to reduce protein and increase energy
• Maximum wheat addition from 50 to 55%
• Metabolic conversion of protein to fat results in poorer feed con-
version, so it is important to give enough energy in this phase
• Highest feed costs due to high intake during this period

Non Medicated Finisher feed

• Feed without medicines or anticoccidials must be given at the
end right up to slaughter. Some anticoccidials have a withdrawal
time of 0 days so they may be used in Non Medicated Finisher
The feed separates so the feed composition the broilers feed.
get is less uniform, increasing the risk of gut problems.

Critical time: feed transition and coccidiostats

Be careful when using Level
coccidiostats; if the of coccidiostats
different feeds contain Feed
different coccidiostats, Critical period:
the dose of both
A both coccidiostats
below required level
anticoccidials may be
too low at the feed
Feed A Feed B
transition. This puts the
birds at a higher risk
of gut damage from Required level of coccidiostats
coccidiosis, with all the
inherent problems. dB
Fee

Time

Feed change time

C h ap t e r 1 . S e e i n g m o re by l o o ki n g m o re cl o s el y 15
 What the figures tell you
Broilers are kept in large numbers. Therefore, or temperature problem. Make sure that it is easy
problems that start small are often noticed (too) to record data at the location where you make the
late. observations i.e. hang a card on the door, keep a
Often the birds’ behaviour will not indicate pos- water list at the water meter, etc. Or alternatively,
sible problems such as whether they are eating use a centralised (digital) form that is filled out
too little. But minor changes may be a precursor during inspection rounds.
to e.g. severe gut problems. By recording and
evaluating objective house data daily you can Set your own standards
intervene much earlier and avoid problems or Compare your data with the standards recom-
expensive treatments. mended by the breeding organisation. But it’s
actually more important that you also set your
Where and how? own standards and to, for example, compare fig-
Make it easier to spot changes by always recording ures and data with previous flocks. Compare your
the data at the same time every day. Generally a practices with those of nearby farms who keep the
marked change in feed or water consumption is the birds in a similar manner.
first sign that there is a health, feed, ventilation

Data Collection Chart Broilers

Starting date : Breed :
House number : Hatchery :
Number of broilers: Breeder farm :
Age of mother
hens :
Mortality House temperature Weight Feed intake Water intake
Standard value

Standard value

Per day Total

Litre per day

Water/feed

Comments
Actual per
Maximum

Indication
Minimum

Wheat %
Mortality

Mortality

Number

per day
per day
Advice

broiler
Actual

Actual

Actual
Norm
cum.

cum.

cum.
Feed
pres.
Date

Age

Sel.

RH

0 36.0 40 0 0 509 107 0 8 CO max. 2.500 ppm 2

20 1 60 35.0 49 50 15 5 15 68 356 24 27
19 2 34.0 61 80 27 17 12 32 162 422 28 32
3 13 33.0 78 102 22 20 10 53 129 499 37 37
4 9 32.0 95 122 20 22 8 74 111 568 42 43
5 11 31.0 120 140 14 25 28 99 370 647 50 45
6 10 30.5 145 161 21 28 30 127 395 713 56 59
7 12 30.5 175 184 23 30 31 157 409 791 60 60
94
8 7 30.5 205 213 29 34 35 191 462 884 68 67 Broiler weight scales. Check all weighing equipment
9 4 30.0 238 239 26 38 39 229 514 977 76 74 regularly to make sure it is working properly. Not only is
10 5 29.5 273 282 34 43 43 272 568 1069 86 80
11 5 29.0 315 324 42 48 59 320 779 1148 86 87 faulty data worthless, it also gives you incorrect signals,
12 7 29.0 357 356 32 52 51 372 673 1241 94 94
13 6 28.5 400 395 39 58 59 430 782 1333 103 101 which is much more serious.
14 4 28.0 455 432 39 64 52 494 691 1426 113 108
38 132
15 5 65 28.0 495 486 37 68 55 562 730 1571 120 119
16 8 27.5 547 586 63 74 70 636 920 1716 130 130
17 7 27.5 601 601 48 80 71 716 942 1866 141 141
18 9 27.0 658 660 59 86 68 802 900 1943 151 151
19 9 27.0 717 710 50 92 88 894 1160 2006 160 152
20 7 27.0 778 761 51 98 90 992 1188 2152 172 163 Monitor Salmonella
and Campylobacter
21 6 67 26.5 745 817 56 104 85 1096 1128 2297 182 174 in this period
N.B.! The results
51 183 are valid for 20 days.
22 5 26.5 913 875 58 110 101 1206 1327 2398 193 181
23 4 26.5 984 922 47 116 101 1322 1337 2468 203 187
24 5 26.0 1057 966 44 120 96 1441 1267 2561 210 194
25 5 26.0 1130 1021 55 124 114 1566 1508 2653 217 201
26 8 25.5 1203 1080 59 128 120 1694 1584 2746 224 208
27 6 25.5 1276 1138 58 132 118 1826 1557 2954 231 224 Fill in and send slaughter-
28 9 24.5 1350 1197 59 136 128 1962 1605 3049 238 231 ready report

42 225
29 15 70 24.0 1427 1282 87 140 133 2102 1752 3155 245 239 If necessary: 2nd moni-
toring of Salmonella and
30 10 23.5 1504 1329 45 144 124 2246 1502 3274 252 Campylobacter.
31 9 23.0 1582 1387 58 147 115 2393 1300 2018 257 258
32 13 22.5 1660 1459 72 151 135 2544 1535 2896 264 254
33 15 22.0 1739 1530 71 154 130 2698 1486 2987 270 262
34 18 21.5 1819 1598 68 158 143 2856 1627 2075 277 261
35 22 21.5 1900 1670 72 162 3018 1575 2689 284
102 327
36 30 75 21.0 1981 1733 63 166 130 3184 1499 2754 291 260
23
Good 37management: note
20.5 down 1825 house
2062the 1374the flock
130 3354on
92 170 data 309 and check the
2777 298chart Record the data where you collect it to prevent loss of
38 14 20.5 2144 1902 77 174 158 3528 1424 2412 305 268 information. In this case: in the poultry house.
house 39computer
14 every 20.0
day. Evaluate
2226 1950 this
48 178data
154 every
3706 1384 day.2466
Also312 make
274 comparisons
40 12
with previous flocks. 20.0 2308 2034 84 182 163 3888 1466 2520 319 280
41 10 19.5 2390 185 165 4073 1485 2583 324 287
42 8 19.5 2475 188 4261 329
111 438
43 19.0 2560 191 4452 334
44 19.0 2646 193 4645 338
45 18.5 2733 195 4840 341

16 * Geadviseerde temperatuurschema geldt voor de winter. In de zomer maximaal afbouwen tot 22°C. Broile r Si gnal s
Frequency
The value of data depends on how often you col- Do something with the data:
lect it. Daily recording of data gives you more management cycle
information than if you do it on a weekly basis. Merely recording data is pointless and demoti-
Especially given that the production cycle of broil- vating if it is not used. Make sure you regularly
ers is so short and therefore, the window of oppor- consult the data in order to constantly improve
tunity for intervention is limited, it is important your results. The management cycle of data col-
to promptly respond to subtle signals. Especially lection, analysis and implementation of improve-
water and feed intake are critical. ments must be a continuous process.

Difference between daily and weekly 1. Collect

recording Obtain and cal-
culate key figures
350 during and at the
300 end of each pro-
duction cycle
Water intake (ml/bird)

250

200

150

100

50

0 3. Improve
0 7 14 21 28 35 42
Make and 2. Analyse
Age (days)
implement Analyse/compare the obtained
a plan to results with
350 improve • standards (national objectives)
300 technical • earlier production cycles
Water intake (ml/bird/day)

and/or (on farm)

250
financial • earlier weeks within produc-
200
results. tion cycle (trend)
150 • other farms in the region
100 (benchmarking)
50

0
1 2 3 4 5 6
Age (weeks)

In the graph above (top), the daily water intake is

recorded, and you can see the fluctuations that may be
indicators of heat stress, disease, vaccination reaction,
etc. If you only record this weekly, these details would
go unnoticed since only the average over a 7-day period
is recorded. Also, you will always have to account for a
delay – the problem may start on the first day of the week
but you will only discover it a week later (too late).

Refined data tells you more!

The more you refine your data, the more useful it will be
to you.
For example: water intake
Water meter: shows an absolute value for that
moment in time
• This doesn’t tell you anything; it only shows you
how much water has been used since the meter
was installed.
Water consumption: difference water meter
readings between yesterday and today
• Gives a picture of water consumption, but it
remains a number that cannot be associated with a
standard value.
Water intake per bird
• This can be associated with a standard value for
that age.
Water intake per bird, over time
• Shows the development of water intake (rising
slope, but to what extent?).
Water intake per bird over time, associated with a
standard value
• Gives a complete picture of the real-time situation,
development and what is standard. Deviations are
best seen in a graph (e.g. on graph paper or on
computer software).

C h ap t e r 1 . S e e i n g m o re by l o o ki n g m o re cl o s el y 17
 Main parameters Water-feed ratio sheds light on problems
350

Water and feed intake 300

Water intake (ml/bird)

Increase in water intake
Healthy chicks drink a little bit more water each 250

day. Record the water intake on a daily basis so 150

you can effectively search for a cause in case of 100
abnormalities. Increased water use may be caused 50
by high temperatures, elevated mineral levels in 0
the feed or, don’t forget, leaking pipes. A reduction 0 7 14 21 28 35 42

in water supply may also occur. In such a case, Age (days)

make sure to monitor the clarity/cleanliness and 250

taste of the water and also the water pressure in 200

Feed intake (g/bird)

the pipes. A healthy chick has a good appetite.
150
Feed intake per chick must increase daily. In the Reduction in feed intake
100
event of declining feed intake, check the birds for
the presence of disorders and confirm the avail- 50

ability and the quality of the feed. 0

0 7 14 21 28 35 42

Water-feed ratio Age (days)

The water-to-feed ratio drops as the birds grow 2.40

older. A rise in water intake is often accompanied 2.30

Major change in water/
2.20
feed ratio
by a reduced feed intake. With such a strongly
Water-feed ratio
2.10
skewed ratio, it is immediately clear that a prob- 2.00
1.90
lem exists, e.g. an intestinal problem. In the event 1.80
of deviations, not only monitor the birds them- 1.70
1.60
selves but also the feed and water supply system 1.50
and the quality of the water and feed. Realise, 7 14 21 28 35 42

though, that the water-to-feed ratio increases
significantly at high ambient temperatures, which
therefore would not indicate a problem.
Age (days)
A typical case of vaccination reaction: the birds vitality is
affected by the vaccination. This starts about 5 days after
the vaccination and persists for a few days. Feed intake
drops slightly while water intake rises slightly. This is
reflected in the graphs for water and feed intake. But the
effect is clearest if you calculate the water/feed ratio and
then compare it to the standard!

LOOK-THINK-ACT
250 What could this mean?
200
Two points can clearly be seen in the feed intake where the feed intake levels off,
Feed intake (g/bird)

150 or even drops. In this case the poultry farmer started with a high bird density and
loaded them at two different times, on day 32 and day 38. Overcrowding just before
100 delivery hindered the chicks’ access to the feed tray or caused there to be too little
feeding space. Upon observing deviations, look for a cause. But the cause does not
50
necessarily always lie with the chicks. For example: increased water consumption
0 may indicate heat stress or disease or, alternatively, it may just as well be a leaky
0 7 14 21 28 35 42 pipe. Always look beyond the obvious; if the birds appear healthy and feed con-
Age (days) sumption levels are normal, the problem may lie with the water supply.

18 Broile r Si gnal s
Growth Recognise cause of growth retardation
A healthy chick gains weight every day. Growth 100
90
retardation could be a sign that the birds have 80

Growth (g/bird/day)
consumed less feed, that the feed is nutritionally 70
60
deficient or that they are not allocating their energy 50
40
to growth but instead, for instance, to resistance, 30
Growth drop due to vaccination reaction
stress/heat stress or physical activity. The need to 20
Growth drop due to infection
10
combat an infection can easily increase a chick’s 0
0 7 14 21 28 35 42
energy needs by some 25%. The chick’s growth is
Age (days)
then suspended. Weigh the animals at set times
in order to monitor the average growth in a flock Disease can be a cause of growth retardation, which
includes vaccination reactions and mild infections from
and record the weight along a timeline. Absolute “wild” strains of pathogens. But they give varying pic-
weight is less likely to provide useful data. Weight tures: vaccination reaction can be observed throughout
increases per unit of time provides a quicker picture the entire broiler house at any given moment. But a mild
infection spreads more slowly through the flock, caus-
of abnormalities. ing average growth to drop at a slower rate and subse-
quently prolonging recovery: the first chicks recover while
Growth: weight day Y – weight day X in other locations in the house chicks are becoming ill.
number of days Analysing weight data could even show how an infection
(e.g. bacterial) is spreading through the broiler house.

Mortality Recognise cause of mortality

Remove dead birds daily. Count them and be alert 100
Increasing: foot problems
if the death rate is slightly higher than in previous 90
Peak heat stress
80
days. For a regular flock, the sum of the number of 70
Mortality (%)

60
deceased chicks in week 1 and week 6 is higher or 50
equal to half of the total death count during the 40
30
whole cycle. For example: The total death count in 20
10
a cycle is 4%; then the death rate in the first and 0
0 7 14 21 28 35 42
last week is typically 2% or slightly higher. Strive
Age (days)
for a total death rate below 1% in the first week
and 0.06% per day. 0.1% per day and 3.5% for the Patterns in mortality may also serve as indicators. Heat
stress, for example, results in peak mortality numbers,
entire cycle is still acceptable. which subsequently declines once the heat has passed.
Leg/paw problems result in a more gradually ascending
Mortality (%): number of dead birds slope that is consistent until the end of the cycle.
x 100
number of day- old chicks
Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR) Indexes
Feed conversion ratio is a measure of how effi- FCR 2000 (feed conversion ratio calculated for a
ciently the chicks use the feed for growth. The 2-kg chick) and EPEF (European Poultry Efficiency
lower this value, the more efficient the conversion. Factor) are commonly used as comparative indexes.
Take relevant results from other countries with a The feed conversion ratio says something about
grain of salt, since feed compositions and climatic production efficiency. A production value like EPEF
conditions are different there. Only compare your says more about general management aspects
data to those of farms in your region and that use since it also takes mortality and growth rate into
the same feed. account. Instead of growth per bird per day, for the
sake of simplicity, often body weight (kg) divided by
Feed Conversion Ratio: feed intake
slaughter age (days) is used.
weight gain
EPEF: (100 – mortality) x average growth per bird per day in kg
x 100
FCR
Corrected Feed Conversion Ratio for comparisons:
FCR 2000: FCR – (slaughter weight – 2000) x 0.33/1000

C h ap t e r 1 . S e e i n g m o re by l o o ki n g m o re cl o s el y 19
 CHAPTER 2

The broiler’s environment

The broiler must be given the best possible care: the welfare of the animal is at Their behaviour, water
and feed intake and
stake here. Often there are minimum legal requirements for housing and care. mortality rates are
But adhering to minimum requirements makes sense from a financial point of indications of how the
chicks are doing.
view too: birds that are well cared for grow faster and more efficiently and show
fewer abnormalities at slaughter.

The five freedoms for animal

welfare
The five freedoms are a good guideline for good
broiler keeping.
1. freedom from hunger, thirst and malnutrition
2. freedom from physical discomfort (e.g. too
cold, too hot, too little space)
3. freedom from pain, injury and disease
4. freedom to express normal behaviour
5. freedom from fear and distress

The environment for this chick is not ideal. Whereas the

other chicks can reach the water, this late developer will
get dehydrated. This chick should have been removed a
lot earlier; it is a risk to the other birds.

20 Broile r Si gnal s
Outdoor climate determines type of
housing
Local climatic conditions impact significantly on
the system used to raise broilers. They determine
what type of broiler house can be used. In colder
climates more investment is needed to provide a
properly enclosed, insulated broiler house. This
also requires an efficient ventilation system.
Closed broiler houses with artificial ventilation
and cooling systems are becoming increasingly
Keeping broilers in a cold climate
• well-insulated broiler house to keep the cold out
• increased heating costs
• sophisticated ventilation needed for a good
climate for the birds
Closed housing (temperate climate)
Keeping broilers in a hot climate
• simple inexpensive house structure possible
• low heating costs
• sophisticated cooling system useful
• high ventilation capacity needed in closed
housing
Closed housing in the Middle East (hot/dry)
C h ap t e r 2 . T h e b ro i l e r ’s en vi ro n m en t
common in hotter climates as well. The climate in
open houses cannot be controlled via ventilation
as effectively as in closed ones. In high tempera-
tures broilers have difficulty getting rid of excess
heat, particularly in a damp climate. Cooling by
means of evaporation of water works well in hot,
dry climates but is less suitable in a hot and wet
climate (where open houses are common).
• increased feed intake and therefore faster
growth, unless it is too cold
• increased stocking density
Closed housing (cold)
• reduced feed intake, so slower growth
• reduced stocking density to prevent birds from
overheating
• cooling via humidification possible in open
housing
Open housing in Asia (warm/humid)
21
 Indoor climate
Nature
The climate outside the broiler house determines
what the house looks like and what facilities are
provided, but the indoor climate is key.

You are mother hen

During the first days of the chick’s life the most
important aspect is the microclimate – in other
words, the conditions directly around the chick.
The chick’s needs can be determined from its
natural behaviour: a newly-hatched chick is not
put straight into the cold outside world but stays
under the mother hen’s wing to begin with. So in
week 1, one of your main tasks will be to replicate
this situation.

Climate tips at start-up

1. Get the broiler house warm and dry before putting down litter.
2. Make sure the floor temperature is 30°C before putting down litter.
3. The litter must cover the floor completely, at least 0.5 to 1.3 kg/m² Take a look at a young chick’s natural behaviour
(at least 1 inch thickness). and you’ll see what it needs:
4. When you have introduced the chicks into the house their cloacal • heat
thermometer reading should be 40.5°C. If it isn’t, the floor or house • a draught free environment
is too cold or the chicks were delivered too cold. • a warm, dark, safe place for protection (i.e. not
5. Chicks from young breeder hens need more heat and get off to a much light)
better start at a temperature of 1°C higher during the first week. • a well-lit area for activity

Changing need for warmth

A broiler’s environmental needs change during the course of the production cycle. The biggest difference is in its thermoregulation. At
the beginning of its life the chick is not yet able to control its body temperature. So most of the heat it needs has to be supplied. At
the end of the cycle the opposite is true: the house is full, the birds are bigger and they produce a lot of heat that they need to get
rid of through ventilation. Sufficient ventilation is necessary to get rid of CO2, moisture and NH3, and for the supply of fresh air, which
becomes more important towards the end of the cycle.

Week 1 Week 4

Heat Heat

To begin with the chicks need a lot of heat. After about three weeks they start needing to get rid of
heat.

22 Broile r Si gnal s
Other husbandry systems Mixed system
In many countries broilers are produced in floor In a mixed system, the broilers hatch in the poul-
housing systems that use litter. Other systems use try house in various tiers. This way, day-old-chicks
the following, either separately or combined: experience less stress than chicks hatched in a
1. multiple levels; hatchery. From the hatching crates the chicks fall
2. mesh flooring (plastic or metal). onto a belt, so they have access to water and feed
Cage systems tend to promote greater comfort in and do not experience transport stress. Because
the broiler house, including during daily inspec- of the multiple levels, more animals can be kept
tions. The main reason for this is that the chicks per square meter (patio-system).
cannot see you coming from afar and do not feel
threatened (they will only see you once you’re in
their proximity). Due to the lower disease threat Characteristics of Characteristics of mesh
(coccidiosis) in these systems and the fact that cage systems floor systems
there is less bird activity, growth rates are higher • Greater capacity reduces • Chickens are not in contact
costs for construction, land with manure: reduced disease
and feed conversion ratios are better.
and infrastructure per animal. and medicine usage.
• Catching and loading is • Fewer breast blisters and
(semi-)automatic. footpad problems since the
• Lower energy costs as a animals do not come into
result of less broiler house contact with moist, warm litter
space per chick requiring and manure (depending on
warming or cooling. the mesh material).

Cage systems also allow for observing behaviour. Cage systems up to 5 levels are
Although it’s on a smaller scale, here too you see the available. Ensure that you are effect-
birds congregate to one side. In this example of a colony ively able to monitor all of the levels.
system, a section is typically about 5m2 in size. If you Manual or electric trolleys are used
notice this occurring in multiple sections, you will know for the management of the higher
that this indicates a ventilation problem. levels.

Conveyer belt: manure and loading belt in one

In litter-free systems the manure belt is cleared once every two to three days. The manure is then
left to dry and the house is kept free of ammonia formation. In addition to conveyor system for the
manure, this belt can be used to load the chickens, which causes the birds far less stress than
catching them in a floor system house.

C h ap t e r 2 . T h e b ro i l e r ’s en vi ro n m en t 23
 Ventilation and heating
Ventilation and heating requirements are differ-
ent in floor versus cage and mesh systems. Since
the birds can be cooled from below, less cap-
acity is required per bird than in a floor system.
In floor systems, heat is “stored” in the litter and
floor below, potentially leading to overheating in
the litter layer and subsequently heat stress in
the broilers. In cage and mesh floor systems the
ambient air temperature is the determining fac-
tor (and one that can be adjusted more readily),
meaning that there is a reduced risk of heat stress
in such systems. On the other hand, one also has
to be able to respond to cold temperatures (risk
of ascites) by having adequate heating capability.
This applies to all cage systems, but in particular
when mesh floors are used. Also, beware that in
long tunnels with tunnel ventilation the danger
exists that the air in the spaces between the cages
may be fresh, but the air in the cages themselves
is not adequately refreshed. Let an expert advise
you on the (costs for the) required cooling and
heating capacity. Cold chicks cost money, and
over-heated chicks die.

Pay special attention to the extra openings in the building:
the length of manure belts under the floor and the doors
for the lift and/or other offloading system at the end of the
house. The ventilation system can only function properly
in a well-insulated (against cold and heat) building that is
free of leaks.
Ensure good vertical temperature uniformity: it has to
be just as warm on level 1 as on level 4 or 5 (difference
should be far less than 2°C). Ceiling ventilators facilitate
this and must function properly.

Differences between materials

The advantage of a mesh floor is optimum ventilation below the animals. A solid metal floor causes increased inci-
dences of breast blistering at the pressure points (left). The flexible plastic mesh (right) ensures optimum support
of the body contours of the broiler, which prevents injuries. Do realise, however, that with a plastic mesh every-
thing should be plastic (plastic mesh placed on iron frames can cause accumulation of dirt at the support points).
Wooden laths are also used in some countries.

24 Broile r Si gnal s
 The correct mesh

In systems where the mesh holes are too large, young

broilers may fall through them with their feet, possibly hit-
ting their beaks on the mesh. By placing paper on top of
the mesh (preferably special chick paper) this can be pre-
vented. Ideally, however, it would be better to select the
appropriate mesh size from the beginning....

The correct feed pan

Make sure to use a feed pan developed for the colony system; the broilers can’t climb into these (see left). The feed
pans for litter systems are adjusted in height, so the broilers can’t climb into them. If you use this kind of feed pan in
a colony system, you run the risk of spillage and debris in the feed (see right).

Cleaning slatted floors

Cleaning requires special attention, since there is more equipment present in the house that needs to be kept
clean. Dirt can accumulate under the slat in particular (hard to reach and difficult to see). Something like this can
cause a major disease event after only three cycles. In some systems you can hang the slats up for easy cleaning.
A special detergent is used to ensure thorough disinfection.

C h ap t e r 2 . T h e b ro i l e r ’s en vi ro n m en t 25
 Temperature + moisture = heat
The temperature you read on the thermometer may
seem like hard evidence of how hot or cold it is, but
this can be misleading. The temperature you feel
depends largely on the amount of heat you get rid
of through evaporation. This is determined by the
combination of temperature and relative humidity.
For a broiler, moisture removal is a very important
method of getting rid of heat. Air movement around
the broiler provides extra cooling via the skin.

Air is like a sponge

The effect of air and moisture can be
illustrated with a sponge. Hot air is a
sponge that can absorb water. When
the air gets colder, air molecules
move closer together so there is less
space for moisture, as when you
squeeze a sponge. This is fine until
the sponge is saturated, then water
will start dripping out of the sponge.
In the air, this manifests itself as con-
densation.
Hot air, can hold much Air cools and shrinks... ...and can no longer retain or absorb
moisture moisture (so evaporation stops and
condensation may occur)

Mollier diagram 50
RH 100%
The Mollier diagram illustrates various combinations
45
of properties of air. Here the temperature is plotted
against the absolute amount of moisture in the air. 40
RH 80%
The curved lines show the relative humidity (RH).
35
If the temperature at a given RH drops, the RH
Absolute humidity (g/kg)

increases to a maximum of 100%, which makes it 30

RH 60%
very difficult for the broiler to get rid of heat.
25 B A

Let’s say you start with a temperature of 35°C and RH of 60% 20 RH 40%
(A in the graph). If the temperature drops, the relative humid- 15
ity rises quickly (while the absolute amount of moisture in the
air does not change): moving horizontally to the left in the 10
graph. With higher RH, less evaporation is possible; broilers 5
find it harder to get rid of excess heat and will die. If you cool
the air down to 26°C, in our example, the humidity will have 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 Temperature (°C)
increased to 100% and the broilers will die from heat stress
(B in the graph).

LOOK-THINK-ACT
When do broilers suffer from heat
stress?
You’d expect broilers to experience heat stress at the hottest time of the day. But
this problem usually occurs at the end of the day as the air cools down and the
RH rises rapidly. Then the birds are unable to get rid of their excess heat. These
birds are also sitting much too close together.

26 Broile r Si gnal s
 Comfortable climate Heating sometimes relieves heat stress
When do broilers feel comfortable? For broilers, rela- When broilers are hot, increasing the tempera-
tive humidity (RH) of 50-70% is ideal. A temperature ture can sometimes actually help them cool down
humidity index has been developed for use as a because the RH drops and they can evaporate more
rule of thumb. At about 5 points above the com- moisture.
fortable value, the broiler will begin suffering from
heat stress. If it remains above 115 for a prolonged Cooling sometimes causes heat stress
period, the broilers will die. The index is easy to In higher RH broilers evaporate very little moisture,
work out: so they can’t cool down effectively. Lowering the
Temperature/humidity index: temperature will cause the RH to increase even
temperature + relative humidity = further. The answer is to ventilate more to remove
90 + age in weeks moist air from the house.

Temperature
100
18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
Basic climate requirements
95 Danger
Reference Standard
90

85
Temperature + RH 90 – 93
Carbon dioxide < 2500 ppm
Humidity

80

75 Carbon monoxide none!

70
95 Muggy Ammonia < 25 ppm
65 Air velocity 10 – 20 cm/sec
H. Rodenboog

60 85 Negative pressure -(0.5 - 1.2) Pa per m house

55 Comfortable width
50

Too low Dust as little as possible

45
Light sometimes a dark period is
Try to keep the birds in the comfort zone: this is the
obligatory, not too much
green band and is determined by the combination of
temperature and humidity. If you reach the red area, birds light (EU: min. 20 lux).
will die. In the blue area your birds will suffer cold stress,
which will seriously impact on their feed conversion.

15% 80%
15% 55% 15% 80%
Measuring the climate
15% 55%

30% 5%
30% 5%

In nature a chicken usually loses 45% of its heat through

the skin, especially if it is in contact with a cold floor, and
55% through breathing. These are the two most import-
ant mechanisms. Make sure both are working as well as
possible. If the litter layer is too thick, the broiler can’t get Climate parameters can be measured with sen-
rid of heat through the floor and will have to expel more sors, but nothing beats your own observations –
by panting. With young chicks you don’t want too much what you feel on your own body or how the broil-
cooling/heat loss through the floor, although for older ers are behaving. Make sure you always measure
broilers this is desirable. at chick height, not at 1.70 m.

C h ap t e r 2 . T h e b ro i l e r ’s en vi ro n m en t 27
 Ventilation systems
The house climate is determined by the combin-
ation of ventilation, heating and cooling. The
choice of the ventilation system should be appro-
priate for outside conditions. Simple or complex,
the system needs to be managed. And even with
a fully automatic system your own perception
remains crucial (ears, eyes, nose and skin).
Natural ventilation
Natural ventilation doesn’t make use of fans for
incoming or outgoing air. The fresh air enters the
house via open inlets, often fitted with controlled
valves, panels or curtains. And leaves through the
same openings and/or the roof. Natural ventilation
is often seen as a simple and inexpensive system.
Whether that is true depends on the results that
can be achieved from such a broiler house.
Cross ventilation
Longitudinal ventilation
Roof ventilation
Tunnel ventilation
Combination roof and tunnel ventilation
Combination longitudinal and tunnel ventilation
28
Mechanical ventilation
Even in areas where natural ventilation can work
well, farmers are increasingly using mechanical
ventilation. The investment and energy use are
higher, but it offers more control options and thus
it is more likely to produce good results. The air
is expelled by fans: the key word is negative pres-
sure. The slight negative pressure in the house
pulls air in via all openings at a similar rate. It is
therefore important that there are no openings in
addition to the air inlets: they could disrupt the
entire system.
Cross ventilation: the air is expelled on one side of the house
and fresh air enters through inlets on the opposite side. This system
allows small, but also large quantities of air exchange.
Longitudinal ventilation: the air intakes are on the both sides of
the house. The fans are placed in the rear wall. This system does
especially well in those areas where the temperature differences are
not too large (such as a maritime climate). Investment and operating
costs are relatively low.
Roof ventilation: the fans are installed in ventilation ducts in the
roof. The air intakes are evenly distributed along the two sides of the
house. This is often used for minimum ventilation in colder climates.
Small quantities of air can be well managed. For larger quantities of
air, the system is often more expensive because of the large number
of fans and air ducts that are required.
Tunnel ventilation: the fans are placed in the back wall and air is
sucked in through air inlets in the front wall of the house (or in the final
few metres of the side walls at the front end). This creates relatively
high air velocity. This high air velocity (up to 3 m/s) provides an extra
cooling effect for the birds (wind chill effect). This system is used when
large quantities of air are required.
Combinations: tunnel ventilation is often used in combination with
a roof or longitudinal ventilation, for example. In that case, the roof/
longitudinal ventilation is used for minimum ventilation. When more
is required these inlets are closed and the tunnel inlets opened. This
concept becoming increasingly popular.
Broile r Si gnal s
Effective temperature (wind chill

Effective temperature (wind chill factor) (°C)

factor) and air velocity 34
How much heat a broiler feels is determined by a Actual temperature
30
combination of ambient temperature and humidity. 35°C
29.5°C
Ventilation is used to remove moisture, hot air and 21°C
26
waste gases from the broiler house. So a minimum
level of ventilation is needed (0.7 m3/kg live weight/ 22
hour). But a third factor that determines effective
temperature is at least as important: air velocity. Air 18
velocity is used to cool broilers, particularly in hot
climates. Air travelling at a velocity of 3 m/s is drawn 14
0.00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50
across the broilers by means of tunnel ventilation.
Air velocity (m/s)

Draught The temperature the broilers experience depends on the combination of outdoor
temperature, relative humidity and air velocity. Higher air velocities in high outdoor
A draught is a negative, fast air flow. Young birds
temperatures can create a strong cooling effect. The age of the broilers also plays
(high comfort temperature) feel every metre of air a role in the temperature they feel.
velocity as approx. 8°C cooler. Older birds (lower
comfort temperature) feel this as approx. 3°C. It is
easy to keep an eye on draughts – and air flows in
general – by performing smoke tests.

A smoke test will show you how the air spreads through Once the broilers are 3 weeks old and there is a risk of
the broiler house. It’s a very handy way to assess air flows heat stress, you can increase the air velocity to 2.5 m/s to
and track down draughts. keep them sufficiently cool. Fans with a high capacity can
reach high air speeds.

If you don’t have a smoke machine, your own perception is
also very useful for identifying draughts. Dampen your skin
slightly and you’ll soon feel where there are cold draughts
flowing through the house. And squat down among the
birds occasionally to see what the air flow is like there.
By measuring the broilers’ temperature with a digital
thermometer, you can keep a close eye on it and inter-
vene by ventilating more and keeping the ambient tem-
perature above the broilers slightly lower than the standard
target temperature. Normal body temperature: 40.5°C.
Abnormal body temperature: from 42°C, or lower
than 38°C.

C h ap t e r 2 . T h e b ro i l e r ’s en vi ro n m en t 29

Avoid ventilation errors.
Check all your equip-
ment at set times.
Good ventilation
Poor ventilation with floor rearing
If you can’t feel it yourself, do a smoke test to see how quickly the air is flowing through the house.
You don’t have to take the birds out of the house to do this. There are several options:
• The fresh, cold air in the middle sinks and
there is little air movement at the sides.
• The broilers avoid the middle and go to the
sides of the house, resulting in damp litter.
• Reduce the negative pressure.
• The broilers move away from the edges and are
mainly in the middle.
• The flaps are too tightly shut so there is too little
air entering through each flap which dissipates
too quickly.
• Open some of the flaps up to about two fingers.
30
Assessing ventilation in the broiler
house
In floor housing systems, the distribution of birds
over the house tells you something about the
quality of ventilation. But you can also evaluate
the ventilation in other ways.
Enter the house with bare, wet arms or wearing
shorts, go and stand in the parts of the house
where there are too few birds, and feel whether
there is a draught there. Check whether the litter
feels cold. See whether there is a pattern in the
way the birds are spread out throughout the house
and whether this has anything to do with the pos-
ition of the lamps, fans, air inlet etc. If you change
the settings, give the birds a couple of hours to
adjust. Don’t conclude too quickly that the change
hasn’t worked or is no good. Make a note of what
you have changed.
• The fresh, cold air sinks too quickly and is
therefore not being heated up enough.
The broilers keep to the outermost quarters
and the middle of the house.
• This has created two empty strips down the
length of the house: a zebra crossing effect.
• Increase the negative pressure.
• In hot weather the flaps will turn.
• The air will pass right over the broilers at
high velocity.
• This will make the air feel quite cool near
the birds (wind chill effect). This should only
be done deliberately if the ambient tem-
perature is very high. Source: Henk Rodenboog
Broile r Si gnal s
Ventilation
Ventilation is not only important for supplying Risks in ventilation systems
fresh air (oxygen) but also for removing moisture
and unwanted gases. Burners used in broiler
houses often emit CO2 and other combustion
gases. CO2 is often used as an indicator as it is
easy to measure. It makes broilers lethargic and
less vigorous, and if CO2 levels rise to above 3000
ppm it can cause their feed intake to drop.
Ammonia quickly irritates the eyelids. If you can
smell ammonia it’s already too late: once ammo-
nia is noticeable it usually means that the maxi-
mum limit for CO2 has already been exceeded.

An integrated lobby in the broiler house can hinder

air movement at the front of the house, resulting in
compaction of the litter.
Curtains and shutters

Ridge ventilation: the fans in the roof not only col-

lect a lot of dust but can also allow flies or bird
droppings to enter the house.

Curtains or shutters can control natural ventilation.
When you need less ventilation (e.g. during cold
nights), you can shut the curtains. During the day
you can open them again. This system requires
constant adjustment.
With tunnel ventilation in long broiler houses, there
is a risk that the climate at the back of the house is
poor. Longitudinal ventilation with flaps in the side
walls avoids this problem.

C h ap t e r 2 . T h e b ro i l e r ’s en vi ro n m en t 31
 Water consumption
The amount of daily water intake is a good indica-
tor of the health of the flock. Record the daily water
usage and check feed intake. A sudden change in
water intake is an important signal. If the water
consumption increases, first check for leaks in the
drinking system and check the water pressure, the
temperature in the house and the salt content of
the feed. If this is not the reason, check the birds’
health (disease, vaccination reaction). Also check
whether the change coincides with a feed delivery
or a change in the feeding phase or feed composi-
tion. The feed composition influences the water
What is the correct drinking position?
One cause of young chicks drinking too little is
that the nipples are too high or too low. Change
the height and see whether this affects their
water consumption. The right drinking position is
upright with the head up so that the water runs
into the throat. What is upright? You can control
this by raising or lowering the drinker nipples.

50
-8
intake of the birds. When they drink more, the 0

0
5

75
house needs to be ventilated more. This can cause 0 -4
35
problems in high density houses. Decrease the den-
sity to solve the problem. If the birds are drinking
too little, first check that the water system is work-
ing properly. Birds that drink too little look drowsy.
The water pressure must not be too low, otherwise
water will leak out. You also don’t want the water
pressure in the drinking line to be too high, as this Source: Aviagen.

can cause lower water intake because the birds

For one week old chicks, For birds older than one
have to push harder on the nipple. For young the angle between the week, the angle between
birds, the water pressure should be relatively low: beak and the drinking line the beak and the drinking
should be 35-45°. line should be 75-85°.
a drop of water will be visible, so they can find the
nipple easily. Later the pressure can be higher to
avoid leaking nipples and wet litter. If the pressure Water consumption
is too high this will also lead to spilling of water.
Water intake depends on feed intake, feed
composition, house temperature and age.

Normally: 1.6 – 2 x amount of feed

Pros and cons of drinking water systems
Drinking water Pros Cons
system
Bell drinkers + Water is readily available
+ Water level and suspen-
sion height easy to regu-
late
Drinking nipples + Closed system, water
always fresh
+ Very little spillage
+ Lots of room to walk around
Drinking cups + Water is readily available
+ Easy to check for block-
ages
High temperatures: 3 – 4 x amount of feed
High salt content: 4 x amount of feed or more
– Open system, not always
fresh, more chance of
contamination
– Spills, wet litter
– High investment costs
– Water delivery harder to
control
– High investment costs
– More chance of
contamination
– Less room to walk around

These days drinker nipples are of such good quality that

drip trays are no longer essential, although they do give
dryer litter and healthier footpads. Drip trays are susceptible
to fouling.

32 B roile r Si gnal s
Ensuring water quality Check the water:
The drinking water should taste pleasant and must 1. In general, at the location of the meter
not contain any hazardous substances or impur- (automatic)
ities. Water also serves as a solvent for medicines 2. Per drinking line: the height of the water gauge
and vaccines. When vaccinating via the drinking (daily)
water, make sure the water is clean and cool and 3. Per nipple (at least 2x/month)
that the water line is working properly. The acid-
ity (pH) of the water affects the solubility and
effectiveness of medicines. So flush the line well
beforehand. Rinse the pipe out thoroughly again
afterwards to prevent residues. Adding antibiotics
or medicines to the water can give it a bitter taste,
so the birds will drink less. Also clean water pipes
thoroughly and avoid sagging to prevent fungal
growth. If you suspect the drinking water might
be contaminated, have it tested. Always check the
quality and temperature of the water at both ends
of the line. You often find that the quality of the
water is not so good at the far end of the pipe. If you would not dare to drink the water from the nipples yourself, why do
you give it to your birds?

If there is too little water coming out of the nipples, the birds
will drink too little. Check the water pressure and the water
output from the nipples regularly. You can judge the flow rate
by collecting water from a nipple for one minute. Do this at
several locations on the drinking lines. A rule of thumb for the
flow rate is the age of the birds in days plus 20 ml/min. For
example: 35 days + 20 = 55 ml/minute. Too much water will
cause spillage and bad litter quality, which will in turn lead to
poorer quality broilers and footpad lesions. Have the drinking
water tested at a laboratory.
There are simple tools available to measure water flow.

Water quality
Water can contain dangerous, undesirable substances that will end up inside the chicken. The quality of mains water is generally
good. But this may not be the case with water from your own source. In order to keep your water quality up to standard, techni-
cal aids such as a deionisation system or a reverse osmosis system (which filters substances out of the water) can be used.

Signal Cause Dangerous (mg/l)

Lower oxygen uptake in the blood, result: comb, lobes and Nitrite > 1.0
head turn blue, animal becomes lethargic.
Reduced fertility
Respiratory problems Nitrate (can be converted into nitrite) > 200
Diarrhoea Potassium 300 (Ross manual)
Cerebral symptoms: wryneck and lameness Sodium > 200
Blocked nerve conduction; smell of rotten eggs Sulphide, conversion from sulphate > 250
under the influence of certain bacteria
Intestinal dysfunction Iron > 5.0
Intestinal dysfunction, various bacterial problems E. coli > 100 (kve/ml)
Weaker resistance Mycotoxins (produced by moulds) No threshold

C h ap t e r 2 . T h e b ro i l e r ’s en vi ro n m en t 33
 Vulnerable: young chicks
Young chicks are particularly sensitive to poor
water quality, also because their gut flora is still
developing. A hot broiler house (= rapid bacteria
growth) and low water consumption (= low flow-
ing rate) at this age are the ideal conditions for
biofilm development. So there is twice the risk of
problems.

Test for water quality

The first test is one you can do yourself. Take two
glasses and fill one with water entering the house
and one at the end of the line. Check its smell,
colour, taste and clarity. Collect water in clean,
screw-top bottles, leave a window of one week and To get an accurate picture of the water quality, it is
important to take samples as closely as possible to the
check again. A laboratory test that can give you very
point where the broilers drink. This not only tells you
detailed information on chemical (1x/year or when about the quality of the water source, it also gives you an
problems occur) and biological (2x/year) character- idea about the status of the pipes and nipple lines.
istics.

The Aquatest is
a simple toolkit to
measure biological
water quality. Add
a few drops to a
sample of water.
The proteins will
coagulate and show
as white flakes in the
water. This water is
contaminated with
organic materials. Obviously very poor water quality. Find There is also a dirty water detection sen-
the source of this contamination! sor available. This sensor continuously
monitors your drinking water quality.

Quick test

Colour: good, clarity: good Colour: poor, clarity: poor Colour: poor, clarity: good Colour and clarity: good;
sediment: poor
Colour: good (completely colourless); moderate (slight discolouration); poor Assessment:
(distinct colour; yellow, brown etc.). • All criteria good: 15% chance that the
Clarity: good (completely clear); moderate (cloudy but still transparent); poor water is unsuitable.
(opaque). • All criteria poor: the water is always
Sediment: good (water free from particles); moderate (a few particles); poor unsuitable.
(bottom is entirely covered with mud or iron particles). • Some criteria moderate: 35-75%
Smell: good (completely odourless); moderate (slight smell); poor (strong smell chance that the water is unsuitable.
of rotten eggs).

34 Broile r Si gnal s
Water/feed ratio and gut health Ratio water/feed intake
Wet litter, loose droppings and poor digestion can
be caused by intestinal damage, an imbalance in 2.1

Ratio water/feed intake

the gut flora or poor feed quality or composition

(ml water/g feed)

2.0

(e.g. too much protein). Broilers will compensate 1.9

for the loss of body fluid by drinking more. They 1.8

will also lose their appetites due to the infection 1.7
process in the gut. As a result, there will be an 1.6
7 14 21 28 35 42
even bigger discrepancy between water and feed
Age (days)
intake.
Young chicks need proportionately more water than older
ones. The water/feed ratio therefore decreases the older
the birds get. A sudden increase in water intake and
therefore in the water/feed ratio is often the first sign of a
gut problem. However, it can also be the result of a vac-
cination or the early stages of a disease.

How to clean water pipes

1. Fill the pipe with disinfectant.
2. Touch/flick every nipple to ensure that the
disinfectant fills every nipple.
3. Leave for 24 hours.
4. Check insides of pipes and tanks.
5. Flush the pipe with high pressure, again
High water intake: not always caused by illness, it may flicking every nipple to empty the disin-
also simply be too hot in the broiler house. In this case, fectant.
the birds will be panting with their beaks open and losing
a lot of water through evaporation.

Products to improve water quality

Products to improve water quality must have a dual effect: removing the biofilm and killing off microorganisms. Chlorine based
disinfectants do not destroy biofilms. Furthermore, biofilms cause rusting in metal pipes which can be exacerbated by chlorine.
Products that are too aggressive (e.g. peracetic acid) attack the drinking water system. Peracetic acid is also carcinogenic and
affects the taste and smell of the drinking water, so birds drink less. You should therefore use a different cleaning product.

Agent Effect

Ozone Very effective against bacteria/viruses; reacts with iron and manganese making them easy to
remove; inactivates chlorine, but effect is highly localised.
Ultraviolet Less effective against viruses; only effective in the part of the water pipe where the UV rays
come into contact with the water.
Copper sulphate Binds copper ions to bacterial cell walls, causing the bacteria to die.
Chlorine Cheap but less effective with pH higher than 7 or in presence of organic material. In this
case, you can add vinegar.
Organic acids Bacteria-inhibiting. After adding to drinking water, the pH should drop to below 4.3 to prevent
moulds and yeasts from growing in the drinking lines (pH should stay above 3.5 to maintain
water intake).
Hydrogen peroxide Cleans drinking lines efficiently, killing moulds and bacteria and dissolving the biofilm.

C h ap t e r 2 . T h e b ro i l e r ’s en vi ro n m en t 35
 Particles in drinking water (biofilm)
Biofilm, a thin conglomeration of
Many products given via drinking water are a feed-
pathogens in the water pipe
ing ground for all kinds of bacteria and moulds.
A slimy film consisting of bacteria, yeasts and 1 2

moulds – the biofilm – quickly forms on the sur-

faces of the water lines.
So after adding substances to drinking water, make
sure you flush the pipes thoroughly. Because a
biofilm also adversely impacts on antibiotic treat-
ments or vaccinations given via the drinking water,
it is advisable to flush the pipes thoroughly before 1. Pathogens attach 2. Pathogens stick to
administering such treatments. But flushing alone themselves to a surface. each other by forming
glue-like compounds.
is not sufficient against biofilms; chemical prod-
ucts 1are also required. The film interferes
2
with 3 4

disinfectants as well. Biofilms can also cause leaks

in the drinking system. The use of groundwater
with organic material increases the risk of biofilm
formation.

3. The biofilm grows. 4. Particles of biofilm break

off and the pathogens
Contributing factors for biofilm spread through the water
in the water system pipe.
• Dead ends
• Hanging pipes
• Oxygen
• Light
• High temperature
• Use of additives like vitamins/sugar

Drip trays can also be a source of infection. Dirty water

collects and heats up, forming an excellent feeding
ground for bacteria.

Make sure your drinker lines are hung horizontally. Dirt

will accumulate at the lowest point of sagging lines,
increasing the risk of biofilm developing. Automatic rins-
ing also reduces the risk of biofilm growth.
Don’t forget to check the angle of any slopes in the
house. A pipe running parallel with the floor may not be
entirely level, this can also give rise to pressure differ- If the riser lines (sight tubes) are dirty, the system will
ences and biofilm. often be dirty too. This is unacceptable: risers must be
kept clean.

36 Broile r Si gnal s
 Flushing
After cleaning the pipes with chemical products, clean water will flow through the pipes,
but this does not mean that it is totally decontaminated. If you flush out “cleaned” pipes
(i.e. force-pumping water, with air, allowing the water pressure rise and fall), you will see
that there’s still a lot of dirt coming out of the pipes. The biofilm will not be removed by
cleaning with chemicals alone; a force-flushing must also follow.

Prevent water from heating up

Having problems with water temperature? Straightforward measures can sometimes make the difference, e.g.
painting a black tank white in order to reflect sunlight. Make sure that water tanks and pipes are adequately pro-
tected against direct sunlight. Regularly measure the water temperature on entry.

Cold water in hot areas

Provide relief for chicks at high temperatures by ensuring that the water is cold:
1. Make sure that the water reservoir is not directly in the sun and is well insulated.
2. Make sure that the pipes are not located directly in the sun (preferably underground).
3. Make sure that the water also keeps flowing smoothly at the end of the drinking line.
4. Add ice blocks to the water tank if the temperature gets too high.

This water tank is heated up by the sun all day long A roof over a water tank keeps it out of direct sunlight and
because it is so high up (to achieve enough pressure). stops the water heating up.
So the water is warm when it enters the house…

C h ap t e r 2 . T h e b ro i l e r ’s en vi ro n m en t 37
 Floors and litter
Most broilers are kept on the floor. In countries
where winters are less harsh, the floor is often
earth. In colder areas and in closed houses, the
floor is usually concrete. Only concrete floors can
be properly cleaned and disinfected.
Day-old chicks are not able to control their body
temperature properly and are therefore sensitive
to chilling. It is not enough to maintain a good
temperature in the ambient air; the floor needs
to be warm too. After all, the birds are in contact
with the floor constantly and lose heat through
it. If the floor is difficult to warm up, e.g. because
it is earthen, a thick layer of fresh litter (at least
5 cm) makes a good insulating covering. An add-
itional benefit is that this also protects the birds
better from contamination from the earth floor as
it is difficult to disinfect.
Concrete floors need a different approach. A lot of
heat from the previous batch of birds can be ‘stored’
in the sand layer underneath the concrete floor.
You can keep your heating costs down by using this
residual heat (but of course if you have a washing
and drying time of 10-14 days it will be lost). A thick
layer of insulating litter can actually make it harder
to warm up this concrete floor. So it’s better to start
warming up the floor before spreading out the litter
(2-3 cm thick). Too thick a layer of litter on the floor
can also cause other problems. Warm litter on a
cold surface can result in condensation on the` floor
which can dampen the litter from underneath.

LOOK-THINK-ACT
Dry litter = good litter?
What do you think of the litter in this picture? You can see that there are
particles fluttering down to the ground. This is a good sign because it
means that the litter is dry. However, litter always gets slightly wet from
leaking nipples and spills. If the litter is too dry, this might be a sign that
the birds are not drinking enough. Check the water intake and if necessary
the water output from the nipples all over the house.

Litter and its characteristics

The most important characteristics of litter are its ability to absorb moisture and the absence of dust. There can be great dif-
ferences between batches of the same type of litter. Cost, availability and your manure processing method are all factors that
determine which litter you use. Avoid sawdust or wood shavings from waste wood (old furniture or preserved wood): the residual
chemicals contained in them can be poisonous both to the birds and to humans.

Examples of types of litter

Chopped straw Wheat straw Wood shavings Sawdust Chopped flax Rice husks Sunflower
(rapeseed) (hulls) shells

Moisture-absorbing properties: + = good, highly moisture-absorbent

+++ ++ ++ +++ + ++ -
Particle content: + = good, low dust

+ + ++ - - ++ +++

38 Broile r Si gnal s
Litter quality
Once litter gets too wet, it is difficult to get it right
again. Check the litter at different points in the
house during your daily inspections of the broil-
ers so that you can intervene in good time. Stir
the litter up with your hands or feet and check the
consistency and the floor underneath.
It’s easy to underestimate the consequences of
wet litter. Wet areas are not just cold; broilers will
also avoid them. Coccidia and bacteria can devel-
op much more quickly in wet places. Litter heating
up from the high moisture content, can also give
rise to breast blisters and footpad infections, as
well as causing high ammonia concentrations in
the air along with its consequences.
Causes of wet litter
1. (Subclinical) coccidiosis is the most common cause of bacterial enteritis,
which is on its turn the most common cause of wet litter issues.
2. Other health problems can cause very loose droppings, e.g.
Gumboro and infectious bronchitis (IB); certain strains affect the
kidneys, resulting in extremely wet litter.
3. Poorly maintained (leaky) drinking water systems.
4. Inadequate water absorption caused by loose droppings (containing
a lot of water) or poor choice of litter material.
5. Improper ventilation or inadequate heating: cold air settling too
quickly or damp air not being removed effectively.
6. Differences in light intensity. You often find poor quality litter in places
with a higher light intensity. The broilers are more active there and def-
ecate more in that area, causing the litter to become wet and
compacted.
7. Too high mineral or salt content in the drinking water and/or feed caus-
es broilers to drink more, which automatically makes the litter wetter.

The litter should

always be dry and
slightly loose. It
should not stick to
your hands or boots
too much. The litter
in this photograph is
good. From week 3,
make a note of the
quality of the litter in
different parts of the
house once a week,
marking it on a map
of the house, for
example.

Leaking nipples can be a significant cause of localised

wet patches. Here you can see the problem even before
the birds have been there. They will avoid this area.
Respond to the first sign
Beware when hard patches suddenly start forming in the litter (com-
pacting): this is the first sign of poor quality litter. Also check the floor
underneath: if it is wet (dark in colour, see right), you haven’t ventilated
enough or the floor is too cold. The concrete floor should be light in
colour (see left).

A drip tray is designed to catch spilled drips, not to solve

the problem of leaky nipples...

C h ap t e r 2 . T h e b ro i l e r ’s en vi ro n m en t 39
 Light Light/dark cycles:
In broiler houses with natural ventilation it is + better food conversion
often not possible to make the house dark enough + fewer problems with sudden death syndrome
to apply artificial lighting schemes. Often broiler and ascites
houses are lit continuously to enable the birds to + increased feed intake after short periods of
grow as quickly as possible by allowing them to darkness
eat as much as possible. In dark houses, lighting - slower growth during long periods of darkness
schemes are generally applied for birds deliv-
ered at over 2 kg. During the first week, provide
as much light as possible (23 hours light, 1 hour
dark, with a higher light intensity of 30-40 lux). In
the EU, broilers must be given 6 hours of darkness
after their first week of life, with at least one block
of 4 hours of darkness. The light intensity during
the rest of the day must be at least 20 lux.

Nature

In nature, chickens rest in the shade and are drawn to sunlight only when active. This jungle fowl originated in forests
where it lived in shadowy conditions, partly to protect itself from birds of prey. In addition, young birds prefer to stay in
the dark under the mother’s wing. In the photograph on the right you can clearly see that there are far more birds in the
darker areas. Therefore, ensure a balanced distribution of light in order to ensure a balanced distribution of broilers.

Light in multilevel cage systems

In cage systems, ensuring good light distribution is even more important, both for the animals as well as the farmer.

The areas where the birds are will preferably be lit, so The lights hang in the passage and above the upper
you can observe them better (and it is also better for level, making observing the middle and lower levels
the birds themselves). more difficult.

40 Broile r Si gnal s
Biosecurity for profit
Biosecurity is probably the cheapest management
intervention there is for achieving better results;
however, strict adherence to this is difficult.
Basic rules
1. Location of the farm: preferably away from
other poultry farms and roads so that airborne
germs cannot infect the farm.
2. Effective layout: the farm is completely
enclosed with a perimeter fence. The farm is
divided into a clean part where the animals
are kept and a dirty part (the outside world).
The dirty route is used by trucks to unload the
feed, or to pick up dead birds, without coming A lot of germs are airborne. The risk of problems such
into close vicinity of the broiler house. as viral respiratory infections spreading between broiler
houses is therefore quite high.
3. Have effective procedures in place and always
apply them. If someone doesn’t need to be
in the broiler house, they shouldn’t be in it.
If someone does have to go in the house,
remember that most germs can be found in
Multiple ages: biosecurity risk
the hair, footwear, clothes and hands. So make It is highly inadvisable to keep different age groups
sure visitors shower and wear freshly sanitised on one farm, even though it may seem logical to
do so for reasons of logistics in the hatchery and
clothing and footwear. Care should be taken abattoir (processing plant). Older birds often excrete
to insure that equipment such as vaccination pathogens (e.g. Gumboro, Newcastle, mycoplasma,
instruments and scales are not overlooked and infectious bronchitis etc.) which can infect younger
birds that have not yet developed resistance to these
taken inside the house without being washed germs. Also remember Salmonella which is particu-
and disinfected. larly dangerous to humans.

What use is a decontamination area if litter is brought into Strict separation between your dirty and clean routes is
the house via a side door? Provide a spacious area for essential. Otherwise it won’t be just feed that is deposited
hygienic storage of such materials. outside the broiler house door but unwanted pathogens
as well.

C h ap t e r 2 . T h e b ro i l e r ’s en vi ro n m en t 41
 CHAPTER 3

Preparing for the new cycle

A good start is half the battle. Preparing to receive young chicks properly starts Ready to go: plenty
of litter, the right tem-
as soon as the flock has been loaded and transported. Between two cycles you perature, feed and fresh
should get your broiler house clean, warm and fully functional. Based on feed- drinking water available
on arrival.
back from the previous cycle, you can take the opportunity to make changes to
the housing, lighting, feeding or vaccinating schedules.

Checklist for receiving day-old chicks

1. Heaters: are they working properly, are they
switching on at the right temperature?
2. Check thermostat and sensors.
3. Floor temperature 28-30°C.
4. Set minimum ventilation and check air inlets
and outlets.
5. Place drinking lines at the right height, no
leaks or clogged nipples.
6. Place feeding lines at the right height, well
filled, no breaks The chicks will be living continuously on the floor. So
7. Has the house been thoroughly cleaned? make sure it is warm enough. The air in the house
8. Is the water system clean? warms up more quickly than the floor. Only measuring
the air temperature in the house is no guarantee that the
floor will be the right temperature. Feel the floor with your
hand. You can also use an infrared thermometer, but
don’t rely blindly on technology.

42 Broile r Si gnal s
Stocking density
The density is up to the poultry farmer and is
often subject to statutory limits. A higher stocking
density means that you can spread the costs of
the facilities over more kilograms of product. In a
cold climate, a higher stocking density also helps
you reduce your heating costs per bird.
However, it also places more demands on ventila-
tion and litter management. Overstocking means
less uniformity and lower growth, and problems
due to wet litter and quality problems from skin
and footpad blemishes can increase. In hot coun-
tries the climate is very clearly the main determin-
ing factor.
In the EU the maximum permitted density is 33
kg of live weight per m², or 39 kg per m² subject
to certain requirements, and up to 42 kg per m²
with consistently low losses and minimal footpad
lesions.
♂ broiler house environment becomes
Male birds have a much better feed conversion than
females. In countries where there is a demand for heavy
broilers, it may be economically advantageous to grow
the males and females separately in the house: females
are slaughtered first and males are left to fatten to a
higher end weight.
C h ap t e r 3 . P re p a r i n g f or th e n ew cycl e
Higher density possible with thinning
In some systems, some of the lower-weight birds
in the flock (15-30%) are thinned out and slaugh-
tered. This enables the farmer to set up more
day-old chicks. This can be profitable because
the amount of meat produced per year per m²
increases substantially.
The disadvantages are the stress of thinning,
the risk of the catching team infecting the birds
(poor biosecurity) and problems meeting the
required withdrawal times for veterinary medi-
cines. Because you have to give the birds feed
without anticoccidials before thinning, there is an
increased risk of problems with coccidiosis among
the remaining birds.
Incorporating thinning enables you
to start off with a higher stocking
density, but during thinning the birds
come into contact with the dirty
outside world as loaders drive in and
out of the broiler house. This is dia-
metrically opposed to the principle
of clean/dirty routes. In addition, the
contaminated with manure which is a
source of infection for other houses.
Be aware of this risk.
Here there are too few feeders so not all the birds can get to the feed and drink
easily. So they will eat less and will injure each other in their attempts to get to
the feed. This results in quality problems at slaughter.
43
 Useful information from the slaughter report
After delivering the birds you are given a report from the processing plant. This gives you a lot of
useful information for the next cycle. You can use this information to correct management errors
and sometimes the vaccination schedule.

Dehydrated?

A dark colour indicates that the
birds had fever or were dehy-
drated before slaughter.
Check whether the birds had
enough to drink until just before
they were loaded. How much
time passed between loading and
slaughtering? Was the journey to
the processing plant too long?
Slaughter report
Farm number
Slaughter date Blood infection?
Abnormal livers usually
indicate infections in the
Number of birds delivered bloodstream. The swell-
ing and white dots (dead
liver tissue) are the result
Rejections of a bacterial infection.
The pathogen can enter
the bloodstream follow-
ing injury to the gut wall.
Dead birds Hepatitis is often the
Contaminated cause of yellow livers.

General traumatic injury

Abnormal colour Rough handling and infection?
Cachexia Broken legs or wings
on the slaughter line
Ascites can be the result of
Sepsis rough handling during
catching. Other causes
Other exacerbated by rough
handling are: Reovirus
Rejections due to quality infection (weak tendons)
Total rejections or enterococcal infection
(femoral head necrosis).

Quality faults
AM breaks in wings Overcrowding?
AM breaks in legs Scratched thighs are
often caused by over-
Haemorrhages in wings crowding or too few
Haemorrhages in legs feeder lines and lethargic
birds, but they could
Haemorrhages in breasts also be caused by a
poor lighting programme.
Manure plaques These scratches can
Breast blisters lead to other problems
such as subcutaneous
Full crops inflammation. Adjust the
stocking density or the
lighting schedule.
Comments

Wet litter?
Subcutaneous
inflammation often
has its roots at as
early as 2 weeks
of the production
cycle, and is asso-
ciated with skin
scratches and wet
litter.

44 Broile r Si gnal s
Clean out time reduces infection
pressure
A clean out time can help reduce the disease
pressure on a farm. The longer the clean out time,
the more pathogens will die from cold, lack of
moisture, lack of food and the absence of hosts.
But some pathogens such as oocysts (= eggs
from coccidia) can survive long periods of without
the chicken host. A short clean out time may be
economically attractive but this must not be at
the expense of thorough cleaning, disinfecting Clean every last surface thoroughly, including places that are difficult to
reach. Wherever there is manure or dust, there may still be live pathogens,
and drying out of the broiler house. We therefore
even after disinfection. Check the disinfection action by taking samples.
recommend implementing a clean out time of at Good flock health starts with a clean environment for the day-old chicks.
least one week.
Wet or dry disinfecting? Preferably both
Cleaning and disinfecting
Manure and dust are reservoirs for hazardous
pathogens. Thorough cleaning is therefore essen-
tial to properly disinfect the house. You can kill as
many as 80% of pathogens by first cleaning with
water and a cleaning agent. This loosens and rins-
es away oil, grease and particles. By disinfecting
after a thorough clean, you can reduce the num-
ber of pathogens by 99%. Give cleaning agents
and disinfectants enough time to take effect, use
the correct dose and make sure the temperature Wet disinfecting/spraying. Dry disinfecting/fogging.
A longer contact time or exposure The disinfectant reaches everywhere
is high enough. When using cleaning agents and
time is key for a good effect, but and the surface range is maximised due
disinfectants, use adequate protection: gloves, a the disinfectant does not reach to the small droplets. A downside is
liquid-proof overall and a full face mask with filter. everywhere. that the contact time or exposure time
is shorter.
And provide sufficient ventilation so that you are
not working in unhealthy air afterwards.

Types of disinfectants and their effects

Product Kills Kills Kills Kills fungal Toxicity

bacteria mould viruses spores/
coccidia
Alcohol +++ +++ +++ - ++
Chlorine compound +++ ++ ++ + ++
Formaldehyde +++ +++ +++ + +++
Glutaraldehyde +++ +++ +++ +++ +++
Hydrogen peroxide +/- (against Entero- and Staphylococci) ++ ++ + +
Iodophors ++ + ++ - ++
Peracetic acid +++ ++ ++ ++ +++
Phenol derivatives +++ +++ + - +++
Quaternary ammonia +/- (against gram-negative bacteria) + + - +
Sodium hydroxide ++ ++ + + +++
Ammonia ++ - - +++ -

NB: Some agents need a minimum temperature and a certain humidity to be effective (formaldehyde: 20°C, many other agents 15°C).

C h ap t e r 3 . P re p a r i n g f or th e n ew cycl e 45
 Don’t only clean inside the house
You pay a lot of attention to disinfecting the inside of
the house. But don’t forget the environment around
it. Loading zones, personnel areas and air vents also
get contaminated with manure and dust. Salmonella,
for example, is often found in dust and other samples
taken from these areas. Spray cleaning what you can
see with water is not enough to keep dangerous patho-
gens out. Thorough cleaning and disinfection are a
must.

Wild birds around a feed silo.

They are a danger to biosecurity.
Make sure that no feed is spilled Clean decontamination area where the division between
that may attract these birds. And the outside world and the house environment is clearly
make sure that the feeding sys- marked by the fence.
tem is properly enclosed so that
no droppings or other detritus
from wild birds get into the feed.

The paved part in front of the

entrance to the house is heav-
ily contaminated with manure
when loading birds and remov-
ing manure. If you don’t clean
and disinfect this surface prop-
erly, dangerous pathogens are
brought back inside when litter All the electronic control systems in this room make it
or new birds are delivered. difficult to clean. But control buttons, boots, slats and
materials can be heavily contaminated and should be
paid close attention during cleaning and disinfection.
Clean electronic systems with a damp cloth and
disinfect them with a cloth soaked in alcohol.

LOOK-THINK-ACT

What isn’t right in this picture?

Many things, for example you can see a lot of clutter on the
desk. But most importantly, the antibiotic that’s on the corner.
Store supplements and medicines properly – not only to com-
ply with the regulations, but also simply because they lose their
effectiveness if stored incorrectly. Like other fresh substances,
antibiotics can ‘go off’. Sunlight, high temperatures and high
humidity affect the active ingredient and/or its additives. So
store these products in a suitable place: dark, dry, cool and in
properly sealed packaging. And under lock and key.

46 Broile r Si gnal s
Vermin
Controlling vermin is an important part of biosecurity.
The down-time is ideal for eliminating vermin: bait
becomes more attractive when food is scarce, there are
fewer places for the vermin to hide, and the risk of birds
being inadvertently contaminated with pesticides is
small. A good action plan looks like this:
● Prevention: make the broiler house inaccessible or
less attractive to vermin.
● Monitoring: keep an eye open for signs of vermin
such as traces of feeding, droppings, footprints.
Even though you cannot see the culprits yourself,
they may well be there.
● Eradication: use pesticides to stop them from mul-
tiplying.

Rodents
Signal Animal Control
• Risk: spreading disease organ-
isms such as Salmonella, dam-
age to infrastructure e.g. short
circuiting caused by gnawing
through electricity cables, loss
of feed.
• Prevention: clean up waste or
food sources around the broiler
house, properly closing doors
and narrow ventilation open-
ings.
• Control: bait traps, e.g.
containing anticoagulants.
However, many rats are
immune to this.
Lesser mealworm beetle
Signal Animal Control
• Risk: spreads pathogens,
damages insulation.
• Prevention: use insulation with
a solid top layer, smooth profile
on house wall, remove manure
from farm.
• Control: insecticide during
down-time, but a smooth
metal strip or metal sheet
against the wall can also be
effective in preventing further
spread.

Flies
Signal Animal Control
• Risk: spread pathogens such
as Campylobacter.
• Prevention: fly screens on
air inlets and outlets, remove
waste quickly, remove manure
from the farm.
• Control: long-acting insecticide
at point of contact, or an insect
killer lamp (the fluorescent light
attracts flies which are elec-
trocuted by the electric wire
grids).

C h ap t e r 3 . P re p a r i n g f or th e n ew cycl e 47
 Chick paper
Immediate intake of feed stimulates the develop-
ment of the chick’s gastrointestinal system and
promotes resorption of the yolk sac. Feed needs
to be readily available for young chicks to reach.
Chick paper can help. Lay it next to a drinking
source so that the chicks can also find water
straight away.
Sprinkling feed on chick paper makes it more attractive to day-old chicks.
Chick paper also makes a rustling sound when the chicks walk on it, which
attracts other chicks to the feed. Providing the feed near the drinker line
encourages rapid intake of feed and water. But don’t place feed directly under
the drinker nipples: wet feed will rot!
Certain brands of chick paper do not need to be removed after use as they
decompose. You can even choose a specific decomposition rate, ranging
from two to more than six days depending on the type. Newspaper is also
used sometimes, but this has to be removed from the house after a while,
causing the chicks a great deal of stress. Besides, newspaper is too slippery
which may cause chicks leg problems.
48
Cool, fresh water
Day-old chicks don’t yet drink a lot. Fresh water
is important: it’s their number 1 nutrient. Provide
fresh water just before the chicks arrive. Then the
water will still be fresh (but no longer cold) when
the chicks are unloaded.
Water that remains in the pipes after the drinking
lines have been cleaned, during cleanout time and
while the house is being heated up, is not good
drinking water.
High-sided feeding pans are difficult for chicks to reach.
You can combine the use of chick paper with some tilted
feeding pans, e.g. every 10th pan. Then some feed is
deliberately spilt over the rim so that the chicks can get
to it easily and get used to the feeding pans.
Rinse the drinking lines thoroughly shortly before the
chicks arrive to guarantee a supply of fresh water. Then
you can visually check the drinking water quality at the
same time. Repeat this weekly while the chicks are in the
house.
Broile r Si gnal s
Transport risks: hygiene and stress Chick signals on arrival
Transportation of day-old chicks from the hatchery
to the broiler farm is underestimated as a risk fac- Behaviour Cause
tor. Make sure the lorry is clean on both the inside
Breathing with beak open Temperature too high
and outside. One lorry will often be delivering
Wings spread open Temperature much too high
chicks to several different poultry farms. In particu- Gasping for air Insufficient ventilation
lar, the trolleys used to take the chick trays into (high CO2 concentration)
the house must be spotless. To avoid stress from Huddled together Temperature too low
bad conditions outside the house (cold, draughts Huddled together in one area Draught
of the transport crate
etc.), the chicks must be taken from the lorry into
Noisy General discomfort
the warm house as quickly as possible. Large number of dead chicks Poor air circulation in that
in stack of crates/boxes part of the loading area

Assess the chicks’ behaviour

Rules for drivers when they arrive on the farm.
Day-old chicks that have
been transported in ideal
conditions will be well spread
out in the crates, very quiet,
breathing with their beaks
closed and not very active.
Bad transport conditions
(duration and climate) have
a negative impact on the
chicks’ development. Their
feet must be warm and must
remain so inside the house.

The driver must follow the hygiene rules: new over-

shoes, disposable or clean overalls and a hairnet
must be worn when entering the broiler house.
Hands must be washed and disinfected. This
reduces the risk of pathogens from one farm being
transferred to another or ending up in the difficult-to-
disinfect lorry cab.

Feeding the chicks a little in the hatchery or in the crates
helps reduce losses during long journeys.
Transferring the chicks from the truck to the house is a stressful time. Are the
transport trays left standing at all? If so, the chicks will chill and will be at risk of
catching all manner of infections. Are the transport crates left standing indoors?
The chicks are close together in the trays and trolleys and the animals will very
rapidly overheat. If this happens, lower the house temperature to 28°C. Try to keep
the waiting time between lorry and house as short as possible.

C h ap t e r 3 . P re p a r i n g f or th e n ew cycl e 49
 CHAPTER 4

Week 1: Getting off to a good start

The first week of life – especially the very first day – is key to ensuring a good Make the birds as
comfortable as possible
cycle. The chicks arriving on the farm have already used up some of their when they arrive, as
reserves, so they need to find the drinkers and feed quickly. Temperature, venti- they have been through
a stressful time and
lation, feeding lines and water lines have to be adjusted frequently. Don’t forget need to eat, drink – and
grow – as fast as pos-
that the birds’ body weight increases four or five times over during the first week. sible.

By the time they arrive the day-old chicks have

No gut flora from mother hen
The young chick has not yet developed its own gut flora and
picks up all kinds of bacteria, both bad and good. In nature the
chick gets the flora from its mother and her environment and is
therefore more resistant. The lack of a mother hen on the broiler
farm is a risk that is often underestimated.
Cause > Stress
been out of the egg for a while. Not all chicks hatch
at the same time: there can be more than 24 hours
between the arrival of the first and the last chicks.
So a flock of day-old chicks is not uniform. Any bad
chicks are removed after hatching. Then the rest
are vaccinated and transported straight to a new
environment. That is all very stressful for the birds,
which may subsequently lead to growth retardation.

Effect > Growth retardation Stress results in a

lower yield.

Result > Lower yield

50 Broile r Si gnal s
Quality of day-old chicks
On arrival, pick up chicks from various trays for a
proper assessment so you can adapt your man-
agement to the quality of the chicks. The schedule
below can help you with this. Weigh 5% of the
Check Right
Reflex Lay chick on its back. It should stand up
within 3 seconds
Eyes Clean, open and shiny
Navel Navel should be closed and clean
Feet Feet should be a normal colour and not
swollen. Feel warmer than your cheek.
Beak Beak clean with closed nostrils
Yolk sac Stomach soft and malleable
Down Should be dry and shiny
Uniformity All chicks the same size
Vent Should be 40°C 2-3 hours after arrival
temperature
A fit and healthy day-old chick gets on its feet again with-
in three seconds, even when you put it on its back.
Yellow chicks are often thought to be more vital than white
ones. But this is only due to formalin in the hatcher bas-
kets, which colours the down yellow. In the past, chicks
that received no disinfection were considered less healthy,
so colour was associated with health status. But the colour
itself does not make the chicks more vigorous. Chicks that
hatched earlier are in contact with formalin for longer and
will be a darker yellow colour, but might be weaker than
the ones hatched later. Formalin-free disinfection methods
are being developed.
chicken trays for a good idea of the initial weight
of the day-old chicks and pay attention to uniform-
ity. And count the chicks in at least five trays to
determine the exact number you received.
Wrong
Chick takes more than 3 seconds to stand up:
chick is listless
Closed, dull
Bumpy: remnants of yolk; open navel; feathers
smeared with albumen
Red hocks, swollen hocks, malformations,
deformed toes, cold
Red spots on beak; dirty nostrils;
malformations
Stomach hard and skin taut
Down wet and tacky
More than 20% of chicks are 20% heavier or
lighter than average
Above 42°C: too high, below 38°C: too low
Deformed toes are occasionally observed. The cause can be
genetic, but this may also be caused by a vitamin B complex
deficiency or the hatcher temperature being too high.
When the chicks are hatched at a temperature and/or
relative humidity that is too high, you will notice red hocks
and/or a red spot on the top of the beak close to front of
the comb. The red beak could also happen after hatching
when the chicks stick their heads through the holes in the
chick box or tray and thus damage the top of their beak
on the rough edges.
51
 The first day
In the hatchery the chicks are given a range of
treatments, so they are very tired when they arrive
and want to rest. Remove the chicks from the trays
or boxes as quickly as possible. Put the boxes
that cannot be handled immediately in a separate
room at a temperature of 22-23°C, not in the broil-
er house if it is much warmer (above 30°C).
Before the chicks arrive, check that everything in
the house is working properly: heating, thermo-
stats, ventilation, feed and water system (water
pressure at the nipples, no residues or disinfect-
ants in the water, no clogged nipples) and light-
ing. It is also important to make sure the water is
microbiologically clean. Because of the high tem-
perature in the house, you will need to refresh the
water in the lines no more than 12 hours before
the chicks arrive.
Navels
Check whether there are any chicks with poorly
healed navels, for example due to the yolk sac
not being fully withdrawn. These navels often do
not ever close and pose a greater risk of infec-
tion and mortality. So you don’t want chicks
with poorly healed navels. Make a note of how
many there are and discuss this with the hatch-
ery. An open navel with no obstructions will
close properly.
Not good but acceptable: navel will close.
Unacceptable: cannot close because there is
some yolk is in the way.
52
Nice and warm
Make sure that the house is nice and warm before
the chicks arrive. It is not just the air that needs to be
at the right temperature, but the floor in particular
and the equipment: the slats, the paper, the feeding
system and the drinking water. Cold water (< 20°C)
leads to a lower body temperature, which day-old
chicks can’t regulate. Make sure the air temperature
at the level of the chicks is between 33 and 35°C.
In cages the chicks can’t seek out a warm place for
themselves. So make sure the temperature in every
cage or brooding ring is right and that the chicks stay
warm. Cold chicks will not eat and drink enough.
Parent flock and chick size
The chicks of young breeder hens are smaller and
require a higher temperature and humidity. If you
know that, you can prepare the broiler house and
the care accordingly to prevent problems.
Measuring body temperature
Cloacal temperature measurements are not
often taken but they are the ultimate yardstick
for assessing body temperature. For an accu-
rate reading, make sure the thermometer is
inserted two centimetres deep in the cloaca.
You can also use an ear thermometer on the
vent, but this is less accurate. The optimal
measured body temperature for a chick is
40.5°C. Ten per cent of chicks that have a body
temperature of 37°C when they come off the
lorry will die.
Broile r Si gnal s
 Empty the trays carefully
After checking the chicks on arrival and perhaps
vaccinating them in the trays, empty the trays
carefully. Make sure the chicks are well spread out
over the whole of the brooding area. Leave them
alone for two hours to de-stress. Then collect
and count any chicks found dead on arrival. It is
important to look at these carefully and possibly
examine them more closely to find out the cause
of death.

Empty the trays carefully; don’t just tip the chicks out.
Then make sure that there is 40 grams of starter feed per
chick, close to the drinking lines. By using chick paper,
chicks will find the feed easier and quicker. The quicker
they take in feed and water, the lower the mortality and
the better population uniformity and growth will be in
week 1.

Vaccinating day-old chicks

It can be very practical to vaccinate day-old chicks while they are still in the trays. In large broiler houses it is
extremely labour-intensive to place all the trays in the house before vaccinating. By attaching the chick paper to
one side of the drinking line you can form a wall that you can put the chicks up against. They will stay there hud-
dled together long enough for you to vaccinate them properly.

Systems for preventing stress in week 1

Hatching in the First days in
broiler house the hatchery
In this system the In order to prevent
eggs are brought mortality in the
to the broiler first week, instead
house three days of delivering the
before hatching. animals as day-old
The advantage chicks it can be
of this is that the decided to do so
chicks will not only at an age of
need transporting four or five days
once they have old. The chicks will
hatched, and stay in a special
instead they will compartment in
be able to feed the hatchery for
and drink right the first days of
away. life.

C h ap t e r 4 . We e k 1 : G e tti n g o ff to a g o o d s tart 53
 ‘Cold-blooded’ chicks
Chicks in the egg and newly-hatched chicks cannot
regulate their body temperature properly. They are
‘cold-blooded’ (poikilothermic), which means that
their body temperature varies with that of the envir-
onment.
They only start regulating their own body tempera-
ture at the age of 5 days (thermoregulation). So the
temperature inside the broiler house is crucial for development growth
the first few days. If the temperature is too high or
too low it will have a negative effect on uniformity,
0 21/0 5 10 42 age
mortality, daily growth, feed conversion and end (days)

weight.
hatchery broiler house

Blue: Chicks are cold-blooded, environment crucial

Orange: Transition period around 5 days old
Red: Warm-blooded, chicks produce their own
heat and can regulate their temperature
themselves

Where do you measure the temperature?

39 °C

38 °C

37 °C

36 °C

35 °C 31 °C

28 °C 30 °C 25 °C

The temperature on the house computer is the temperature of the air that is registered by the sensor, often between
knee and chest height. But the chicks are much lower down on a floor that is often much colder. Walk gently through
the house barefoot sometimes, or use an infrared thermometer. It’ll often come as a bit of a shock how cold it is. The
only thing that’s important for cold-blooded day-old chicks is the temperature where they are, and that is on the floor.

35 °C 40 °C 37 °C 42 °C 32 °C 40 °C
38 °C 40 °C 40 °C
30 °C 32 °C 30 °C
24 °C 24 °C 28 °C

If the floor temperature is relatively cold, the tem- If you heat the room up more, it may be too It is better to reduce the difference between
perature is fine for chicks walking about, but if hot for the chicks that are moving about. floor and air temperature to a minimum.
they are sitting down they will get chilled.

54 Broile r Si gnal s
 A good spread Chick distribution in the house
How the birds are spread out says a lot about how
Temperature too high Temperature right Temperature too low
the chicks are feeling. Good distribution 24 hours
after introducing the chicks is essential to get them
off to a good start.

If the temperature is right, the chicks will spread out

Layer management Layer management
Small chicks’ feet must never feel cold when you feel
them against your cheek, or better still against your lips or
the back of your hand. Cold feet are a sign that the heat
from the birds is being sucked away via the surface they
are standing on.
evenly throughout the whole house. They will flock
together in groups of 20 to 30 and will regularly walk to
and fro between the groups. Most chicks will be eating
or drinking. If it is too hot for the chicks, they won’t flock
together and will often seek a cooler place against the
walls. They will also eat less and drink more. Chicks will
also go and lie against the wall if the light in the house
is too bright. Bear in mind that in nature chicks spend
their first days hiding under their mother’s feathers. If the
house temperature is low when they are introduced, the
chicks will flock together to keep warm, so they will be
slower to start eating and drinking. They will also make
a loud cheeping sound. The risk of losses and poor uni-
formity with under-developed birds increases.

Layer management Layer management

Chick distribution inside brooding rings

Good climate: Too draughty: certain Too hot: fleeing to the Too cold: crowding
well spread out, parts of the ring being edge of the ring together under the heater
active birds avoided, cheeping sound

For each heat source serving 1000 chicks, fit barriers in A clear case of draughts. But the corner of this area has
a circle approximately 6 metres in diameter. Enlarge these been rounded so that the birds cannot be pushed into a
brooding rings regularly after a week, and remove them corner.
after three weeks, so that the chicks have enough space.

C h ap t e r 4 . We e k 1 : G e tti n g o ff to a g o o d s tart 55
 Eating well
Well filled feeding pans and chain feeders
The chicks need to learn to find the feeding pans
and chains. This means that they need to be very
well filled during the first few days. The pans must
be completely open and the feed must be pre-
sented to the chicks in a cone shape so they can
find it easily.
Checking crop fill
The new day-old chicks are hungry. All being well,
they will start eating and drinking straight away
on arrival. Their crops should be well filled with
water and feed within one day; they should feel
Enough feed?
Mini pellets are very suitable for young chicks:
easy to eat. So they can consume enough to
grow well.
56
soft and a round swelling should be clearly visible
at the neck. Check the crop fill 8 hours and again
24 hours after arrival by feeling the crops of about
30 chicks in three different places in the house.
Ideally 80% of chicks should have a good crop fill
after 8 hours and 95% after 24 hours.
If the crop fill is inadequate, intervene fast. One
reason could be that too little feed was supplied
via the chick paper, so sprinkle some extra feed
around. Another very common problem is the
water supply. Chicks that can’t drink enough will
eat less. It could also be too cold or too warm.
Chicks eat less and drink more in a hot environ-
ment.
Eaten enough?
If you can’t press the crop in or if it doesn’t
spring back, the chicks have had enough to
eat but not enough to drink. The feed pellets
are clearly visible and can be felt. Chicks need
enough water to turn the contents of their crops
into wet pulp that slips easily into their stomachs.
Check the water supply.
Broile r Si gnal s
Drinking well
If the water meter indicates a problem with water
intake, investigate where the problem lies. The
drinking lines may have been hung too high or
too low, which leads to low water intake (line too
high) or too much spillage (line too low). Or per-
haps the pressure is not sufficient everywhere in
the house. Incidentally, it’s not only during week 1
that it’s important to regulate and check the pres-
sure of the drinking water lines at the front and
back of the house. Check the water pressure both
ends of the water line: the further away the mains In a nipple system you should provide at least 80 nipples
water connection is, the lower the pressure will be. for every 1,000 birds. It is particularly useful to provide
extra bell drinkers for day-old chicks, so that they can
So in long broiler houses of more than about 65 m easily see and reach the water. Remove the drinkers after
in length, it is advisable to place this connection 24 hours so the birds don’t get used to them.
half way along the water line. Check whether there
is an even spread of chicks drinking throughout
the house.

Height of the drinking lines

The height of the drinking lines must be adjusted
every day. For the first couple of days the chicks
must be able to reach the nipples very easily. After
a couple of days, as soon as you can see that the
chicks are getting enough water, you can raise the
lines a little because they will be able to find the
nipples by then. Keep the lines very low for the
first couple of days: the chicks should just about
bump into the nipples. After 3-4 days hang the
nipple line higher so that they have to reach up It’s very busy around the drinker nipple. Are there enough
a little to drink (birds can only drink when their drinking places here?

head is stretched upwards).

Gout
Gout occurs during the first week of life if the
birds have been getting too little water. Chicks
may become dehydrated due to the extreme time
difference between the first and last chicks hatch-
ing, followed by an extended transportation time.
This manifests itself in sticky skin and dried-out
feet and legs. When you cut one of these birds
open you will see urate crystals that look like a
layer of talcum powder on the organs. This is
sometimes accompanied by colibacillosis, which
also forms a layer on the internal organs, but it is
yellower in colour and does not form distinct dots.
The problem might be at the hatchery so you
should report it. Also, check that all the drinking
lines are working properly.

The water in the drinking lines is warming up because of

the high house temperature – perfect for bacteria! Make
sure the water is cold enough and is fast flowing.

C h ap t e r 4 . We e k 1 : G e tti n g o ff to a g o o d s tart 57
 To measure is to know! Measure uniformity
Weigh the chicks every day in week 1 so that you
can keep a close eye on their growth. Weighing -10% +10%
15
can be done automatically or manually. It’s
important to check the weigh scale regularly, as

Frequency (%)
one of the main causes of what seem to be irregu- 10

lar weights is often the scale itself! Digital scales

are more accurate than analogue scales. And the 5
more chicks you weigh, the more reliable your
estimate of the average weight and variation with-
0
in a flock will be. By the time they are seven days 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50
Weight broiler (g)
old, chicks of fast growing breeds will be four to
five times their weight on arrival. The chicks that Uniformity in a flock is just as important as the
average weight. Uniform flocks are much easier to
are heaviest at seven days will also have the high- manage. After all, small chicks have different needs
est slaughter weight (there is a direct correlation). from the larger ones. For example, the ideal height
If the weight is too low at one week, adjust the of drinkers and feeders and temperature and venti-
lation requirements are different for large and small
house temperature, ventilation, feed and water. chicks.

No making up lost ground

400 g

Body weight
difference

40 g difference

Day 0 Day 7 Slaughter age

Age

If the chicks have not grown enough in week 1, this

will have a direct impact on their final weight. You
Use a catching frame to capture the chicks. If you catch can’t make up ground lost during week 1.
them manually, slower, less vigorous chicks will be easier
to catch. Or you’ll catch the biggest one first. Using a
catching frame enables you to get a more representative
sample.

Calculating uniformity
1. Weigh 100 chicks individually.
2. Calculate the average weight:
add up all weights and divide
by 100.
3. From this average weight,
deduct 10% and add 10%: all
the chicks in this weight range
are homogeneous in weight
compared with the rest of the
flock.
4. > 80% within this band = very Automatic weighing saves a lot of work compared with
uniform flock.
weighing manually with a bucket and hanging scale.
5. < 60% within this band = poor As we’ve said before, the results are only reliable if the
uniformity in the flock. weigh scale is properly adjusted. Very important: com-
pare this data with the overall picture in the house. After
all, less vigorous chicks won’t jump on the weigh scale
so readily, neither will the heaviest males.

58 Broile r Si gnal s
Yolk inflammation or navel infection
The first intake of feed stimulates the absorp-
tion of the yolk through the intestine. The yolk
also supplies the chick with maternal antibodies.
Delayed yolk sac absorption increases the risk of
yolk sac infection, which can result in increased
death rate. High mortality during week 1, often
peaking at three to four days indicates problems
caused by yolk sac infection. An inflamed navel
that has not healed properly is a point of entry for
all manner of bacteria which use the yolk sac as
a food source. The main pathogen that can cause A mild infection will delay resorption of the yolk. At seven days the yolk sac should
be smaller in diameter than the nail of your little finger. On the left, a healthy chick.
death in this way is E. coli. The affected chicks are
On the right is a chick with an infected navel: the redness indicates an infection
listless and display a swollen, dirty stomach. They that could spread to the yolk sac and internal organs.
have inflamed, dirty navels, they stop eating and
they often have dirty vents from loose droppings.
Most birds with these symptoms will die before
they are seven days old.

Pictures after autopsy. On the left: a chick without a yolk sac infection. On the
right: with a yolk sac infection. Note the size, dirty-yellow colour, veining and the
runny yolk content.

Gut development
Chicks only grow by eating. This sounds logical but it isn’t. Day-old
chicks still have immature intestines. The intestines only start develop-
ing after the first intake of feed. They also don’t yet have any gut flora of
their own. This makes them very vulnerable to bad bacteria which would
have no chance in older birds.

Broad-spectrum antibiotics are often administered to

reduce deaths caused by yolk sac infection. It is better
to choose an antibiotic that matches the sensitivity of the
bacteria. You can test this with an antibiogram. Be care-
You can see the development of intestinal villi under the microscope. The
ful when administering preventative antibiotics because
intestinal villi in chicks that have been eating and drinking well (left) are
of the risk of resistance development.
much bigger and longer a day after hatching than in those that haven’t
(right). The nutrient intake of the chick on the left will therefore be much
better than in the chick on the right due to the larger intestinal surface.

C h ap t e r 4 . We e k 1 : G e tti n g o ff to a g o o d s tart 59
 Weak chicks
Most losses usually occur in the first seven days.
If there is a problem with the quality of the broiler
breeders or the hatching conditions, mortality
rates can mount up. Good care is all the more
important for weak chicks: enough feed and water
that they can access easily. Keep them in a place
that has been warmed up well in advance. Young
chicks cannot regulate their own body tempera-
ture, and if they are not yet eating they will get
cold and die.

Signal Possible cause

Poorly developed birds Difficulty finding feed and/or water. The feed was not well accessible or the feed
on the paper was eaten up too quickly. This kind of problem cannot be fixed in
this cycle.
Wrynecks and Inflammation of the brain. This can be caused by salmonella, streptococcal,
stargazers enterococcal or fungal infection (Aspergillus fumigatus).
Lame chicks Bacterial infection with salmonella, streptococcus, enterococcus or E. coli. A bacterial
infection at this age is often related to the quality of the hatching eggs or conditions
in the hatchery. Thereafter, the quality of care largely determines the severity of the
problem.
Huddled up, feathers The chicks are cold, possibly because of a bacterial infection.
raised
Helicopter feathers Malabsorption syndrome. This syndrome is the result of an early intestinal disorder
in which the necessary ingredients are not absorbed by the bird in the correct
proportions. Provide an extra boost with vitamins and minerals. You will have to
disinfect thoroughly before the next cycle.

Wryneck resulting from meningitis. Stargazer, also resulting from A ‘helicopter’ chicken can be identified by the
meningitis. poor feather development: down and feathers
intermingled and pointing in all directions.

Vent pasting

On the left a chick with whitish grey pasting round the vent. This is often caused by a serious bacterial infection
(e.g. Salmonella) or a viral kidney disorder. These chicks should ideally be removed. An inflammation of the peri-
toneum affects intestinal peristalsis, which causes the urine to run spontaneously out of the vent. Once dried, it
forms a cement-like coating. On the right, the chick with a dark-grey ‘pencil’ formation is not so badly affected.

60 Broile r Si gnal s
Identifying causes of death
With mortality, first determine what level of losses you
have. But also check whether the dead birds are from
particular places in the house. Are they mainly male
or female chickens? Could the deaths be described as
sudden? Also observe how a dead chick is lying; this
can be a signal for the cause of the death.
With sudden death, the dead chick is in excellent
condition and has a full crop. You can recognise non-
acute death from disease by their reduced muscle
mass, small, shrunken comb and dried out skin, par-
ticularly visible on the feet. Make sure to distinguish
between death from ‘individual causes’ and an infec-
tion of the flock.

Signs from the daily mortality pattern

Peak in the first few days: bad quality broilers Increasing mortality per day: bad management
Mortality (%) Mortality (%)

Bad quality broilers

Bad management

Normal Normal

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Age (days) Age (days)

The mortality pattern in the first few weeks gives you a clear signal about your management. Losses in the first three days are closely
connected with the quality of the day-old chicks. After three days the losses depend on the quality of care after delivery. Chicks with dirty
feathers around the vent (dirty lumps) indicate that they have suffered a period of stress. This problem can no longer be rectified in this
cycle. Try to limit the damage as much as possible and make improvements in the next cycle.

Characteristics of dead Possible cause

chicks

On the stomach or back Metabolic disorder. Happens mainly between two and five
weeks. Try to resolve the problem with feed management.

On the back with wings splayed
and often with one foot in the
air
Well developed, with full crop
Sudden death syndrome (flip-over). The young chick’s heart
stops, it jumps up into the air and falls down dead on its
back or sometimes its stomach. Slow down growth slightly The stomach of a chick
with lower light intensity until the mortality rate is below suffering from ascites is
0.05% per day. filled with liquid. (older chick
of more than 21 days)
Chicks that die suddenly at an older age are suffering from
excessive strain on the heart and consequent poor blood
circulation as a result of a high oxygen need. Another cause
can be an inflammation of the heart wall or valve (endocarditis).

Moderate to poor condition, Ascites. Ascites occurs from three weeks. These chicks are
stomach full of liquid more susceptible to heat stress. Check the carbon dioxide
level in the house. To avoid this problem in a subsequent cycle,
restrict growth, ensure that there is enough air circulation
and that temperature fluctuations between day and night are A bird that has choked and
kept to a minimum. died of a viral infection or too
severe reaction to vaccination.
On the stomach, neck forward Choking. These birds have been choked by a plug of inflamed
and feet back material in the top of the respiratory tract as a result of a
virus infection or a severe reaction to a vaccination. Another
possible cause is a fungal infection: the birds gasp silently
for air.

Seal position: on the stomach, Botulism. This is rare. It can occur from two weeks. It can also
feet back, neck stretched, beak be caused by an overdose of certain ionophoric anticoccidial
slightly open and often with a agents and by necrotic enteritis (Clostridium).
This bird has died of sudden
morsel of litter in the beak
death syndrome.
C h ap t e r 4 . We e k 1 : G e tti n g o ff to a g o o d s tart 61
 CHAPTER 5

Week 2: Further growth & development

The second week of life sees strong growth in the skeleton, organs and muscle Healthy growth – and
especially steady
mass. During this week there is a high risk of metabolic problems as a result of growth – is of great
excessive growth. Birds that grow too fast will have poor skeleton quality and importance.

lower resistance so they will be more susceptible to disease. You can slow down
growth temporarily to prevent these problems by using lighting programmes or
feed regimes and by diluting feed (e.g. by adding wheat).

For many poultry farmers, sudden death (flip-over)

Sudden death syndrome: when
syndrome is still a sign that the birds are grow-
and how to intervene
ing well. But first and foremost it is a sign that
Are more than half your total daily losses caused
the organs of some birds are unable to keep pace by sudden death syndrome?
with their explosive growth. Across the broiler • Dim the lights: the birds will be less active
house you will find birds lying dead on their backs and will use up less oxygen.
(usually larger males): this is flip-over syndrome. • Ventilate more: supply more oxygen-rich air.
• Feed less: slow down growth slightly.
Excessively fast growth has placed too much strain
on the heart and the heart muscles suddenly give
Strong birds
up. Autopsy will reveal dark red lungs, swollen, lying dead on
spherical kidneys and a large amount of blood and their backs (or
sometimes their
fluid in the liver. The abnormal colour of the breast
stomachs):
muscle (partly pale, partly dark) is an additional typical of sud-
sign of poor blood circulation. den death syn-
drome.

62 Broile r Si gnal s
 Points to watch out for in week 2: behaviour
Always look at the behaviour of the birds first to check for anything unusual:
1. Broilers will usually spread out evenly throughout
the entire house and will run and flap about actively.
Preferably check this through an inspection window, as
to not disturb the animals’ behaviour. Empty areas in
the house indicate cold places (draughts, wet patches
in the litter) or an uneven distribution of the lighting.
3. Broilers have a calm, spontaneous breathing pat-
tern and do not gasp for air. Few if any birds breathe
through open beaks. You should only hear very slight
sniffling sounds if you have administered an respiratory
vaccine a few days earlier (vaccination reaction). This
bird clearly has breathing problems: is it the only one?
C h ap t e r 5 . We e k 2 : F u rth er g ro wth an d devel o pm en t
2. Broilers react when the feed hoppers and feeder lines
start up. Hungry birds will rush over to the feed. There
will be birds eating and drinking from at least half of the
feeding pans and drinkers at any given time. The feed
intake per bird increases daily.
4. Broilers stand up and don’t sit down quickly when you
walk through them. Look around regularly when you
walk through the broiler house: there should be few if
any birds sitting in the 3-4 metres you have just passed
through. Birds with sore legs sit down quickly; this
could be a warning of problems in the musculoskeletal
system later on or can indicate something else, such as
coccidiosis. Healthy broilers make more noise when you
walk through them.
63
 Points to watch out for in week 2: physical traits
Healthy appetite. At seven days a broiler can eat as much
as 20% of its bodyweight in feed per day. At this age, overeat-
ing can easily result in sudden death and increases the risk
of ascites later in the cycle. Manage the feed supply so that
it increases by approximately 4 g per day, particularly if flock
uniformity is not ideal.
Under-developed birds. Both of these birds are seven days
old. The weight of the birds at this age is a good predictor of
their slaughter weight. What would you expect the slaughter
weight of the bird on the right to be?
Plumage. Feathers sticking out at all angles are a sign that the
birds did not get off to a good start on arrival. At this age, nine
days, this poor development may also be caused by bad man-
agement in the first week.
64
Poor development. These seven-day birds do not have well
filled crops and are standing too upright on their feet (empty
stomach, poor muscle development). This can’t yet be put
down to a change in feed. It was probably caused in week 1
or by the quality of the day-old chicks.
Vent pasting. In the second or third week you’ll switch from
starter feed to grower feed. Any change of feed is risky. So
watch out for vent pasting: this is a sign you can spot sooner
than underdevelopment.
Dirty beaks. These nine-day-old birds already have dirty, wet
beaks. This is a sign that they are - already - suffering from
breathing problems.
Broile r Si gnal s
No more than six hours of darkness
After five hours a chicken’s digestive system is
completely empty and it needs to eat again. As of
day seven you should limit dark periods to a maxi-
mum of four hours, preferably one to two hours,
however the European legislation states otherwise.
Do not give more than the legally required six
hours of darkness. Always start a dark period at a
set time. The birds will soon start to get a feel for
this and will fill their crops before the light goes
out, so their digestion will be gradual and efficient.
Light colour
Light colour influences the birds’ activity levels: they
move about less in blue or green light than white or red
light. Blue/green light can be advantageous in terms of
growth but less so in terms of leg and litter quality.
C h ap t e r 5 . We e k 2 : F u rth er g ro wth an d devel o pm en t
The birds will get hungry during long dark peri-
ods. As soon as the light goes on, they will then
scramble over each other wildly to get to the feed-
ers causing skin scratches and possibly tears. The
meat is more likely to be rejected because of the
risk of E. coli abscesses forming under the skin.
Block lighting produces better results
Full light
Dimming
Day/night
Intermittent
In the past, constant light produced the best daily growth. But with today’s
broilers this can lead to poor feed conversion and more risk of metabolic prob-
lems such as joint abnormalities, sudden death syndrome, ascites and spiking
mortality syndrome. Use an intermittent lighting programme to control growth
and reduce the chance of these problems occurring.
Intermittent lighting simulates the birds’ natural rhythm better. Digestion and
skeleton development also have a day/night rhythm. Food digestion slows
down a lot and is more efficient during dark periods, and bones and joints are
strengthened. Many joint problems such as femoral head necrosis and tibial
dyschondroplasia can be reduced by intermittent lighting programmes.
There is no perfect lighting programme. Local regulations, slaughter weight and
the extent to which the broiler house can be darkened play a major role in the
decision as to what lighting programme to use.
With intermittent lighting you alternate between a number of hours of light and
dark. This gets the birds eating several smaller meals a day which are properly
digested during the dark periods. This improves feed conversion and results in
fewer losses because the birds become more active, which also strengthens
their skeletal system. Also, the more active the birds, the drier the litter is.
Continuous light (23 hours of light, 1 hour of darkness) gives the best results
for slaughter weights up to 2 kg. Intermittent lighting produces the best results
for heavier slaughter weights. In the event of digestive problems or excessive
growth, intermittent lighting is also recommended. A schedule of 1 hour of
darkness and 5 hours of light 4 times per day stimulates the chicken’s growth.
2 hours or more of darkness 4 times per day will inhibit development.
65
 Light intensity
Light and litter quality
During the first week of life, keep the light inten-
sity at 30-40 lux and 23 hours of light to get the
chicks off to a good start (higher feed and water
intake and good initial growth).
During the second week, switch to a lower light
intensity and introduce one or more dark periods.
In Europe the dark period must be at least 6 hours
and the light intensity at least 20 lux.

Avoiding spiking mortality

syndrome

When broilers are about 10 days old, they may A low house with bright lighting. The broilers move
suddenly start moving slowly and sit down much away from the lights, the places without birds cool
too quickly after being chased away. They look as down and condensation occurs. Result: the well
if they are asleep. They will then die on their stom- known wet places underneath the lights.
achs with their head and feet stretched out. Spiking
mortality syndrome is caused by hypoglycaemia
(low glucose levels), brought about by too rapid
growth. A virus (Adeno) may also play a role in this.
Dimming the lights makes the broilers less active
so they use less energy (glucose). Broilers that are
lethargic due to low glucose levels recover more
quickly if extra glucose (e.g. D-glucose) is given in
the drinking water. Don’t forget to flush the drinker
lines afterwards to avoid biofilm growth.

Check the crop fill regularly. This tells you if the bird is
eating enough to keep up with its growth. An empty
crop can indicate problems with the feed supply or a
sick bird. A healthy broiler’s crop will never be com-
pletely empty. Besides crop fill, also look at how the
crop feels. This way you’ll know if the bird has been
drinking enough.
Splay leg is another condition that can occur in broilers
up to three weeks. However, it is often caused in the
hatchery when the temperatures are too high at the end
of the hatching period. And near hatching is the period
when the foundations are laid for bones and muscles.

66 Broile r Si gnal s
Provide minimum ventilation
Minimum ventilation is necessary to ensure that
the broilers always have enough oxygen, and also
to remove waste gases (e.g. NH3 and CO2) and
moisture. Often only a very minimal level of venti-
lation is provided during the first week to save on
heating costs. Throughout the cycle, more waste
gases and moisture are produced and the amount
of air that has to be refreshed increases by the
hour. 80% of the water the broilers drink will have
to be ventilated out of the house. Water that is
not removed via ventilation is absorbed by the lit-
ter. When the litter is saturated with moisture, the
house becomes wet and unhealthy for the birds.
The settings for the ventilation system depend
on the kind of equipment and house system you
are using. The birds need between 0.16 m³/bird/
hour (week 1) and 1.35 m³/bird/hour of fresh air
(or 0.6 m³/kg/h), distributed well throughout the
house. Wet litter not only produces extra ammo-
nia which affects the birds’ breathing, but it is
also harmful to their footpads. This forms a basis
for lameness problems later on. Lame birds have
trouble getting to the feed, which will adversely
affect their final weight. Broilers with sore foot-
pads also spend more time sitting, resulting in a
higher frequency of breast blisters and hock burn.
In addition, blemished feet are not suitable for
consumption.

Broilers drink a great deal of water and excrete a lot of

Wet litter can cause minor wounds to chicks that can go
on to cause footpad lesions. Birds have a much thinner
and therefore more vulnerable skin than mammals. Keep
a close eye on the quality of the litter.
it out again. If all this water were to be left in an empty
broiler house, by the end of the cycle it would be more
than 10 cm deep. In a house with 30,000 broilers, that’s
the equivalent of a 200,000 litre swimming pool. This
moisture is partly absorbed by the birds and partly by the
litter, but most of it has to be removed via ventilation.

Carbon dioxide

CO2 has a major impact on a broiler’s health. In too high concentrations it makes the birds lethargic
and apathetic. It will also give you a headache if you spend a long enough time in the house. If you
think your CO2 levels are too high, you can check them using a mobile CO2 measuring device. Some
devices can also measure other toxic gases (CO, NH3).

C h ap t e r 5 . We e k 2 : F u rth er g ro wth an d devel o pm en t 67

 Vaccination Hen Result = mother + own

timing Vaccination
Lowered
resistance Preventing incoming infections is essential to
avoid diseases on a poultry farm. But if your
hygiene is poor, vaccination alone is not enough.
Resistance immunity Minimum desirable level
via hen Own immunity
If birds are overwhelmed with disease organisms,
even flawless vaccination will eventually fail!

Maternal protection
Breeder hens pass protection against a number
Age (Weeks) of diseases to their day-old chicks via maternal
For Gumboro it makes sense to base the timing of vaccination on a blood antibodies in the egg yolk. These protect the chick
sample taken from day-old chicks (about 18 chicks). If you vaccinate too against disease for a few days. But this protection
soon, it will not take effect because the maternal antibodies will neutralise will rarely last until the bird is slaughtered. So the
the vaccine. On the other hand, keep in mind that you need five to seven
days response time after vaccination before the chick is protected suf- birds still have to be vaccinated in the hatchery
ficiently. So if you vaccinate too late, the chick will be temporarily defence- or on the broiler farm. Vaccines not requiring con-
less against infection (the immunity gap). When chicks originate from two sideration of maternal immunity (no significant
breeder flocks it is very difficult to determine the correct vaccination tim-
ing, some of the group might have to be vaccinated early whereas others effect) and that are administered in the hatchery
should be vaccinated late. Limit mixing chicks from different breeder flocks in-ovo, or subcutaneously are much more com-
as far as possible, e.g. by putting them in one house. This minimises dis-
monplace nowadays.
ease threat and the spread of pathogens.

Proper vaccine preparation

1. Only use vaccine that has been prop-
erly stored in a cool, dark place.
2. Check the dose on the pack. Similar
looking bottles may contain differ-
ent doses. Vaccinate at the right age:
incorrect use of vaccine can cause
severe reactions such as rhinitis,
delayed growth or diarrhoea.
3. Use a measuring jug that you only
use for this purpose and rinse it again
before use. Residues of substances
such as disinfectants can destroy the
vaccine.

4. Fill the measuring jug with clean, cold 5. Use skimmed milk or commercially
water. available vaccine protector. This binds
harmful molecules such as chlorine in
mains water, keeping the vaccine more
effective. Mix well with the water in the
measuring jug using a whisk.
6. Open the bottles of vaccine under
water: the vacuum in the bottles will
draw the water into the bottles at high
speed, mixing the contents to form a
solution. Mix well with a whisk to create
a homogeneous presolution.

68 Broile r Si gnal s
 Vaccination methods
Spray vaccination
Administer vaccines immediately after preparation,
1. Only use clean equipment. or at least within the hour. The number of viruses
2. Make up a presolution in the correct way.
in the solution quickly decreases in high tempera-
3. Fill the vaccine dispenser. The necessary quantity
of vaccination fluid depends on the opening on the tures. You can administer vaccine by injecting
spray nozzle (consumption/minute) and the size of hatching eggs or chicks. Individual vaccination, e.g.
the house. Use enough vaccination fluid to reach
vaccinating with eye drops, is possible but labour-
every animal, e.g. 1 litre per 1,000 animals. For day
old chicks 0.3-0.5 l/1000 birds, for older birds: intensive and therefore too expensive in some
0.5-1 l/1000. countries. The great advantage of this method is
4. Dim the lights. The birds will be quieter and will stay that you can be sure you have vaccinated all the
sitting down so you can reach them better with the
vaccine. In open housing: only vaccinate at night. birds with the right dose. Other methods of vacci-
5. Spray the chicks in slightly overlapping strokes. nation are via drinking water, spray or nebuliser.
6. If you are using an atomiser (aerosol), close the
ventilation during and for up to 15 min after vac-
cinating to prevent any vaccine from escaping.
Direct the nozzle slightly above the chicks so that a
homogeneous layer of small water droplets drops
down onto them. Keep an eye on the temperature
in the house as it can rise quickly.

Drinking water vaccination

1. Dose accurately; do not use half or quarter doses.
And remove chicks that are unable to drink suf-
The spray technique (atomiser - left, or backpack sprayer - right) has the
ficient water: extremely small or lame animals.
advantage that the vaccine follows the natural infection route, so the chicks
2. For 24 hours before vaccinating, do not introduce
develop antibodies in the blood, resulting in rapid local protection. However,
any more acids, antibiotics, peroxides or vitamins
there is a slightly higher risk of a vaccine reaction. When using spray vac-
into the pipes, just pure drinking water. If you are
cination, first you will need to herd the chicks together. After all, you want to
using a dosing pump, rinse it thoroughly with clean
vaccinate the chicks, not the litter...
water. It could contain residues from previous treat-
ments.
3. Make the chicks thirsty about two hours before How much vaccination fluid is needed for
vaccinating them. This is easy to do by winching drinking water vaccination?
up the drinker lines.
Volume (litres) = age in days x 1.5 x (No. of birds/1000)
4. Make up the vaccine presolution according to the
Example: 20,000 18-day-old broilers = 18 x 1.5 x 20 = 540 litres.
instructions. Add the correct quantity of skimmed
milk or vaccine protector. Mix well. Then add the
vaccine presolution to the drinking water and mix
well again. Check with a dye
5. Open the drinking water pipes at the back of the
house until the vaccine solution appears (dye in the
vaccine solution helps here), otherwise the chicks
at the back of the house will take in little or no vac-
cine. Then hang the drinking lines at chick height.
6. During vaccination, walk through the house regular-
ly to encourage all the birds to drink. Pay particular
attention to the sides of the house where birds
lower down the pecking order and weaker birds
tend to sit.

Killed and live vaccines

Individually vaccinating chicks is very precise but often
too expensive to be feasible (killed vaccine is mostly
used). Vaccinating by means of spraying or adding to
drinking water may be good alternatives (live vaccine).
Live vaccines provide faster protection.
You can check whether a drinking water vaccination is reaching all
the birds by adding a dye to the vaccine solution. If the dye is vis-
ible at the end of the drinking line, the vaccine will also be reaching
this far. To check whether the birds have actually taken in vaccine,
you can do spot checks inside their beaks.

C h ap t e r 5 . We e k 2 : F u rth er g ro wth an d devel o pm en t 69

 Good vaccination – a science in itself
A vaccination plan is a guideline for the administration of vaccinations. But in order to achieve the
desired effect and avoid adverse side-effects, the vaccination needs to be administered properly.

Right Wrong
Make sure the equip-
ment (filters, o-rings) is
clean on the inside and
outside.

Right Wrong
For hygiene reasons,
but also for your own
safety, always wear
gloves. Open the vac-
cine ampoule under
water.

Right Wrong
Use a filter to prevent
any sediment and other
impurities from get-
ting into the spray and
blocking the nozzle.

Right Wrong
When giving a drinking
water vaccination, use
a vaccine containing a
dye if possible so you
can see whether all the
birds have taken it.

70 Broile r Si gnal s
Use therapeutic antibiotics in a responsible way
Antibiotics are an excellent way of inhibiting bacterial growth or killing bacteria, but you should use them
according to the principle ‘as little as possible as much as needed’. First try to improve your housing and
management to reduce stress and infection risk, so that you do not need to use antibiotics.

● The active ingredient in antibiotics not only
kills the bad bacteria but also the good ones.
This causes the animals a great deal of stress
because they need the good bacteria for their
intestinal health and immune development.
● Not all bad bacteria are killed by antibiotic
treatment; the strongest survive. These will
multiply, producing ever stronger resistant
strains against which the antibiotics will be
useless.

● If animals are not ‘infected’ with bad bacteria,
treating them with antibiotics will only have
an adverse effect in that their good bacteria
will be killed. Giving antibiotics preventively,
for example in day-old chicks’ drinking water,
is detrimental. The chicks’ gut flora will be
destroyed. In addition, some antibiotics turn
drinking water bitter, causing chicks to drink
too little.
● Antibiotics can, intentionally or accidentally,
mask mistakes. Dirty drinking water can cause
diarrhoea which necessitates the use of anti-
biotics. Keeping the drinking water clean
avoids the need to use them, saves you a lot
of money and prevents additional stress in the
birds. The same applies to draughts (causing
colds and runny noses), unhygienic handling,
and so on.

C h ap t e r 5 . We e k 2 : F u rth er g ro wth an d devel o pm en t 71

 CHAPTER 6

Week 3: Gut health and development

Around the third week your attention will be shifting to gut health: the broilers The quality of the drop-
pings reflects the health
are growing fast and their feed intake is rising rapidly every day. This places a lot of the gut and the bird’s
of stress on the intestines and the gut flora. It takes just one thing to go wrong digestion.

and the balance is disrupted. The healthier the digestive system, the better the
intake of nutrients and the better the bird will grow. A healthy gut is also a good
barrier against harmful pathogens.

Broilers search for food visually, by touch (tongue

and beak) and by taste. The taste, colour, size and
consistency of the feed play an important role in
feed intake.
Visual and social stimuli encourage feed intake: the
pecking behaviour of other birds, the colour of the
feeders and drinker systems, dyes, or the shininess
of water droplets during vaccination... Taste is more
important than smell. Certain medicines taste bad,
particularly in liquid form. That is why a sweetener
is added to some antibiotics in drinking water but
not to the same antibiotics in feed.
Crop-full
An empty crop makes the bird feel hungry.
The volume, consistency and moisture con-
tent of the feed determine how quickly the
crop is emptied. Cereal grains, for example,
can remain in the crop for as long as 24
hours, while finely ground feed leaves the crop
after just a few hours.

72 Broile r Si gnal s
In one end...
The roughage that the broiler eats is processed mechanically (gizzard) and chemically (proventriculus/
small intestine) in the digestive system to break it down into small components. These are absorbed by
the intestine and then distributed through the body via the blood system.
Beak: Small intestine:
Saliva contains enzymes In the first section (duodenum)
that trigger digestion (par- the food mass is mixed with
ticularly of starch) and helps enzymes. The nutrients in the
the feed travel onwards food are absorbed in the mid-
through the system. dle (jejunum) and final sections
Drinking also helps. (ileum). The intestine contains
all manner of bacteria, each of
Oesophagus: which prefers a specific level of
A flexible tube from the mouth acidity. The balance between
to the gastrointestinal system. these various groups of bacteria
is extremely important for gut
health.

Crop:
This temporary storage pouch
contains lactic acid-producing Caecum:
bacteria for fermentation of the Undigested feed residues are
feed. This is the first barrier broken down via fermentation.
against harmful pathogens. The The caeca are emptied 2 to 3
crop is extremely elastic so the times a day. Caecal droppings
broiler can take in a large quantity are easily identifiable by the
of food in a short time, which is brown colour and more homoge-
then supplied to the stomach in neous consistency than intestinal
more regulated small portions. droppings, and have a distinct
faecal smell.

Stomachs:
A chicken has two stomachs.
In the proventriculus, the food
is mixed with gastric acid and
digestive juices. True digestion Large intestine:
only starts in the gizzard, where The chicken’s large intestine is
the food is ground up finely by very short. Its only function is water
the strong muscles and further absorption.
mixed with the gastric juices. The
acid stomach contents kill a large Cloaca (vent):
number of harmful pathogens. This is where the residual mater-
The gizzard action is stimulated ial from the digestive process is
by coarse feed components and mixed with uric acid, which is the
grit. white fraction in the droppings.

LOOK-THINK-ACT

Which signal can you see here?

This bird is passive and is therefore unwell. A healthy bird wants to eat all the
time. So its feed intake should increase constantly with age. If it doesn’t, this
may be an indication of gut problems. Also check the quality of its droppings.

C h ap t e r 6 . We e k 3 : G u t h eal th an d devel o pm en t 73
 Signs from droppings
You can tell a lot about a bird’s gut health from
its droppings. Chickens produce two types of
faecal material: intestinal (‘normal’) and caecal
droppings. The brown caecal droppings, which are
usually smooth and creamy, are produced when
the caecum is emptied. The ‘normal’ or intestinal
droppings should be firm without too many
undigested particles. If the droppings are soft
with a lot of undigested food particles and are
surrounded by a greasy or oily film of water, this
is an indication of poor gut health. In that case, You can check for a lot of problems by examining the
open up a number of freshly killed birds to check droppings: the presence of undigested feed particles, the
moisture content, and any other additional substances.
whether the gut displays typical signs of bacterial Here you can see a lot of undigested food residues.
enteritis or coccidiosis.

The consistency of the

droppings can easily Manure consistency
be checked by rolling
them from one hand
to the other. If no dirt
is left behind on your
hands, their consist-
ency is good. If the
droppings stick to your
hand, this indicates
poor fat digestion.

Scores for intestinal droppings

Right Reasonable Not right Source: A. Slaats

Scores for caecal droppings

Right Reasonable Not right

74 Broile r Si gnal s
Orange matter
Orange matter in the droppings are gut scrap-
Wet droppings?
ings: old, expelled gut cells mixed with intestinal
mucus. This is a sign:
1. of clinical or subclinical coccidiosis caused by
E. maxima (with associated visible damage to
the intestine) or E. mitis (no immediately vis-
ible damage to the intestine). Is your anticoc-
cidial still working?
2. of malabsorption syndrome.
3. of the birds having gone too long without feed
intake. Check the feed, feed intake and feed
supply. Also check the urates. If a bird has not
eaten at all for some time, e.g. if it is sick, the
urates will often be mixed with bile and the Orange mucus in the droppings is a sign that the lining of the intestine
droppings will be green. is damaged. Find out the cause and make sure you provide easily
digestible feed.

Assessing the moisture content

1. Manually 2. Paper 3. Moisture meter

Pick up a dropping and squeeze it. In
this photo you can see that the pellet
contains water. When you squeeze it,
it drips: this is not right.
Lay out paper in the broiler house You can check the moisture content of
on which to collect fresh droppings. droppings quickly and objectively with
If large water rings appear round the a handy device.
droppings, as shown on the photo,
there is a problem with the manure. It
could be disbacteriosis.

C h ap t e r 6 . We e k 3 : G u t h eal th an d devel o pm en t 75
Specific signs from droppings
As we have seen, you can tell a lot about your birds’ general gut health
from their droppings. What’s more, very specific changes tell you where
to look for the problem and, hopefully, where to find a solution.

The white layer on the dropping is
uric acid. Here you can see a ‘pud-
dle’ of uric acid instead of a cap;
this indicates kidney damage.
Droppings with urates (white) and
bile (green). The bile indicates an
empty intestine (starvation) and/
or an infection (such as IBD). The
urates are a waste product of pro-
tein break-down (proteolysis).
If caecal droppings are mixed with
blood, alarm bells should ring. This
could indicate coccidiosis in the
caeca (Eimeria tenella).
The droppings of a bird with enter-
itis: orange-red mucus and some
blood. Although this looks like an
E. tenella infection, there is more
blood than orange-red mucus.

Dark droppings usually indicate
bleeding in the first part of the
intestinal tract. The blood is also
digested and turns an almost black
colour. But an excreted piece of the
intestine can also look like this (a
piece that has become trapped and
dies off).
Light coloured, foamy caecal drop-
pings indicate excessive gaseous
bacteria in the caecum such as
Brachyspira.
Lots of droppings and feed grains
under a cage system. Digestion is
very poor: feed and droppings are
almost indistinguishable. The drop-
pings are gel-like and greasy with
clearly visible feed components.
You can even see maize in this very
poorly digested dropping; normally
this is the most easily digestible
ingredient of chicken feed.

A bird smeared with Hard lumps of manure

manure. This is a case
of Enteric NCD, possibly
in combination with IBD.
High titres of both viruses
have been found in this
flock.
taken from the caecum
after autopsy. This is
caused by histomoniasis
or coccidiosis that was a
result of E. tenella.

76 Broile r Si gnal s
Feed ingredients
The quality and composition of the raw mater-
ials are one of the main factors in poor intestinal
health. Significant changes in feed composition
and digestion are also bad for the balance in the
gut flora and therefore for the health of the gut.
Roughage ingredients such as whole grains stimu-
late the development of the gizzard. They prolong
the time the feed mass remains in the stomach
so the enzymes have longer to take effect. Mixing
wheat with a core feed is also an excellent way
of improving gut action. If the droppings get too
loose due to poor digestion, adding some more
wheat can help. Adding whole wheat grains makes The ripeness of wheat is highly weather-dependent, and
the quality of the wheat may differ from one harvest year
the droppings drier. The amount can be increased
and one field to the next. An important quality criterion is
daily. The rule of thumb is to add 1% wheat per viscosity. This is often ascribed to the use of fresh wheat
day of the broilers’ age. Adding too much will and also to the wheat variety. You can mitigate the dis-
advantages of wheat with higher viscosity by using the
adversely affect growth and feed conversion.
enzyme xylanase.
Also make sure you increase the minerals, vita-
mins and anticoccidials in the mixed feed to
avoid deficiencies.

Mycotoxins

Too much wheat results in too little protein in the ration.

The broilers will eat selectively and will leave the wheat or
discard it.
Mouldy feed. Moulds can enter feed either dur-
ing cultivation of the raw materials or during
storage. They produce mycotoxins. Exposure to
these toxic substances results in slower growth
and weaker birds due to their lower resistance
(they react poorly to vaccination and are more
susceptible to disease). The symptoms are gen-
erally vague. To avoid harm from mycotoxins
you can add mycotoxin binders to the feed. The
liver, which is extremely important for neutralising
toxins, can be supported with extra B vitamins,
vitamin E and perhaps choline.

Check the wheat you use for impurities such as chaff and
stones. Stones can cause serious damage to the feeding
lines. Place a fine-meshed gauze on the feed hopper to
filter out small stones and the like.

C h ap t e r 6 . We e k 3 : G u t h eal th an d devel o pm en t 77
 Feed additives/growth promoters
Antimicrobial growth promoters reduce the risk of
gut problems and promote better feed conversion
and a higher final weight. The use of these agents
increases the risk of resistance development in
bacteria and is therefore banned in some coun-
tries. Omitting antimicrobial growth promoters
from the feed places more demands on housing,
care and feed quality.
Alternatives to antimicrobial growth
promoters
● You can try to selectively kill the undesired
bacteria in the gut with organic and inor-
ganic acids administered via water or feed.
This method is effective against acid-intolerant
bacteria, the most well-known of which is
Clostridium perfringens. Acid-loving bacteria
are an indication of a healthy gut and are not
affected by these acids.
● Essential oils from plants target and kill
‘bad’ bacteria. Some even boost the appetite.
Commonly used essential oils are eucalyptus,
clove, oregano and pepper. Many of these
products have a distinctive smell or taste and
can therefore interfere with feed intake.
● Probiotics are live bacteria which you add to
feed or drinking water or spray in the broiler
house. The aim of these ‘good’ bacteria is to
create a good balance in the gut flora. Some
probiotics have been shown to be effective
against Clostridium.
● Prebiotics are feed ingredients that benefit
the gut bacteria associated with good gut
health.

Organic and inorganic acids

Inorganic acids

pH

pH

Organic acids
bacteria

Inorganic acids are more effective at lowering

pH levels than organic acids. On the other hand,
organic acids are better at penetrating bacteria
and killing them; this also happens better in an
acid environment. A combination product is there-
fore best: the inorganic acids lower the pH and One of the plants that may promote growth is oregano.
the organic acids kill the bacteria.

78 Broile r Si gnal s
Wet manure: Clostridium – Bacterial
enteritis – Dysbacteriosis Vicious circle of gut infection
Problems with wet droppings and poor consist-
ency of droppings are often the result of a change
in the bacterial flora in the small intestine. In 1 2
healthy birds, Clostridium-like bacteria reside
in the lower part of the intestine where it is less
acid and less oxygen-rich. In the small intestine
there are mainly acid-loving bacteria such as
Lactobacillus. Disruption of the normal environ-
ment (particularly the pH) can make Clostridium- 3
4
like bacteria feel more at home in the small intes-
tine and disrupt the balance in it even further by
driving out other bacteria. This can be triggered by
an outbreak of coccidiosis, a change in feed com-
1. Gut cells damaged by coccidi- nutrient absorption from the
position, poorly digestible feed or simply a prob- osis: proteins leak into the gut lumen (intestinal cavity). More
lem in the feed supply or house climate. from the cells. gut cells suffer serious damage.
Conditions more favourable for
2. Gut villi fuse together and bad bacteria.
Clostridium-like bacteria: expensive lodgers become shorter: smaller sur-
Besides the increase in feed conversion caused by face available for bacteria to 4. Inflammation occurs around
adhere to but also for intake of damaged gut cells: the gut wall
poor digestion, the infection itself also uses up a nutrients, so nutrients will be reddens and softens, and gut
lot of energy and protein, causing loss of weight. available to bad bacteria for villi can be destroyed, resulting
longer. in little or no further absorption
Your birds will be less well fleshed at slaughter
of nutrients. Bad bacteria flour-
age. 3. Mucus lining on gut cells thick- ish and cause even more dam-
ens: more difficult for bacteria age to the gut.
to adhere to but also inhibits

Protein tops the bill

Protein – Clostridium-like bacteria
love it. It could be protein in the feed
that is hard to digest or absorb.
But often it is protein that remains
in the gut for longer as a result of
damage to the gut cells caused by
coccidiosis. In addition, damage to
the gut causes proteins to leak into
the gut from the gut wall. You can
add lower-protein raw materials such
as wheat grains to the feed. This will
reduce the protein content of the
feed, and the feed will remain in the
stomach for longer (longer contact
time with enzymes means better
digestion). But keep an eye on the
level of anticoccidials: adding wheat
to the feed will make this proportion-
ately lower.

If you lift up a broiler by the wings, its feet should point downwards. The broiler on the right
is holding its feet up, which could be an early sign of stomach pain.

C h ap t e r 6 . We e k 3 : G u t h eal th an d devel o pm en t 79
 A typical case of coccidiosis:
the chick is not preening but
has a hunched posture. Note
the upright tufty feathers (a
sign of gut problems). Around
and behind the chick you can
see abnormal droppings: too
much white (urine) fraction,
too wet and too similar in col-
our to the feed.
These three types
of coccidiosis are
very common among
broilers. They cause
specific injuries at
typical places in the
gut. Altogether there
are seven different
types of coccidiosis.
Signs from the gut
Ballooning: weakened gut
wall muscles can cause
the gut wall to balloon
locally.
80
Gut wall curls back when
cut open lengthwise. It
looks like a `tea towel on
a washing line’. This is a
sign that there’s a distur-
bance in the peristalsis.
Coccidiosis
High losses caused by acute coccidiosis are
noticeable but you still have time to intervene. In
subclinical coccidiosis mortality is low but feed
conversion is poor and the birds grow less. You
need to be extremely alert to be able to observe
this. The condition of the droppings is key in this
situation. Because feed is the main cost item for
the poultry farmer, digestive problems immediately
have an enormous financial impact. The risk of
coccidiosis is higher in birds that have not eaten
for some time, for example due to a defective feed
system or during feed withdrawal for thinning out.
1. E. tenella resides in
the caeca and can
cause an accumula-
tion of blood there.
2. E. maxima causes
petechiae (purple
spots) in the middle
of the small intes-
tine.
3. E. acervulina causes
white bands at the
beginning of the
small intestine.
Tensile strength: as the Inflammation: clearly vis- Normal gut wall.
muscle layer thins, the ible blood vessels on the
wall weakens and can outside of the gut wall and
become almost transpar- a red colour on the inside
ent. (mucous membrane).
Broile r Si gnal s
Anticoccidial rotation programme
Bear in mind that every anticoccidial loses effect- Avoid resistance
iveness after a while as the coccidia develop
resistance to it. Signs that can indicate reduced Monovalent
- salinomycin
effectiveness are an increase in FCR, a drop in - monensin
daily gain, digestive problems, droppings quality, - narasin Chemical agents
- decoquinate
wet litter and clinical symptoms of coccidiosis.
- halofuginone
Divalent Ionophores - methyl benzoquate
- lasalocid - diclazuril
- nicarbazin
Monovalent glycoside
- robenidine
- maduramicin
- clopidol
- semduramicin
-…

Live vaccines: good alternative

If none of the available anticoccidials are working
any longer, you can vaccinate for a few cycles. The
resistant strains will disappear from the house after
a couple of cycles and you can start using anticoc-
cidials successfully again. Vaccines are also used
when feed additives are banned and preventively
to avoid resistance with ionophores and chemicals,
for instance 2 to 3 cycles per year.
Vaccines
It is important to work with a rotation system to minimise the risk of coc-
cidial resistance. Coccidiostats are divided into two groups: chemical and
ionophore. Ionophores can be further subdivided into different families:
monovalent, divalent and monovalent glycoside. The principle of a rota-
tion regime is simple: change the group and/or family of coccidiostats
regularly.
An ionophore from the same family can maximally be used three cycles in
succession. After that you should use an ionophore from a different family,
a vaccine or a chemical coccidiostat. When using chemical coccidiostats,
it is best to use them once a year in a full programme (the same chemical
coccidiostat in the starter and grower feed) ) and no more than two cycles
in succession in a shuttle programme (chemical coccidiostat in the starter
feed and ionophore in the grower feed). A special category of coccidi-
ostats are combination products, such as combination of nicarbazin and
monensin or nicarbazin and narasin.

Prevention: cleaning thoroughly and disinfecting

Burning: The floor burning method is
highly efficient and environmentally friendly.
The high temperatures and radiation destroy
the oocysts.
Pressure washer: The eggs of the para-
site – the oocysts – are very difficult to kill
with disinfectants. Spray cleaning the house
with plenty of water is a good way of flush-
ing out as many oocysts as possible. A
hard, smooth floor is essential for removing
oocysts.
Quicklime: Ammonium sulphate and agri-
cultural lime in combination with water can
control coccidiosis. The ammonia that is
released in this reaction damages the shell
of the coccidia. The chalky layer that is then
formed acts as a seal on the floor, prevent-
ing further infection (it can be used both
indoors and outdoors).

C h ap t e r 6 . We e k 3 : G u t h eal th an d devel o pm en t 81
 Treating gut problems
Many antibiotics are highly effective at dealing
with ‘bad’ gut bacteria. So they are often used pre-
ventively at strategic times, such as after a change
of feed or in situations subject to high coccidiosis
threat. They are sometimes used to compensate
for poor feed quality, bad housing or substandard
care. With good management and feed, antibiotics
are often not needed at all. Because of the prob-
lems of resistance in human medicine, particularly
in Western Europe, antibiotics are almost always
only used therapeutically.
Antibiotics commonly used to treat gut problems
are macrolides (tylosin, tylvalosin), lincosamides
(lincomycin) and, most often, acid-resistant peni-
cillin (phenoxy penicillin) and amoxycillin. All
these antibiotics work very quickly. You will see an
improvement in feed intake and droppings within
three to four days.
Out of the frying-pan into the fire
Quite often gut signs will lead to a flock being
treated for bacterial enteritis (BE) when there is
actually and underlying coccidiosis infection. Then
the BE may rear its head again immediately after
the treatment has stopped. In that case you’ll
need to start treating with an anticoccidial along-
side the BE treatment. Consider adjusting your
coccidiosis control strategy in subsequent cycles.
Focusing on the ventilation and providing addi-
tional litter can help stop BE spreading. External
signs can give a distorted picture. It is always bet-
ter to open up freshly killed broilers and assess
their gut health directly.

If your house is equipped for it, you can start medicat-

ing via the drinking water as soon as you notice gut
problems. It is better to medicate via the drinking water
than via the feed, as sick animals will stop eating before
they stop drinking. After adding medication, flush pipes
thoroughly.

Anticoccidial A
Anticoccidial A

destroying developing destroying

= parasite resistant to
Developing resistance
anticoccidial A
Anticoccidial B
Anticoccidial A = parasite resistant to
Each agent affects the parasite anticoccidial B
in a different place. But if a para-
site is completely immune to an
agent it will reproduce fast, and destroying developing destroying
soon the entire population will be
resistant. Other agents will still
be effective. So switch agents
regularly to prevent immunity from
building up. Switching agents

82 Broile r Si gnal s
Risks at feed transitions
Malabsorption syndrome (MAS)
Take great care at feed transitions. Gut problems
often happen a few days after switching from one
feed to another. The gut flora has to adjust to the
new feed composition.
You will also often see broilers eating selectively,
especially if wheat is added or during a feed tran-
sition. Broilers prefer the coarser components in
their feed. The first birds pick out the coarser com-
ponents in the feed, leaving the finer fractions for
later eaters. Because the fine feed contains higher
levels of additives, vitamins and trace elements,
there can be an imbalance in the flock’s intake.
This can cause problems, particularly with anticoc-
cidials with a relatively low safety margin. You can
avoid this problem with pellets.

Plumage as a signal
A bird’s plumage tells you a great deal about the
health of its gut. When you enter the broiler house
you can immediately see whether the birds’ plum-
age is nice and white or dirty. This is a direct result
of the litter quality. Regularly scattering plenty
of additional litter and increasing ventilation can
keep the litter in good condition... in the short
term. If poor litter quality is caused by gut prob- Another cause of abnormal plumage could be
lems, you will also have to tackle the underlying malabsorption syndrome (MAS). Typical of this
syndrome are very small birds with stunted growth.
causes (feed quality and coccidiosis). Otherwise
The plumage shows a large number of twisted,
any corrective action you take will be a drop in the protruding feathers (helicopter wings).
ocean.

Allow the feeder pans to be emptied completely every
day. The coarser components in the feed tend to be
eaten first, leaving powdery residues behind.
If the birds’ plumage is healthy and the birds are growing
well with no gut problems, you will see a good layer of
flesh through the plumage after a few weeks. If the plum-
age remains too dense, the birds will often be lighter in
weight. This is frequently caused by poor gut health.

C h ap t e r 6 . We e k 3 : G u t h eal th an d devel o pm en t 83
 CHAPTER 7

Week 4: Focusing on breathing

Chickens can’t sweat. Instead they have to expel excess heat in the air they These birds are lying
stretched out with their
exhale. The way chickens breathe is therefore an important indicator of whether beaks open and you
they are too hot. Chickens have a completely different respiratory system from can see their throats
moving up and down.
mammals and are therefore susceptible to airway diseases. So you’ll need to They are too hot and
are trying to cool down
watch out for any early signs of respiratory problems. by panting.

A chicken’s lungs are small and do not expand.

Unlike mammals, the lungs of birds end in air Visible respiratory signals
sacs. The air sacs – nine of them – are balloon-like
• dirty beak due to nasal discharge
features that are distributed throughout the body. • watery eyes or tear stripes
Chickens breathe in and out via these air sacs. • panting with open beak
Like bellows, they draw in air and expel it again via • red eye membrane
the lungs. Chickens do not breathe using the dia-
phragm as mammals do, as they don’t have one.
So they can only breathe by moving the ribs and
the breast bone. If they cannot do this, for instance
if they are being held too tightly or bunch together
in fright, they can quickly suffocate.

84 Broile r Si gnal s

Anatomy nostrils
nasal cavity:
consists of
several intercon-
nected chambers.
beak opening
windpipe:
reinforced with cartil-
age rings to prevent
air sacs it from closing during
breathing. Branches
lungs into two smaller
tubes (bronchi).
The windpipe is more than just a hollow tube.
The incoming air is freed from impurities in three ways:
1. The mucous lining traps impurities.
2. Cilia push impurities back up to the throat, but other sub-
stances such as particulates and bacteria can penetrate
further into the respiratory system.
cilia
NH3
mucus layer formalin
tissue
dust
Inhaled air is cleaned by cilia Contact with irritants such as
in the windpipe which work formalin in the hatcher affects
mucous and any adhered par- the cilia, stopping the mucous
ticles back up to the beak. lining from moving and causing
it to thicken.
Respiratory infections
Early infection, runny nose, half- Advanced respiratory problem
closed eyes
C h ap t e r 7 . We e k 4 : F o cu s i n g o n breath i n g
w
in
d
pi
anterior air sacs
pe
parabronchi
lungs
bro
nc
Inhaling
hu
s posterior air sacs The air sacs inflate as the body
cavity expands and air is drawn
from the beak into the posterior
sacs. At the same time, the air
that was in the lungs is drawn
into the anterior sacs.
Exhaling
The air in the posterior sacs is
w
in
d
pushed into the lungs, where
pi
anterior air sacs
pe
parabronchi
lungs
gas exchange takes place. The
bro air from the anterior sacs is also
nc
hu exhaled now. This creates a
s posterior air sacs
non-stop, one-way flow of air
through the lungs.
3. Immune cells in the lungs that kill harmful pathogens. If the
cilia are not functioning properly, harmful pathogens can
penetrate deep into the body because the air sacs are dis-
tributed throughout the body. This is different from mam-
mals, in which these organisms don’t get further than the
lungs.
Harmful particles remain These harmful particles infect
enclosed in the stationary the underlying tissue.
mucous lining.
Severe infection: nose and eyes are
completely closed
85
 Indoor climate
The dust in a broiler house comes from the feed,
the skin and the feathers, but also from the litter
and dry manure. Dust irritates the airways and can
carry large numbers of pathogens such as E. coli,
Salmonella or viruses like Gumboro.
The impure air triggers additional mucous produc-
tion in the airways. This thick layer of mucus is
harder for the cilia to work back up to the throat.
So harmful pathogens stay in the airways for long-
er or can even penetrate into the air sacs where
they cause damage and then spread through the
rest of the body.
If the nasal cavity gets infected the nostrils will fill with
pus and swell up. The infection can spread, causing
moisture to accumulate under the skin. The head swells,
sometimes so badly that the eyes are forced shut. These
birds won’t be able to find food and drink, which may be
medicated, so they will starve. This is caused by bacterial
infections, often secondary to a viral infection like TRT.
You can’t see dust
Dust is bad for humans and animals alike. At first glance you may think it’s not that bad in this house (left), but if you
take another picture using flash it becomes clear how much dust there really is (right).
86
Stale, pungent air in the house – problem?
Stale, pungent or ‘heavy’ air in the broiler house is
a sign of poor ventilation, either now or earlier in
the cycle. The bottom layer of litter may be damp,
even if the top layer is dry and loose. This often
indicates a cold surface underneath. If ventilation
is poor, moisture and unwanted gases (e.g. CO2
and methane) are not being removed effectively
and too little oxygen is entering the house. The lit-
ter will start to heat up.
The higher the stocking density, the more you
need to do to keep the litter in good condition:
the birds cover the litter like a warm blanket and
the ventilation doesn’t reach the litter. If you don’t
intervene, the litter will continue to heat up. More
ammonia and fatty acids will form, and you’ll be
able to smell the house from quite a distance.
Even low concentrations of ammonia (10 ppm)
can damage the cilia in the windpipe, causing
excessive mucous production. Harmful organ-
isms can now easily penetrate into the respiratory
system. The result: more condemnations, lower
slaughter weights and poor feed conversion.
Before you can smell ammonia you can feel it in your
eyes. If your eyes start burning or watering, this is the first
sign of poor air quality.
Broile r Si gnal s
Heat stress
As the broilers get older their daily growth rate Panting: too hot, short of air, or
increases rapidly, as does their feed consumption. forewarning of death?
Only 25% of the energy they take in is used for
movement, growth, breathing and body tempera-
ture maintenance (41°C core temperature). The
other 75% is lost in the form of heat. But chickens
can’t sweat. Their main way of getting rid of this
excess heat is by evaporating moisture during res-
piration. High relative humidity very soon causes
chickens problems: their airways have to work
much harder to evaporate moisture into the air.

When a broiler gets too hot, it will pant fast with its beak open.
You can tell by the rapid up-and-down movement of its throat. At
the same time it will often raise its feathers and hold its wings out
slightly from its body, allowing its skin maximum contact with the
circulating air to dissipate more heat. If the density of birds in the
house is too high and the birds are pressed up against each other,
they will struggle to do this. If they can lie with their chests on the
ground they can expel heat quite easily through the thinner plum-
age and thinner fat layer on the chest. But if the litter is too hot
they won’t be able to expel heat through the floor.

It is much warmer in amongst the birds than the house

temperature indicates: the thermometer is higher up in
the house so it doesn’t measure the heat from the floor
when the litter heats up. Kneel down sometimes and feel
with your hand between and under the birds.

Heat stress and gut damage. Don’t feed broil-
ers during the hottest part of the day. In order to
get rid of the superfluous heat, more blood flows
to the skin and less to the gut. If this lasts too
long, gut damage can occur. Less feed in the gut
means that less oxygen is needed for digestion
and less heat is produced by the body.
Getting used to the heat. Broilers can
‘learn’ to tolerate higher temperatures. If the
temperature increases very gradually, they
can withstand temperatures of up to 38°C.
In temperature fluctuations of more than 8°C
per day, a broiler can’t adjust its body pro-
cesses fast enough. The risk of heat stress is
at its greatest at the end of the day when the
RH increases.
Vitamin C against stress. Stress
hormones are important for keep-
ing stress under control. Vitamin C
is needed to produce these hor-
mones. Broilers are not yet able to
produce enough vitamin C them-
selves; in fact they produce even
less vitamin C if they are suffering
from heat stress. So it is useful to
add extra vitamin C to the drinking
water in such cases. Potassium
also helps.

C h ap t e r 7 . We e k 4 : F o cu s i n g o n breath i n g 87
 Above 30°C: danger zone
If the house temperature rises above 30°C in week 4,
it becomes dangerous. The combination of high
relative humidity and a high house temper-
ature is deadly. The greatest danger lurks when
the sun sets (late afternoon or early evening), when
the temperature drops and humidity increases.
Acute heat stress
In very high temperatures and RH, a broiler will begin
by looking dazed. It can’t expel enough body heat by
panting, so it now needs to get rid of heat through
the skin. The heart has to pump harder to send extra
blood to the skin. But expelling heat via the skin is
a much less efficient method. The body temperature
continues to increase. The broiler will ultimately die
through lack of oxygen and heart failure.
Chronic heat stress
In slightly lower temperatures and RH, the process
is different. In an attempt to cool down, broilers
hyperventilate with up to 240 respiratory move-
ments per minute. The muscle movements needed
to do this produce more heat: the body tempera-
ture rises slowly. And with each degree of increase
in body temperature, the metabolism speeds up
by 20-30%, generating even more heat. The broiler
loses weight because the heat affects the appetite.
This rapid metabolism, muscle activity and the
use of body reserves form acidic waste products.
You can counteract the acidity in the body and try
to prevent heat stress by adding extra bicarbonate
(HCO3) via the drinking water. Heat stress leads to
higher mortality.

1 5
4
Heat: thirsty but
2 not hungry?

When it’s hot, a broiler gives off

3 pH 60% of its heat via the airways
6 and 40% through contact with
its surroundings. It compen-
1. Increasing ambient temperature sates for evaporation of mois-
2. Faster breathing, muscles heat up the ture via the airways by drinking
body more – anything up to 4 times
3. Body temperature rises as much as usual. And it eats
4. Metabolism increases, body temperature less in hot conditions so it gen-
rises even further erates less heat itself.
5. Broiler eats less, starts using reserves
6. Body acidifies

Prevent heat stress

Action Purpose Standard

Air circulation • More oxygen • At least 4 m3 kg live weight
around the birds • More air circulation around the birds • At least 1 m/s
Easily accessible • Compensate for loss of moisture • Continuous fresh, cold water
drinking water via breathing
Cooling • Reduce temperature in house • Temperature + RH = 90 + age in weeks
• Less metabolic heat production • No feed in 2nd half of day (hottest period)
• Compensate for lower feed intake • More nutrients and energy per kg of feed
Adjust feed • Increase feed intake by reducing • Replace some carbohydrates with fat
schedule or feed metabolic heat production • Replace 1-1.5% crude protein with easily digestible
composition • Less metabolic heat production protein
Extra vitamin C • Encourage production of stress • 300-500 g/1000 l drinking water or 100 g/1000 l if you
hormones can start a day before a hot period
Extra electrolytes • Counteract body acidification and • Add up to 0.3% KCl to drinking water or follow product
supplement necessary electrolytes instructions
Lower stocking • Less heat production and better • Max. 36 kg live weight per m2. This depends on
density air circulation between birds legislation, climate and housing systems.

88 Broile r Si gnal s
Breathing is silent – problems aren’t!
You can’t hear healthy broilers breathing. Even if
the broilers are lively and have good appetites, if
you can hear them breathing that means that they
aren’t well. This costs money: every airway irrita-
tion is bad for growth.
Even apparently healthy broilers can have local
inflammatory reactions, such as an air sac infec-
tion, which will result in the carcass being con-
demned. So if you are in any doubt, carry out The best time to hear abnormal breathing sounds is before you
an autopsy. This will give you a good idea of enter the house, as the birds are not making any alarm noises at
this point. Breathing noises are also clearly perceptible when you
the extent to which the airways are affected and switch off the light: the birds will normally make less noise then. If
what action you need to take (change the house in doubt, pick up a bird and hold its beak close to your ear.
environment, medication, etc.).

Development of airway problems: noise signs

• Sneezing broilers LOOK-THINK-ACT
Occasional sneezing and shaking the head is
a sign of irritation of the nose and eye mem-
branes caused by a poor house environment
(dust, ammonia, humidity), pathogens or a
reaction to a vaccination. They shake their
heads to clear their noses. With a severe infec-
tion of the windpipe (e.g. ILT), you may find
blood spatters on the wall.

• Snuffling or spluttering broilers

If the airway irritation persists, the broilers will
develop a runny nose (dirty, dark nostrils) and
watery eyes (red rims around the eyes). They
will snuffle or splutter. The broilers become
less active and their daily growth and feed
intake slows down or stops.
• Hawking or rattling sounds when
breathing
If the windpipe is also affected, you’ll hear a
hawking noise caused by too much mucous
production in the windpipe.
• Screeching or squealing broilers
In severe cases the windpipe is red and
inflamed and there is blood in the mucous.
Mucous plugs can virtually close off the wind-
pipe. The broilers are short of oxygen and may
be making screeching noises.
Why do broilers gasp?
• Gasping for air silently but with a faster breathing rate indi-
cates ascites. The oxygen supply to the body is under pres-
sure. The heart has to pump so hard to get enough oxygen
to the tissues that the blood vessels start to leak. Fluid accu-
mulates in the abdominal cavity, particularly as a result of
liver problems. An inadequate oxygen supply can be caused
by too energy-rich food, too fast growth, lack of oxygen, too
much CO2 in the house, too high temperature, too much
dust or respiratory problems, high altitude, cold season with
lack of ventilation etc.
• The broilers are gasping silently for air, and their breathing
rate is normal or slightly raised. This indicates a fungal infec-
tion caused by mouldy litter or contracted during hatching
at the hatchery (aspergillosis). Affected broilers cannot be
treated. The number of birds displaying these symptoms
increases gradually. Sick broilers grow slowly. Severely affect-
ed birds display balance problems and sometimes minor
subcutaneous bleeding on the legs. This is caused by the
toxins produced by the fungus.

C h ap t e r 7 . We e k 4 : F o cu s i n g o n breath i n g 89
 CHAPTER 8

Week 5: Leg quality

By the fifth week of life the broiler house is getting quite full and the litter quality The broilers are gaining
weight and the load on
is deteriorating, with a higher risk of leg quality problems. Footpad lesions actu- their legs is increasing. Any
ally form much earlier, at around week 2, but will manifest themselves fully now. problems in the legs will be
revealed at this stage.
Hock burns mainly occur in the last week, when the birds are heavier and tend to
sit on their hocks more.

Litter quality plays an important role in footpad

quality. Birds with footpad lesions are in pain. They
will approach the feeder pans less often so they
will eat and grow less. This also causes their feed
conversion to drop. Footpad lesions are bad for
sales of chicken feet. What’s more, in some coun-
tries welfare requirement dictate the number of day
old chicks allowed in a subsequent cycle based on
the percentage of footpad lesions.
Avoid footpad problems by making sure the lit-
ter remains loose and dry and doesn’t form a
hard cake or wet layer. Manure contains uric acid
If birds are using their wings to support themselves
and ammonia, and if the litter is wet the negative when they move about, their legs have given way. They
effects of these wastes are exacerbated. will waste away from the pain and are doomed to die.
Remove these birds immediately.

90 Broile r Si gnal s
Remove lame birds
Remove lame birds as soon as possible because
they may be a source of infection for other birds.
Look for the cause and take action to solve the
problem.
What to do
Leg infections are usually caused by a problem
that has been present for some time. They are dif-
ficult to treat because pathogens in the bone are
hard for antibiotics to reach. Anti-inflammatories
can relieve the pain, so the birds can still keep
feeding and growing. So just before slaughter the
withdrawal periods of these medicines are often
the determining factor. Thinning out some of the
birds gives less mobile birds more room to move
so that they can get to the feed more easily.
Infections can be prevented. Besides providing
good quality litter, it’s a good idea to walk through
the broiler house regularly. This encourages the
birds to move. The same applies to intermittent
lighting programmes. If you have any doubts
about feed quality or if you discover gut problems
at an early age, give extra minerals and vitamin D3
for strong bones.

The causes of leg problems at this age are many and varied

Class Cause
Bacterial infection E. coli, Staphylococci, Enterococci, Mycoplasma synoviae
Viral infection Reovirus
Physiological Too rapid growth during the first weeks, damaged footpads
Feeds Wrong calcium/phosphorus ratio, vitamin D deficiency, MAS
Genetic Certain breeds of broiler are more susceptible to abnormalities

The use of industrial salt can cause rubber shanks (rickets). Using this instead of edible salt at the age of 4 - 5 days can
cause 40 to 50% of rickets in one flock. Check the strength of the bones at an early age while intervention is still an option.
If you can bend the leg or beak easily, that’s not a good sign. From the second week of life a broiler’s leg should snap like
a matchstick between your fingers. With older birds it should feel like breaking a strong pencil in half. Needless to say, you
only perform these tests on dead birds!

C h ap t e r 8 . We e k 5 : L e g qu al i ty 91
 Lameness and its causes
With very lame birds, examining the legs can give you an indication of the cause: thickening above the hock (Reo infection),
bent shank bones (rickets), no leg abnormalities visible (necrosis of the femural head, covered by thick thigh muscle).
An autopsy will provide answers.

Hip Knee
Femoral head necrosis: Cartilage plugs or widened
inflammation and possibly detach- epiphyseal cartilage (TD, Tibial
ment of the femoral head. Dyschondroplasia): too large avas-
Cause: bacterial joint inflammation cular cartilage plug in the growth plate
(often Enterococci), bone marrow and marrow cavity of the tibia (photo
infection, inadequate calcification of left). This is caused by a weak zone in
the bone, overloading from too rapid the bone at knee joint, resulting in lame-
growth. This can be seen at around ness.
the fifth week of life, but you need Cause: high growth rate, possibly other
to intervene right at the beginning of relevant factors such as feed quality,
the cycle. breed. Some pesticides such as thiram
Action: slow down growth in the (tetramethyl thiuram disulphide) also
first weeks of life, give antibiotics if play a role in causing TD.
there is an infection, improve feed Action: slow down growth during the
quality. first weeks of life. Medicines do not
help; this should pass on its own.

Hock
Reovirus tenosynovitis: swelling of
the Achilles tendon above the hock; the
glassy, thick tendons may tear with local
Shank bleeding (bruise above the hock).
Rickets: bent and too soft bones, Action: vaccinating parent animals
looks as if broiler has a rubber provides maternal antibodies in the egg.
skeleton. Staphylococcal infection: swollen
Cause: skeleton not sufficiently hock. Feels warm. The swelling is filled
calcified. Industrial salt. with cloudy, pale yellow pus.
Action: better feed quality (espe- Action: treat with suitable antibiotic,
cially calcium/phosphorus ratio), dry litter to prevent softening of hock
extra minerals and vitamin D3. skin.

92 Broile r Si gnal s
Enterococcal infection
Are the broilers lame in one or both legs at an
early age (about two weeks)? And does an autopsy
reveal watery yellow fluid in the heart sac, often
along with a white coating on the heart muscle
and pus in the knee joint? This is caused by
Enterococcus cecorum, an innocent bacterium in
the normal gut flora, but not in the joints. Some
pathogenic species can land up in the blood-
stream, joints and affecting spinal cord. You can
treat this with antibiotics, but there is a high risk of
reinfection at a later age. Treating at an early stage
improves your chances of success, so be alert.
Lame
Birds sitting on their backsides with their
feet pointing forwards are a sure sign of an
Enterococcus cecorum infection. Infection of
the spinal cord at the thoracic vertebrae causes
lameness in the hind hocks.
C h ap t e r 8 . We e k 5 : L e g qu al i ty
Botulism kills fast
Higher losses in a part of the house with broilers that look like they are
asleep with their necks stretched out and wings lying limp beside the
body are an important sign. This indicates botulism. The birds are lying
with their eyes closed and you can pull out feathers very easily. Consult
Foto
the vet as soon as possible.
Botulism is caused by the Clostridium botulinum bacterium which mul-
tiplies rapidly in anaerobic conditions such as in the carcasses of dead
animals, and produces powerful toxins. So carcasses of vermin that end
up in the feed or a carcass of a broiler somewhere on the house floor
pose a major risk. Any bird pecking at an infected carcass will die within
a few hours. Legs, wings and neck muscles become paralysed, causing
a sleep-like state which ends with the bird suffocating as the respiratory
muscles are affected. Trace the source of the infection and remove affect-
ed and dead birds at least six times a day. Also remove the litter around
them. Don’t forget to check under the feeding pans too! Administering
antibiotics can speed up the recovery process because they slow down
the multiplication of the bacteria. This form of Clostridium is spore-form-
ing and is extremely persistent; disinfect carefully with agricultural lime
and ammonium phosphate before the next cycle.
93
 Feet and hocks Footpad Dermatitis (FPD) Score
Preventing footpad injuries is a major parameter
(No. of broilers score 1 x 0.5) + (no. of broilers 2 x 2)
in animal welfare. In Western European countries, x 100
Total number of scored broilers
the extent to which these injuries occur on a farm
is one of the factors that determine its approved Score Conclusion
stocking density. At the processing plant footpads < 80 OK
are scored on the presence and severity of lesions. 80 – 120 warning
Judging footpad lesions can only be done after > 120 take urgent action or reduce density
proper training.

Scores for footpad lesions

Class 0 Class 1 Class 2

Smooth, no lesion Superficial lesion, discolouration Dark papillae and ulcer

Source: Livestock Research, Wageningen UR.

Small discolouration Dark papillae, no ulceration Ulcer covered by crust

Almost healed lesion, scar Substantial discolouration Abscess/bumble foot swollen

Class 0 - No lesion: No lesions or very
small and superficial lesions, slight
discolouration on a limited area, mild
hyperkeratosis, old scars.
Only the footpad should be evaluated.
Class 1 - Mild lesion: Substantial dis- Class 2 - Severe lesion: Ulcers or
colouration of the footpad, superficial scabs of significant size, signs of hae-
lesion, dark papillae. morrhages or severely swollen footpad.
Only the footpad should be evaluated. Only the footpad should be evaluated.

Inspection
• Inspect footpads at least twice a week, starting on
day 4-5. Footpad lesions can appear very early on.
• Inspect birds with good mobility as well as those
that are less mobile.
• Always check a number of birds in different parts
of the broiler house. Rule of thumb: four areas with
five birds per area. If more than 10-20% of the birds
have mildly affected footpads, take action.
• Check dead and selected birds for footpad lesions.

94 Broile r Si gnal s
Prevent footpad lesions
Footpad lesions are a clear sign of poor litter qual- Objective assessment of footpads in the
ity. For that reason it is important to pay extra processing plant.
attention to litter quality in subsequent cycles.
The higher the stocking density, the greater the
risk of poor litter quality. Uneven distribution of
the broilers over the floor space is not just a clear
sign that the house environment or light intensity
is not appropriate in all parts of the house; it also
results in wet litter.

Recommended actions:
● Check litter quality daily at different locations
in the broiler house.
● Make sure the broilers are evenly distributed
over the entire floor space.
● Prevent cold spots due to cold incoming air or
draft.
● Prevent dark spots due to poor distribution of
light bulbs or broken bulbs.
● Replace broken light bulbs right away.
● If fluorescent light is used, prevent excessively
bright spots.
● Take a close look at the droppings every day.
If droppings become wet, you’ll need to take
action to adjust the feed supplied as soon as
possible, for instance by increasing the per- 100

centage of whole grain if you are using the 80

Percentage of birds

Score 0
whole grain feeding method. 60
● Prevent water leakage from the drinkers. Score 1
40 case of footpad lesions. This bird is
This is a severe
● Remove wet litter. in extreme pain and will walk as little as possible. And Score 2
20
● Prevent caking of the litter. where there is one, there will be many more…
0
28 days 35 days 42 days

Wood shavings Chopped straw

100 100
80 80
Percentage of birds
Percentage of birds

Score 0 Score 0
60 60
Score 1 Score 1
40 40
Score 2 Score 2
20 20
0 0
28 days 35 days 42 days 28 days 35 days 42 days

During the course of growing a flock of broilers the litter quality deteriorates and footpad lesions become more numerous. The type of litter
affects this. The graph shows that the number of scores 1 and 2 progresses at a faster rate for chopped straw than for wood shavings.
This is because wood shavings can absorb moisture better and the fibres are softer.

100
80
C h ap t e r 8 . We e k 5 : L e g qu al i ty 95
ntage of birds

Score 0
60
Score 1
40
 Skin scratches with leg problems
Birds with inflamed footpads are less mobile. You
can sometimes recognise birds with leg problems
by the scratches on their hips from the sharp nails
of other broilers that climb over them to get to
feed and water. The toe nails introduce bacteria
into the wound, causing an infection: a yellowy
white layer of pus can be seen under the skin. This
is the ‘subcutaneous E. coli’ for which carcasses are
condemned and therefore cost money.
The effect of skin scratches penetrates the skin, with a
layer of pus forming on the meat. These carcasses are
condemned.
In the processing plant, severe hock dermatitis is clearly
visible on the shank as dark spots. It’s painful for the
animals and constitutes a reason for condemnation. The
extent of hock dermatitis can be measured automatically
in the processing plant. Injuries larger than 0.5 cm2 are
considered abnormal. Be sure to keep this in mind and
closely monitor the litter if the percentage of occurrence
increases (should not exceed 15%).
96
Skin scratches are caused by broilers climbing over each
other. You’ll see this if the broiler house is too wet, too
densely stocked, with too few feeder pans, too long
periods of darkness or if the birds are moved too
carelessly during inspections.
Blackish-brown discolouration of the surface of the skin
at the hock (hock burn) occurs after a long period of
contact with moisture and ammonia on poor quality litter
(ammonia burn).
When is a leg problem not
a leg problem?
Sometimes sick birds behave like lame birds to
begin with: they stumble forwards when they
are chased. But on closer inspection their legs
are found to be fine. These birds are actually so
weak that they have to drag themselves around.
The sudden occurrence of this situation may be a
precursor to Gumboro or botulism. Birds can also
display a waddling gait (duck-walking) that is not
caused by rubber legs (rickets) but by a nerve and
muscle disorder caused by an overdose of the
amino acid lysine or anticoccidials or a vitamin E or
selenium deficiency.
Broile r Si gnal s
Litter quality
There are two main causes of leg problems: the
Wet litter
bird itself (development, disease, behaviour) and
the litter. Litter quality is the more controllable of
the two. But it does call for skill and awareness.

Wet litter turns mushy. Adding more saw dust or other fine litter material
won’t help at this stage, although long-stalked straw can be added.

Breast blisters are a consequence of poor litter quality:

acid burns and dampness together with damp heat.

Litter cake
When litter gets damp and is not stirred up
enough, it turns into a hard cake. Try sprinkling
some feed on the ground so that the birds scratch
around for it and loosen the litter.

Apart from the litter itself, bad litter quality can be noticed
by the plumage: it is dirty.

Good litter is loose (> 60% dry matter) and therefore

causes less softening and irritation of the footpad. Poor
litter has a dry matter content of less than 40%.

C h ap t e r 8 . We e k 5 : L e g qu al i ty 97
 Litter as a source of heat
Put your hand in the litter from time to time to
feel whether it is too hot. In a high stocking densi-
ty, the birds, which are older now, form an insulat-
ing carpet on the litter and the heat of the animals
can’t be removed. Besides, the litter can’t dry out
properly and will start to heat up due to chemical
processes. Subsequently, the gases emitted are
bad for the respiratory system. And the litter will
heat up even more.

Litter that becomes hot prevents heavy birds from expel-

Poor diet ling their excess heat through the floor.
High acid content, too much
protein, Potassium in soya

Wet litter
Poor water pipe management

Poor ventilation

Excessive broiler density

Kidney disorders
Nephritis/polyuria Digestive disorders
Enteritis/diarrhoea

The quality of the litter is determined by many fac-

High relative humidity
tors. Keep a constant eye on these and intervene
before the litter gets too wet.

2 kg

Water intake: 6.5 l

Excreted water: 5 l

Older birds excrete more moisture per day in the house, because they are
larger, eat the maximum amount and therefore drink a lot. In its life, a 2 kg
bird drinks 6.5 l of water of which only 20% stays in the body. The rest is
excreted and needs to be removed. Make sure there is enough ventilation.
Math problem: Broiler 2 kg, net FCR 1.8, water/ feed ratio 1.8,
80% excreted = 5.2 l water excreted by the bird in 6 weeks.
A gas burner is also a source of moisture in the house.
Burning 1 litre of propane gas produces 0.8 litres of
water! So don’t forget to provide adequate ventilation
when using this type of heating.

98 Broile r Si gnal s
Wet manure due to excess urine
A sudden increase in the water/feed ratio that is
not caused by the temperature (from about 1.7 to
more than 2) is a sign that something is wrong –
especially if the litter is also getting wetter. This is
not necessarily due to a gut problem. It can also
be caused by viruses that affect the kidneys which
then produce excessive amounts of urine (polyuria
caused by Gumboro or Infectious Bronchitis). The
birds dehydrate and start drinking excessively.
Loose droppings can mislead you into thinking
that the birds have diarrhoea (after all, faecal
waste and urine are mixed together in the cloaca). In severe cases of renal IB, the birds lose so much moisture that the litter itself can
If you suspect an infection, take blood samples at take on a sloppy consistency. The birds’ plumage will be dirty brown. The birds will
be feverish (dark red pectoral muscles) and listless and will have no appetite. The
the end of the cycle. You can then adjust your vac- affected kidneys will then look like brain tissue. Since a viral infection is involved
cination plan for the next flock. here, no medications are available for treatment. The virus that causes the damage
is not controllable in practice, as virus-inhibiting medicines are too expensive.
Ventilation keeps the house dry
80% of the drinking water the broilers take in
Influence of feed and water on the quality of droppings
has to be removed again via the air. Litter can
The quality of the feed or the drinking water can influence the quality of
ultimately only absorb so much. As soon as its the droppings and drinking behaviour, and therefore influences litter quality.
absorption capacity is exceeded, it gets wet.
Ventilation is therefore very important for litter Signal/effect Cause
quality. In ideal ventilation, fresh outdoor air is Increase in water/feed ratio Too high salt/sodium levels in
sucked in by the partial vacuum inside the house drinking water or feed
and heats up below the ceiling. The air movement Increase in water/feed ratio Too high potassium levels
(e.g. in soya)
and the warmed-up air (which can take up more
More mucus and less absorption Too much crude fibre with
moisture) will help dry the litter. The distribution in gut NSP
of the birds tells you whether the air flow is OK. Soapy-looking manure and litter Rancid fats/oils
Bad bird distribution due to a draught means poor caking
utilisation of the floor surface, resulting in more Draws moisture into the intestine Too high sulphate levels in
litter problems. from body tissue drinking water
Bad for digestion and kidneys Too high raw protein content

The birds are huddled up close, but are not using the
space in the corner. It is probably cold over there (cracks,
cold wind/draughts, leakage). And because there are no
birds over there, the space becomes even colder and
more unappealing to use.
Spread out fresh litter regularly on wet patches. This
reduces the risk of footpad problems and breast blisters.
Of course you’ll need to identify the cause too.

C h ap t e r 8 . We e k 5 : L e g qu al i ty 99
 CHAPTER 9

Final phase and slaughter

During their last week the broilers undergo a final strong growth spurt. Any mistakes The birds are almost
ready for slaughter.
that have been made will come to the surface or will be magnified now. It’s too late They have started their
to fix them completely at this stage, but if you respond to signals promptly you can final sprint to the pro-
cessing plant.
limit the damage. And that may make the difference between profit and loss!

Broilers that will reach a slaughter weight of over

2 kg, are now growing at a spectacular rate: 80 g 25% weight gain in the final week
(females) to 100 g (males) per day, and they are
100 3000
consuming about 180-200 g of feed per day. The 90
2500
80
breast muscles in particular are increasing in 25%
70
Growth 2000
weight, and so is the value of the broilers. Watch
Body weight (g)
Growth (g/day)

60
50 1500
out for factors that negatively affect meat develop-
40
ment, such as overcrowding and overheating. If 30
1000
Body weight
20
the birds are no longer able to get rid of their heat 500
10
properly, they will lose their appetites and their 0 0
0 7 14 21 28 35 42
meat development will suffer. Also keep an eye
Age (days)
open for digestive problems, diseases and poor
house environment.
During the last week of the growing period the broilers
gain up to 25% in weight. So they take in more feed per
Increase in feed conversion day than ever before. A large amount of feed is needed
for this growth: 25-30% of the total quantity of feed for the
In the last week the birds must continue to eat well or their growth rate whole cycle.
will suffer, and their FCR will increase dramatically. If the feed intake does
not continue to increase, this is a sign that the birds can no longer get
rid of their body heat properly. Their appetites will diminish and growth
will level off.

100 Broile r Si gnal s

Increase in mortality rate
The number of dead birds per day often increases
in the final week before slaughter. Fast-growing
broilers need a lot of oxygen. Problems with the
oxygen supply can be fatal. However, the real
cause may lie earlier on in the birds’ lives. This is
a sign to give the temperature and ventilation set-
tings another thorough check.

Ascites
Ascites affects broilers from as early as three days
old and sometimes even in the hatchery, but the
problems often remain hidden until the end of the Birds with ascites have a visibly fat abdomen that is filled
grow-out. Low house temperatures or high CO2 with fluid. These birds also have breast muscles darker or
concentrations in the first weeks of life are often bluer than unaffected birds.

the cause. The bird has had slightly too little oxy-
gen for a while, so its heart has had to pump hard
all that time. The heart gets bigger and weaker
and the blood becomes thicker. The blood pres-
sure increases and fluid is finally forced out of the
blood vessels. This fluid slowly fills the abdominal
cavity and intestines, making breathing difficult,
and so the bird dies. Problems with ascites can be A serious ILT infection causes mucous plugs and blood
identified by picking the birds up by their feet. If clots in the windpipe and throat. The bird has difficulty
taking in enough oxygen and can even suffocate.
the animals turn blue, there is an ascites problem.

Choking
Narrowing of the airways due to mucous plugs or Temperature + humidity = heat stress
inflamed tissue causes breathing problems. This
120
is often the result of too high ammonia concentra- 115
tions or Ornithobacterium, Mycoplasma, IB and ILT 110 Period of heat stress

infections. It is essential to continuously refresh 105

100 Comfort zone at the age of 5 weeks =
the air at animal height. 90 + age in weeks = 95
95
Temperature-humidity index (T + RH)

Heat stress 35 100

When broilers are growing fast, they release a lot Humidity 90

30
of body heat. In this final week the birds will be 80
25
sitting close together, making it difficult for them 70
Temperature (°C)

to get rid of heat properly. There is also a lot of 20 Temperature 60

RH (%)

heat in the litter. Cooling the floor helps. But care- 50

15
40
fully walking through the flock to separate the
30
birds also has a cooling effect and loosens the lit- 10
20
ter. A high house temperature and high humidity 5
10
exacerbate heat stress. If a broiler’s body tempera-
ture rises above 42° it will die from heart failure. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Act quickly to provide more ventilation around the Time (hours)

birds. When the temperature drops at the end of the day, the relative humid-
ity increases. So it gets harder for the birds to get rid of heat when the
temperature drops. You can reduce the risk of heat stress by limiting
feed intake for a few hours during the hottest part of the day, so their
bodies don’t become overheated when the heat stress is on its peak.

C h ap t e r 9 . F i n a l p h a se an d s l au g h ter 101
 Withdrawal period causing more
coccidiosis?
Medicines such as anticoccidials can enter the
meat and reach the consumer. To prevent this
undesirable effect you have to allow a withdrawal
period. Medicines must stop being administered
several days before slaughter. From then on, the
broilers are fed non medicated withdrawal feed. If
coccidiosis is not properly under control on your
farm, you may have a problem with late coccidi-
osis. This is a particular risk if you are thinning Late coccidiosis is often caused by Eimeria maxima. The
out and feeding your birds withdrawal feed for a other types of coccidiosis occur earlier in life, so the birds
will have built up immunity against them. Eimeria maxima
prolonged period (7-10 days). There are very few has the greatest impact on feed conversion. And during
anticoccidials with no withdrawal period. the period with the highest feed intake!
When late coccidiosis occurs, disinfect the house
thoroughly with agricultural lime and ammonium
sulphate once the birds have been removed.
Risk factors of coccidiosis
Treatment not always possible
Treating gut problems at this age is quick and The risk of a coccidiosis outbreak increases:
• When large quantities of wheat are
effective. It’s too late to adjust the feed compos-
added to the feed. The core feed
ition during the final week: the feed is already containing the anticoccidial becomes too
on the farm, and you can’t give any more medi- diluted.
cines because of the withdrawal periods. But you • In hot weather. Broilers eat less and
can still give antibiotics via the drinking water, sometimes feed is withdrawn temporarily
to control heat stress. So they don’t take
although the heavy birds push up the price con-
in large amounts of anticoccidial.
siderably. When treating via the drinking water, • During thinning. If broilers are fed
also watch out for cross-contamination and with- withdrawal feed for a prolonged period.
drawal periods.

Is the feed bin

really empty?
When you fill the feed bin with
withdrawal feed it will get mixed
up with any remaining old feed
due to the funnel shape of the
feed bin floor (cross-contamina-
tion). So order withdrawal feed
at the right time and make sure
there are no residues of old
feed left when it is delivered.

‘empty’ feed bin refilled feed bin feed mixed

with residue
(risk of coccidiostats
cross-contamination)

102 Broile r Si gnal s

Vaccination evaluation
The end of the grow-out period is the ideal time
to evaluate your vaccinations because the level
of antibodies is at its highest. Blood samples can
be collected during slaughter. If there are no anti-
bodies in the blood, further tests will need to be
performed to establish why that is.
Very large amounts of antibodies indicate the
presence of a wild variant (field strain) of the
pathogen. These have caused the immune sys-
tem to produce more antibodies (booster effect).
So you will need to vaccinate the next flock even
more thoroughly, or adapt your vaccination pro-
gramme.
Insufficient antibodies in the blood
• Mistakes during vaccination: bad vaccine, administered wrongly,
vaccination given at wrong time (coinciding with maternal
antibodies), too low dose, poor water quality, inappropriate
disinfectant (drinking water vaccination), incorrect storage.
• The birds themselves (‘poor responders’). These birds can’t
build up any antibodies after vaccination because of their poor
condition or an infection that is suppressing their immune
system.
• Samples taken too early. Wait at least two weeks after
vaccinating before taking blood samples.
• Sampling errors: wrong blood collection tubes, stored at too
high a temperature, too long between sampling and processing.
• Inaccurate blood test.

On the farm, blood sam-

ples are usually taken
from the wing vein. Do
this as close to slaughter
as possible, because this
provides the most infor-
mation.

Checking for Salmonella and Salmonella is excreted

Campylobacter via the droppings. Walk
through the house in spe-
The end of the grow-out period is also the best
cial overshoes and have
time to check for the presence of Salmonella and
them tested. Make sure
Campylobacter. Both Salmonella and Campylobacter
that infection cannot be
bacteria cause intestinal infections in humans. People
brought in from outside:
can become infected when eating poultry. A Salmonella-
disinfect your hands and
free status is a prerequisite for a quality rating in many
boots before putting on
countries. Poultry farmers must deal with Salmonella
the overshoes.
enteritidis, in particular, as a major culprit of mortality.
Salmonella typhimurium is the strain relevant to humans.
But a good test result doesn’t tell the whole story. Stress
brought about by thinning, for example, makes birds car-
rying this pathogen excrete it in huge quantities. It can
also sneak in on infected workers or the catching team’s
equipment. Caecal contents are sometimes tested for
Campylobacter.

C h ap t e r 9 . F i n a l p h a se an d s l au g h ter 103
 Other husbandry systems and breeds
In many parts of the world, broilers are kept for
6 weeks, but sometimes for 10 or even up to 22
weeks.
Reason are: animal welfare, flavour, culture, lack of
infrastructure, or an environment where the birds
are grown less rapidly. The slaughter weight is ulti-
mately higher, too. Slow growth and less efficient
feed conversion – more energy is used up moving
about, and living longer means more feed for main-
tenance – costs more in terms of feed and housing.
Special markets, special products
The Asian market wants the feet to be blemish free. So preventing
hock burn and footpad lesions has additional financial implications.
Although chicken feet consist mainly of bone, tendons and skin, they
make wonderful soup!
The colour of the chicken meat plays an even more important role when the
chickens are cut up. Although colour is largely genetically determined, you
can also influence it through the feed. Adding the red coloured yeast Phaffia
rhodozyma to chicken feed makes the muscle tissue redder, and omitting
maize and other strongly coloured raw materials produces white meat.
104
This is often the case in free range systems with
fewer birds per m2 and a natural day/night rhythm.
In general these broilers are healthier, stronger and
have fewer leg problems. Older birds have good
quality meat with a better flavour, more protein
and less water. Slow-growing ‘roasters’ are raised in
South America, for example. In 12 weeks they reach
a live weight of 3.5 to 4 kg.
The Dutch Volwaard (Higher Welfare) concept: broilers have more
space and a covered out-door range. Loose grain and bales of
straw in the house enrich the environment and keep the birds more
active. The birds are not slaughtered until at least eight weeks.
Skin colour
Yellow skin is favoured in many Asian countries,
in some parts of the EU and in Mexico, although
these are typically yellow-feathered chickens.
You can control this by selecting specific breeds
and particularly through the feed. Breeds like the
Chinese yellow chicken are bred especially for this
purpose. Carotenoids give many plants their yellow
to orange colour. Chickens store this in their skin
and fat tissue. If you give your chickens a maize-
rich ration, their skin and legs will be a strong yel-
low colour (see right side of the photo).
Broile r Si gnal s
Diseases in older broilers

Marek’s disease
If you keep your chickens for longer than 10 weeks,
they are at risk of contracting Marek’s disease.
That is why birds kept in longer production cycles
are often vaccinated against this. The signs are
easily recognisable: affected birds will waste away
or show symptoms of lameness and will ultimately
die. Autopsy will reveal tumours in internal organs
and swollen nerves. A classic example of Marek’s disease: a bird with splayed
legs. This lameness is caused by the affected leg nerves.
Tumours will not have formed in younger chicks, but a
Parasites grab their chance Marek’s disease infection will suppress the immune sys-
Birds that are slaughtered at an older age are tem. That is why in some countries, such as Italy, regular
susceptible to different diseases from those that broilers are also vaccinated against Marek’s disease.

affect regular broilers. Free range birds run more

risk of picking up intestinal parasites. The range is
difficult to clean and disinfect, so a parasitic infec-
tion can build up in it over several years.
Coccidiosis outbreaks are most common (Eimeria
necatrix and Eimeria brunetti are the main culprits).
Coccidiosis vaccination is therefore often part
of the free range chicken vaccination scheme.
Tapeworms or roundworms are also a well-known
problem and impact badly on feed conversion.

In a short time – 1-2 days – some of the birds will be

sitting around listlessly with raised feathers, and losses
increase rapidly. The droppings become watery and may
sometimes contain blood. These are typical symptoms
Quail disease of an outbreak of E. necatrix coccidiosis and/or quail
disease.

At autopsy, E. necatrix
coccidiosis can be rec-
ognised by the ‘salt and
pepper’ pattern on the
gut wall.

Quail disease is a serious gut infection caused

by Clostridium colinum. Dead tissue forms a
loose, thick, and pink to greyish brown inner
E. brunetti coccidiosis
band against the gut wall. Quail disease is also
affects the lower part of
often found as a complication in E. necatrix coc-
the intestine and causes
cidiosis. Microscopic examination of gut scrap-
fewer deaths.
ings is needed to check for coccidiosis.

C h ap t e r 9 . F i n a l p h a se an d s l au g h ter 105
 Catching, loading and beyond Broiler production
20

Slaughter age (weeks)

Thinning 15

Body weight
To avoid too high a density of broilers while still 10
producing the maximum amount of meat per m2,
5
you can thin out some birds during the production
cycle. This involves slaughtering 15-25% of the 0
20 40 50 60 70 30 80 90 00
birds at a body weight of 1700-1800 grams (32-35 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 19 20
Year
days old). The remaining birds are left to grow to
a higher slaughter weight. If females and males The modern broiler grows faster than ever, and the birds can
are kept separate in the same house, catch the be slaughtered at an ever younger age. This enables you to
produce more chicken meat per house per year.
females first to make room for the males. Males
grow faster and have less fat deposition than
females and therefore better feed conversion.

Benefits:

• More kg of meat per square metre of

house area and therefore lower fixed costs
per set-up bird.
• More room per bird after thinning. This
promotes the welfare and development of
the remaining birds. The extra space also
reduces risks during hot periods.
• You can tailor production more easily to
meet market demand.

Disadvantages:

• Birds fasting; distress and fluctuations in

the climate during catching cause stress
for the remaining birds. The lorry driver is also a source of infection: keep the cab
• Greater risk of coccidiosis in the remaining clean. The driver must wear sanitised overalls and clean
birds after being fed clean feed for longer footwear too.
(unless coccidiostats without a withdrawal
period are used).
• Catching teams and equipment from
outside the farm pose a serious threat to
biosecurity.
• Higher stocking density on at day old
means more manure production per m2,
increasing the risk of poor quality litter later.
• Frequent thinning increases the risk of skin
damage due to distress during catching.

Thinning puts your farm’s biosecurity at risk. Check that

the catching team are wearing sanitised overalls and
clean footwear. Also, don’t forget to check that the trans-
port crates and loader are clean.

106 Broile r Si gnal s

Preparing for loading
Pay close attention to the load-out and transportation phase. After all, you can still seriously affect the qual-
ity of the birds during catching at the farm and transportation to the processing plant.

Loading preparation checklist

Dim the light to keep the birds calm during

catching. Hang blackout curtains in front of the
door if loading during the day. Try using blue or
green light; this calms the birds. They will remain
calmer if you allow a long light period before
dimming.

Withdraw the feed six hours before catching

starts. An empty gastrointestinal system makes
it less likely that the carcass will become
contaminated with manure during slaughter. Birds
that fast for more than 12 hours will dehydrate
and lose weight. Watery droppings are a sign of
this. So keep this in mind during catching and
transportation. Only withdraw drinking water when
you’re about to start catching.

Divide large broiler houses into segments: this

prevents the birds from bunching and enables
birds that are caught later to continue to drink.

Adjust the ventilation and check it during loading

to avoid an accumulation of heat in the house.

Remove or hoist up any equipment that could get

in the way of catching the birds or moving the
transport cages in and out of the house.

Check that all transport cages and the loader

have been cleaned and disinfected.

Level out the floor for the loader where necessary.

This prevents the birds from being bruised while
being carried in the cages or crates.

C h ap t e r 9 . F i n a l p h a se an d s l au g h ter 107
 The art of catching
Skin scratches, bruising and breaks caused by
handling mistakes during catching and loading
can significantly increase the number of birds con-
demned. An expert catching team knows how to
minimise these.
Follow the hygiene rules strictly and use clean,
disinfected equipment, particularly during thin-
ning.

A catching machine is worthwhile on bigger farms

(> 100,000 broilers). The percentage of injured birds is
lower than when they are caught by hand, unless the
catching speed of the machine is set too high. However,
Injuries and breaks – how are they caused? the proportion of birds that arrive dead is slightly higher
with this method. This is partly because the machine
does not distinguish between healthy and small or sick
Broiler
birds (manual catching avoids these birds).
Poor quality feed, digestive/gut problems or too rapid growth
can result in brittle bones.
Bacterial infections such as femoral head necrosis caused by
enterococcal infection can weaken the bones.
Reovirus, Staphylococci and Mycoplasma synoviae can
damage the joints and tendons.

Catching/unloading
Handling broilers too roughly increases the proportion of birds
with broken bones. Chasing the birds too much increases the
risk of skin injuries.

Transportation equipment
Birds’ wings or feet get caught more easily in small crate
openings. The risk of injury also increases if the crates are
shaken during loading or if the container moves about while
the loader is travelling on an uneven surface.
A catcher picks up the birds by the feet, carrying three or
four in each hand. The birds are turned upright and put in
transport crates or containers. Birds can get injured dur-
ing catching, particularly if the catching team gets tired or
has to load them too quickly.

Animal friendly: the Swedish

catching method
The Swedish method is an alternative.
With this method, you take hold of one
bird by the wings with each hand. The bird
is turned upright and put into the transport
crate. This is the most animal-friendly
method and causes fewest injuries.
However, the slower catching speed
makes it relatively expensive.

A bruise just above the hock is often caused by the Achilles tendon being torn
when the bird was caught by the feet. The tendon can tear through completely.
This is often accompanied by local bleeding. The tendon may already have been
weakened by an infection.

108 Broile r Si gnal s

Arrival at the processing plant
If broilers arrive infected with diseases such as Information from the slaughter report
Salmonella, the processing plant may opt for The slaughter report not only gives you information about the
logistic slaughter. This means that the birds are quality of the birds, it also provides valuable information about the
preceding grow-out cycle.
slaughtered last in the shift for that day, i.e. just
before the plant is cleaned and disinfected. In this Breast Skin Bruises Breaks Information about
case, the birds can’t be transported and left wait- blisters scratches
ing in the cold night or early morning air. Good - Yes - - Lighting scheme
farm hygiene avoids the need for logistic slaugh- - Yes - - High light intensity
ter, although Salmonella can also enter the farm Yes - - - Litter quality
via the feed, vermin, or even the day-old chicks Yes Yes - - Ventilation
Yes - - - Leaks in drinking line
themselves.
Yes Yes - Yes Feed quality/composition
- Yes - - Break in feeding system
Aspirin Yes Yes Yes Yes High stocking density
Aspirin is used to keep birds ‘on their feet’ by - Yes Yes Yes Aggressive worker
slowing inflammation processes and relieving the - Yes Yes Yes Aggressive catching team
pain, e.g. in case of mild leg problems. Typically,
acetylsalicylic acid is not used, but instead sodium
salicylate, which dissolves more readily in water.
Aspirin is also said to improve meat quality: the
blood-thinning effect promotes bleeding when
the birds’ carotid arteries are cut, which benefits
the meat quality. The meat also loses less mois-
ture after slaughter. On the other hand, the birds
are harder to pluck and birds given aspirin bruise
more easily when caught in cold weather. However,
Bruise development
the statutory withdrawal period for aspirin is very
long in many countries. You can tell when a bird was injured by the colour of
the bruise:
Colour Bruise happened
Red 2 minutes ago
Dark red and purple 12 hours ago
Light green and purple 36 hours ago
Yellowy-green and orange 48 hours ago
Yellowy-orange 72 hours ago
Light yellow 96 hours ago
Blue-black 120 hours ago

Even when birds are transported correctly, it is not unu-

sual to find a few dead birds on arrival at the processing
plant. Reasons for high mortality are too many birds per
crate or container and inadequate air circulation around
the birds (leave a gap between stacks of crates or con- Bruising caused during capture, less Shoulder-bleeding of more than
tainers). Insufficient ventilation can mainly occur when the than 2 hours old. 2 hours old.
lorry is stationary e.g. in a traffic jam or when parked in
the waiting area at the processing plant.

C h ap t e r 9 . F i n a l p h a se an d s l au g h ter 109
 Sold hot or cold?
Pros and cons Poultry is sold in different ways. Birds can be
sold live, or chilled/frozen and ready to cook. In
many hot countries, a ready to cook product is not
convenient and not everyone has a refrigerator at
home. In these markets, poultry is usually sold live
and consumed immediately after slaughter. The
birds are slaughtered there and then on purchase
or at home by the consumer. An additional benefit
is that the consumer can examine the bird while it
is still alive.
In areas where a refrigeration is available (i.e.
permanently chilled or frozen), the structure of
the poultry industry is different. Here a processing
plant can slaughter whole flocks and cut them up
on an industrial scale. The meat can be marketed
as a convenience food with a higher added value.

Sold live Ready to cook

+ Bird can be assessed + Refrigerated storage
+ No deterioration + Added value in the
- Danger of spreading supply chain
LOOK-THINK-ACT
diseases - Requires more complex
infrastructure

What are these?

At slaughter the so-called subcutaneous ‘litter-
spots’ become visible. This is a direct result of
wet litter. Find out what caused the wet letter
and prevent this in subsequent flocks.

In countries in which chickens are not sold live, the value of a broiler is largely
determined by the killing-out percentage rather than the live weight price.
Nowadays this can be evaluated on a fully automatic basis.

110 Broile r Si gnal s

White and dark meat
Chicken has two kinds of meat: white (fillet) and
dark. The dark meat is in the legs. These muscles
are designed for sustained muscular effort. The
white muscle tissue is in the breast muscles.
These are used in emergencies, for short bursts
of effort (e.g. for flying up when a predator is
observed). Other species such as ducks and geese
The pieces of a carcass
● In many countries,
white meat is the
most valuable poultry
meat. Some breeds
undergo extremely
strict selection for
the amount of breast
meat.
● Chicken breast fillet
is the boneless meat
from the breast, often
cut to order to a
specific thickness so
that it is easier to pan
fry.
C h ap t e r 9 . F i n a l p h a se an d s l au g h ter
have dark meat in their breast muscles as well
due to the sustained effort required for extensive
migration. Dark meat contains more than 2.5
times more saturated fat than the leaner white
meat. There are great differences in preference and
price in different countries and cultures.
● The meat in chicken ● Drumsticks, the part ● In some cultures and
wings is also white. of the leg below the countries, certain
These are cut to knee, are dark meat. parts of the carcass
order in various ways. such as the neck,
head and legs are
delicacies. The heart
is also popular in
many countries, and
chicken livers are
often used to make
pâté and pie fillings.
Feet are considered a
particular delicacy in
China.
● Chicken thighs are ● Chicken legs. The
considered dark whole leg from the
meat; their value hip joint is dark meat.
varies depending on
the country.
111
 CHAPTER 10

Parent birds

Good broilers start with good hatching eggs. The quality of a broiler depends Good broiler quality
starts in the egg.
very much on the parent birds, their care and their age. Deficiencies in essential
nutrients adversely affect breeding results and the quality of the resulting chicks,
since some infections not only cause disease in the parent birds themselves but
also a have a negative effect on their progeny.

Through many years of selection modern broilers

Physically mature
(Physical growth stops) are fast growing. The offspring become heavier
Sexually mature than their parents because the parents are fed
Continuing
weight gain restricted rations. This requires strict manage-
Development of Accelerated (fat)
Bodyweight (kg)

skeleton size growth & ment practices for the parent flocks. The flock
> 95% at Weight gain
84 days > 105 days must follow a desired live weight growth curve
Development of and be uniform in size. The development period
ovaries/testicles
Development of consists of three phases:
skeleton size
85% of maximum 1. The brooding period (first 3-4 weeks). Heart,
At 56 days
> 98 days of fast increasing
Immunity system production sex hormones blood vessels, internal organs and skeleton and
Heart and blood vessels Fast growth testicles
Feathering Growth muscles from 3 weeks before feathering develop rapidly. This is the basis for
Skeleton and joints sexual maturity
Very dynamic growth a good flock. Unrestricted feeding is part of this
phase.
Age 21 42 56 70 84 105 133 161 210/217 2. The rearing period (5-16 weeks). The emphasis
(days) here is on controlled growth of the birds by
thoroughly checking the feed quantity.
The development of a chicken knows different growth developments.
3. Preparation for the onset of egg production
(17-20 weeks). Rapid growth of the sex organs
and increased body weight.

112 Broile r Si gnal s

Slowing growth during rearing
Parent birds have an inherited tendency for rapid Difference in plumage caused by difference
growth, but rapid growth negatively affects fer- in stocking density
tilisation, egg production and hatching egg pro-
duction. To ensure a better quality of life and to
maximise hatching egg production, lighting pro-
grammes and feed restrictions are applied to pre-
vent the birds from becoming too heavy and com-
ing into lay too early. Good uniformity is essential
for good production and fertilisation. In less uni-
form flocks there will be significant differences in
the development of the birds within the flock; this
is also a sign of breeding management problems. There are 12 pullets per square metre in the picture on the left and 8-9 on
Uniformity can be jeopardised by factors such as the right. But the number of feeding spaces is the same, so there is more
inadequate feeder space, too high stocking den- competition on the left. That’s why the birds in the picture on the left have
poorer plumage. Dominant hens immediately occupy the feeder pans so
sity, poor distribution of feed, coccidiosis issues, that others have to wait. Those won’t get enough feed, which is bad for
poor health, and so on. Because the feed intake of production and chick quality.
broiler parents is highly restricted during the rear-
ing period, there is always a run on the feeder at
feeding times. Immediately after giving the feed,
all the birds should be eating. If there are birds Development of testicles
running around or trying to climb over others, the
feeder space is not adequate or the distribution of
feed is too slow.

Segregated feeding also during

the egg-laying period

The testicles must be adequately developed for good fertility. The desired situ-
ation is shown on the left; the undesired situation on the right. Roosters that
begin to moult very seldom become good roosters.

Signs of mating behaviour

Signs of active mating behaviour
Feed intake is less restricted during the production a red, moist cloaca; ragged breast feathers; red breast skin;
period than in the rearing/growing period. However, ragged tail feathers; pink hocks; dark-red tips on the comb.
roosters and hens are fed separately, just as in the
rearing/growing period. Since they are used to feed- Signs of non-mating behaviour
ing quickly, it’s important that they can all feed at the showy plumage (= more flaunting than mating), pale comb,
same time. The feed must be supplied to all underweight or too heavy, abnormal toe positioning (damage to
feeding stations within 3 minutes. If this isn’t possible, hen’s flanks during mounting), downy feathers, footpad problems.
add more feed hoppers, choose a different feed
system or supply feed from the middle of the house.
The feeder pans are often pushed out of place by
the roosters’ bodies, since there are too few of them.
Ensure that there are an appropriate number of feed-
ing stations and also extend the feeding time some-
what e.g. by diluting the feed.

C h ap t e r 1 0 . P a re n t b i rds 113

Reaching sexual maturity
simultaneously
Best fertilisation results are achieved when the
roosters and hens reach sexual maturity at the
same time.
If the roosters become sexually mature first, the
hens will be intimidated by the roosters, espe-
cially if there are too many roosters with the hens.
Roosters who reach sexual maturity later will run
the risk of being dominated by the hens, curbing
the roosters’ confidence to mate. Such a ‘psycho-
logical castration’ cannot be corrected later on.
Flank injuries
Females with wounds on their sides are an indication that
there is a problem with the males’ claws and toe nails.
Remove males with long toe nails or deformed toes.
Wounds can also be caused by the presence of too
many males in the flock or too little feeding space (clam-
bering over each other).
Assure the best flooring
Bad litter is bad for fertilisation and hatching egg quality.
Wet litter leads to the formation of holes in the scratching
area. They make it harder for the males to mate success-
fully. And under wet conditions, the footpads are often
affected and painful, both for the male and the female.
Furthermore, wet litter also gives rise to increased ammo-
nia concentrations in the house, which has a negative
effect on the quality of the hatching eggs. Fully slatted
floors also have a detrimental effect on mating, especially
towards the end of the flock when the birds become
heavier and are more susceptible to leg problems.
114
Number of attempts
0,00 1,30 3,00 4,30 6,00 7,30 9,00 10,30 12,00 13,30 15,00 16,30 18,00 19,30 21,00 22,30 0,00
Time
Mating occurs mainly in the late afternoon. Do not feed at
this time, as this will lead to distraction from the matter at
hand. Respectfully walking through the flock in the after-
noon is permitted, however: this will make the birds more
active. Or scatter some grain. Both will have a positive
effect on the distribution of roosters and hens and their
mating behaviour.
One mating, multiple fertilised eggs
You can keep the males away from the females for part
of the day. This encourages mating behaviour. Because
the semen remains in the oviduct, a female can still lay
fertilised eggs for more than a week after mating. So you
only need to inseminate once a week if you are using AI.
Intimidated hens do not mate
The hens sit on the slats and avoid mating, not mixing in
with the roosters in the scratch area. Either there are too
many aggressive roosters or the roosters gained sexual
maturity far earlier than the hens. Promptly intervene by
reducing the number of roosters. Fertilisation is not only
determined by the quality of the roosters, but also by
the ratio of roosters to hens. 10 to 15 hens per rooster
is standard. While the scared hens will stay on the slats
during the daytime, at night you will find the dominant
hens on the slats.
Broile r Si gnal s
Males
A male that loses weight during the production Comb signs
period is no longer useful for fertilisation. Remove The comb is also an
indicator of rooster
males in bad condition. These roosters do not quality: the differ-
perform and healthy males may eat their portions ences can be clearly
and run the risk of growing too heavy. So weigh seen between these
4 roosters. The two
the males regularly to check their growth. Make roosters in the fore-
sure all males are eating at the same time, and ground are properly
make sure females don’t eat with the males. If not developed, while the
one at the back has
all males are feeding simultaneously, check that a poorly developed
there is enough space for them all to eat at once. comb and the rooster
Are some males afraid to eat with the others? Is in the middle has a
pale comb.
the feeding system hanging in the right position?
Check it. Also measure the height of the feeder
line. First feed the females, then the males a few Males that fight
minutes later. Check whether the males are able amongst themselves
are often the most
to access their feeders easily or whether there are
virile. They also
a lot of males eating with the females. sometimes show
At the beginning 1 rooster to 15 hens is main- some aggression
towards workers.
tained. Too many roosters can lead to conflict.
Since roosters are sometimes found dead in such
a situation, the response by the poultry farmer
could be: adding some extra roosters to compen-
sate. But this will play out negatively. Older roost-
ers will mate less frequently, which is why the
ratio of roosters to hens can be adjusted later to
1:10. Starting from week 40 you can also replace Remove males
with deformed toes
a number of older roosters with young active
because they can
ones. This is called spiking. Alternatively, you can cause serious injury
switch roosters between the houses (= intra- or to females’ flanks.
In addition, there
interspiking). This prevents the introduction of
may be a genetic
diseases via new roosters, although the chances component involved
for success are lower. which may also cause
problems for the
broilers.

LOOK-THINK-ACT
Which male is the best?
A rooster that looks very good (plumage) should be
considered suspicious as it does not necessarily
mate often or successfully. The rooster on the right
is not suitable, while the more rugged looking bird
on the left is a promising rooster. Regularly randomly
pick up a rooster during the round through the house.
A few hours before the light is turned off, the roost-
ers should be actively mating. A rooster that hasn’t
started mating by the age of 30 weeks will not do so
later on can therefore be removed.

C h ap t e r 1 0 . P a re n t b i rds 115
 Vertical transmission Transmitting disease from female
to broiler
In the interest of the broilers, it is important for
the breeders not to transmit infections to their
Young chicks progeny. The same applies to pathogens that
(< 3 weeks): don’t make the parent birds sick. You should
symptoms of
Infection from disease therefore avoid any form of disease introduction
the parent and adhere to the vaccination plan.
animals
(no clinical signs)

Infectious diseases in parent birds that affect their progeny:

Disease Vertical Transmission via Disease potential due Suppression
transmission eggshell to insufficient maternal of broiler’s
antibodies immunity
Bacteria
Salmonella x
Colibacillosis x
Ornithobacterium x x
Mycoplasma x x
Enterococcus x
Clostridium x
Virus
Newcastle’s Disease x
Infectious Bronchitis Abnormal shell x
Gumboro disease x x
Chicken anaemia x x x
Avian encephalitis x x x
Inclusion body hepatitis x x
Reo x x x
Marek’s disease x
Leucosis x x
Avian pneumovirus Abnormal shell
Fungus
Aspergillosis x x x

Eggs may become wet Transmission of a pathogen

with condensation if they after pecking an infected
are transferred from a eggshell is also a major infec-
cool environment to a tion route. The eggshell can
sufficiently warm and become contaminated during
humid environment. This laying (as it passes through the
leads to a risk of infec- vent) and from a contaminated
tions: water can seep nest. The risk of colibacillosis
into the protective layer infections in broilers is greater
surrounding the egg when hatching eggs with faecal
surface (bacteria multiply contamination.
faster in a moisture-rich
environment).

116 Broile r Si gnal s

Chick immunity
The breeder hen can pass on antibodies to her
chicks via the egg. The extent to which this hap-
pens depends on the type of pathogen and the
time that has elapsed between the build-up of the
antibodies and the laying of the egg. Some vac-
cinations of parent birds are therefore aimed to
produce maternal immunity in the progeny. A high
level of antibodies in the egg protects the progeny
against a number of infectious diseases during the
first weeks of their lives. You can also prevent the
transmission of a number of infections from the
hen to the chick through vaccination.
Typical of CAV is the haemorrhaging in the wings – hence
its other name, ‘Blue Wing Disease’. When the young
chicks do not get any antibodies from the parent birds,
they will not be adequately protected against this dis-
ease.
A titre test can shed light on the immune status of breed-
er hens and also the need for vaccinating the chicks.
C h ap t e r 1 0 . P a re n t b i rds
The main diseases against which parent birds are
vaccinated, with a view to maternal immunity:
• Infectious Bronchitis
• Gumboro disease
• Newcastle’s Disease
• Avian Encephalomyelitis (AE)
• Chicken Anaemia Virus (CAV)
• Reo virus
• Ornithobacterium
A live vaccine is highly effective on the bird itself:
it delivers good immunity fast, but it works less
well for the progeny. Killed vaccine has a longer
working life and works better on the egg.
The level of maternal antibodies decreases with
the age of parent bird, unless it comes into con-
tact with the pathogen during the laying period.
This can happen with vaccination in the laying
period, e.g. for IB or after contact with a ‘field
virus’. The build-up of immunity through infection
in the rearing stage also explains why unvaccin-
ated parent birds can still have antibodies against
a pathogen.
The lack of good maternal protection also in-
creases the risk of a pathogen spreading horizon-
tally to the progeny. After all, the immune system
of newborn chicks is not yet fully functional. This
is why mixing chicks of different origins is also
risky. The chicks will have different levels of mater-
nal immunity.
8
When chicks from two parent
7
flocks are mixed, there can be a
substantial variation in antibody
6 levels in the broilers. The ideal
vaccination time for one half of
5
this flock (sample: 28 chicks)
Number of birds
4 is nine days earlier than for the
other half. If you vaccinate at the
3 perfect time for the chicks with
the low titres, the other chicks will
2
not respond to the vaccination,
1 leading to a risk of a disease out-
break. If you wait until the perfect
0 time for the second half of the
Amount of maternal antibodies
(expressed in titre group or 2 log titre) flock, the first half will run a high
risk of infection for nine days.
117
 Young breeder flock
The chicks of young breeders birds are smaller. Warming up for storage
Storing the hatching eggs for long periods
Losses in week 1 will often be higher than with
of time has a negative impact on hatching
breeders aged 30 weeks or more. You can prevent results and bird quality.
these higher losses by increasing the house tem- Temporarily warming up hatching eggs
perature when you introduce the chicks (+ 1-2°C) during the storage period reduces the
and taking extra care to ensure they start eating negative effects of longer storage.
and drinking promptly. Losses of chicks from
young breeders are also influenced by the
composition of the grower feed and the condition/
age of the birds when they come into lay. Less
concentrated grower feed helps reduce losses.
Fertilised, but no hatching egg
At the start of the laying period you’ll get
Always ask the hatchery how old the breeders are
small, double yolked or misshapen eggs.
and whether the flock comes from different farms. Although they are fertilised, they aren’t
You can then take this into account in your man- suitable for use as hatching eggs. The
agement. same applies to dirty or damaged hatching
eggs. The embryos won’t develop or they
will die off during the hatching process.
Mixed origin
Embryos also die if the eggs are not stored
Eggs of differing origins are sometimes mixed in properly or are shaken too much during
the hatchery. If this happens with older hens of 40 transportation.
weeks and 45 weeks, then this is not a problem.
But if eggs from 30-week-old hens are mixed with
those from 35-week hens, then the differences in
the eggs and the resulting day-old chicks will be
too great.

The bigger the difference in size, the greater the risk that
some of the eggs will be improperly incubated. This is
not good for embryo development and therefore impacts
on bird quality. Large eggs (from old breeders) also run a
greater risk of sustaining transport damage, due to their
thinner shell and because they don’t fit in the transport
trays as well.

Make sure that there are as few floor eggs as possible. Floor
eggs are dirty and should not be incubated. The eggshell of
floor eggs can contain over 1,000 more bacteria than eggs
laid in a nest. Floor eggs therefore form a high risk of bad
chick quality.

118 Broile r Si gnal s

Hatching eggs
Conditions during hatching play a key role in both
the hatching success rate and chick quality. Sticky
or dehydrated chicks, open navels, small, pale,
underdeveloped chicks, weak (exhausted) chicks,
missing eyes, swollen abdomens with hard yolk
sacs, head abnormalities (wry neck, cross-bill),
red spot on beak, red hocks and deformed claws
all point to issues with the incubation conditions.

Exploding eggs

Floor eggs and dirty eggs harbour large numbers of bac-

Exploding eggs burst open in the incubator,
infecting the other eggs. This is caused by
an accumulation of rotting gases in the egg
produced by pathogens. Incubating damaged
eggs, dirty eggs, eggs with abnormal shells
or fungus-infected eggs increases the risk of
exploding eggs in the incubator. For example,
an egg infected with Salmonella that bursts in
the hatcher will infect all the eggs (and birds) in
the hatcher. Careful selection of hatching eggs
prevents this.
teria on their shells. These can infect the embryo in the
egg (exploding eggs) or during hatching. Washing these
dirty eggs reduces the risk of exploding. But this needs
to be done thoroughly and with clean water. If there is
a shortage of hatching eggs, dirty eggs may need to
be incubated. This should be done in separate setters
(logistic hatching), so that chicks from dirty eggs do not
contaminate the good chicks from clean eggs. However,
the chicks that emerge from dirty eggs are often mixed
with a batch of chicks from good hatching eggs, which
increases the risk of losses since chicks from dirty eggs
may be carrying harmful pathogens.
Disinfection of hatching eggs

Eggs should cool down first

To prevent death and infections, hatching eggs

The cooling down of eggs is a natural and neces-
sary process. Breeder hens also lay eggs at inter-
vals, letting them cool in between. But beware: the
dirt on the shell can enter the egg during cooling, as
the inner contents shrink slightly during cooling and
the dirt is drawn into the resulting space.
can be disinfected. This is done prior to incuba-
tion, so that the embryo won’t be damaged.
If hatching eggs are disinfected with formalin in
the pre-incubation machine, they are at high risk
of embryonic death. The formalin penetrates the
shell. The use of formalin is not permitted in all
countries.

C h ap t e r 1 0 . P a re n t b i rds 119
 Index

Acute heat stress 88 Disinfecting 45 Hygiene 46 Probiotics 78

Air velocity 29 Draught 29 Immunity 117 Protein 79
Airway problems 89 Drinking 32, 57 Indexes 19 Quail disease 105
Anatomy 12 Drinking cups 32 Indoor climate 22, 86 Quality of droppings 99
Anatomy (airways) 85 Drinking lines 57 Infection pressure 45 Respiratory infections 85
Animal welfare 20 Drinking nipples 32 Infectious diseases 116 Respiratory signals 84
Antibiotics 71 Drinking position 32 Inspection 7 Risk analysis 10
Antibodies 103 Drinking water systems 32 Knee 92 Roof ventilation 28, 31
Anticoccidial 81 Drinking water vaccination 69 Lame 93 Rotation programme 81
Antimicrobial growth Dust 86 Lameness 92 Salmonella 103
promoters 78 Dysbacteriosis 79 Large intestine 73 Senses (animal) 11
Arrival 42 Ears 11 Leg infections 91 Senses (humans) 6
Ascites 101 Eating 56 leg problems 91, 96 Sexual maturity 114
Bacterial enteritis 79 Effective temperature 29 Leg quality 90 Shank 92
Beak 11, 73 Emptying trays 53 Light 40 Signals (animal) 7
Bell drinkers 32 Enterococcal infection 93 Light colour 65 Signals (figures) 16
Biofilm 36 Environment 20 Light intensity 66 Signs from droppings 74, 76
Biosecurity 41 Exploding eggs 119 Litter 38, 98 Skeleton 13
Block lighting 65 Eyes 11 Litter quality 39, 97 Skin colour 104
Body temperature 52 Farm blindness 9 Loading 107 Skin scratches 96
Botulism 93 Feed 56 Longitudinal ventilation 28, 31 Slaughter 100
Breathing 84 Feed additives 78 Main parameters 18 Slaughter report 44, 109
Breeder flock 118 Feed conversion 19, 100 Malabsorption syndrome Small intestine 73
Breeds 104 Feed ingredients 77 (MAS) 83 Spiking mortality syndrome 66
Bruising 109 Feed intake 18 Males 115 Spray vaccination 69
Caecum 73 Feed pan 25 Management cycle 17 Standards 16
Cage systems 23 Feed samples 14 Manure belt 23 Starter feed 15
Campylobacter 103 Feed strategy 15 Marek’s disease 105 Stocking density 43
Carbon dioxide 67 Feed transition 15, 83 Mating behaviour 113 Stomachs 73
Carcass 111 Feet 94 Meat processing 100 Structure 14
Catching 108 Field of vision 11 Mechanical ventilation 28 Sudden death syndrome 62
Causes of death 61 Finisher feed 15 Mesh floor systems 23 Temperature 26, 54
Chick distribution 55 Flock 7 Minimum ventilation 67 Tongue 11
Chick paper 48 Floor rearing 30 Moisture content 75 Transport risks 49
Choking 101 Flushing 37 Mollier diagram 26 Tunnel ventilation 28, 31
Chronic heat stress 88 Footpad lesions 95 Mortality 19, 60, 101 Unclassified notable
Cleaning 25, 45, 46 Frequency 17 Mortality rate 61 observations 10
Climate 21, 27 Gout 57 Mycotoxins 77 Uniformity 58
Cloaca (vent) 73 Grower feed 15 Natural ventilation 28 Vaccinating 53, 70
Clostridium 79 Growth 19, 62, 113 Navel infection 59 Vaccination 68
Coccidiosis 80, 102 Growth curve 14 Navels 52 Vaccination date 68
Coccidiostats 15 Growth promoters 78 Need for warmth 22 Vaccination fluid 69
Cold-blooded 54 Growth retardation 19, 58 Noise signs 89 Vaccination methods 69
Comb signs 115 Gut development 59 Non Medicated Finisher Ventilation 24, 28, 30, 31, 99
Combination ventilation Gut flora 50 feed 15 Vermin 47
systems 28 Gut health 72 Nose 11 Vulnerable birds 8
Critical times 10 Gut infection 79 Oesophagus 73 Vulnerable: young chicks 35
Crop 73 Gut problems 82 Oils 78 Water 37, 48
Crop fill 56, 66 Gut scrapings 75 Organs 13 Water intake 18, 32
Crop-full 73 Hatching eggs 119 Outdoor climate 21 Water output 33
Cross ventilation 28 Heat 87 Parasites 105 Water quality 33, 34, 35
Danger zones 10 Heat stress 27, 87, 101 Parent birds 112 Water/feed ratio 18, 35
Data recording 17 Heating 24 Pellets 14 Wind chill factor 29
Day-old chicks 51 Hip 92 Phase feeding 15 Windpipe 85
Development 62, 72 Hock 92, 94 Physical traits 64 Yolk inflammation 59
Disease transmission 116 Hot litter 98 Plumage 83, 113
Diseases 105 Housing 21 Prebiotics 78
Disinfectants 45 Husbandry systems 23, 104 Preparation 42

120 Broile r Si gnal s

Use all your senses

If you only look out. for techn ieal aspects (daily girowth, feed
and1 water consumption, ,etc.), you may miss other import­
ant signals from the· broilers and their living environment
Always use a11 your senses.

Ud�1110 t11eir l!!nJ,altilng. You'll lie-ar If the,re

are any probltms.
ll!)s(!f'lle tho birds' b11oovJo�r.
how do 111ey reac1 to you?

What can yo� smell or do yollr �s st[ng? Feel whelher the chick has eaten good
A predominant smell O'I am11:1□�ia iooicatees feed amd enough feed.
hol. litler,
 BR0 1ILER
A
broi I ers s Ii e a ormula 1 race: S'IGN LS
there's no time for m sta e�. � A practica.l
g ide to
broiler focused
management

BAiifers are fast growing animals that need constant care. There is no time for
co:rreetin !l mistakes. And when something goes wrong, it can often be expensive
Therefore, it is essential to prevent mistakes, Your birds co:ra1inuousty send out
signals: about their hearnll 1 how well tilley know their way arouml the lr surround­
ings. and whether they feel happy and comfortable. Proper management starts
wlth recognising, those signaTs in practice.

Do, ym1 recognise the slignals your birds are g ivjng? For the poultry farmer this
means being alert in the hroiler house, obseNing and listening to the bfrls. Ob­
serve in.dii.iiduial birds and the flock.
Amt do you know what to do ·when the ch ieks are s:pBlf ng Ioo :much feed 1 �r have
dirty :feathers? Do you know the diH0J1eR1::e belwe1 ell abnormal, runny dro,ppingiS
and healU/ly caecal droppings,? Andi how do you recognise llungry chicks wben
the 1lo0t llas just been set up?

The book Broiler Signals ,follows tbe cycle on a broi !er

farm. Every stage is. disoussed and i rnporfant aspects
ru-e hlghlighf:e dl.
1

This broileT focused ma e.gement will im,pro,ve the

production and welfare of the b.reilers and 1hus thie
poultry: rarmBr 1S economic results.

IJroJrer Signals is a practical guide that ·shows yot 1

how to 1pio'.k up the signa
. ls gi11en by ycur animals at an
early stag:e, how to interpret them ar1.d what aclion to
take.
8roilmS/gflal.sJspmofth{jS1JcressfulPooih:ySi'!JfN]fSOsetfes,
Po.1/ft,y Sfgna.fd'. prKents practlral knlowtwge or anlrntl ori­
enled poultl}t faim1n.� in an OOS)', a.ceessi!lle tOl"mat.

ROODllQq"I
I AGt!CIILIURA �UUISNU:S

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