Revitalisation of Dead Languages

With Reference to the Kaurna Language

By Emma Lang
11825110

PS Topics in Applied Linguistics (Historical Linguistics)

Dr.phil. MA Nikola Jokic

Karl-Franzens University Graz

Winter Semester 2022/23
Content

1 Introduction....................................................................................................................................2
2 Dead Languages.............................................................................................................................3
2.1 Types of language death.........................................................................................................4
3 The Kaurna Language....................................................................................................................6
3.1 Current status..........................................................................................................................7
4 The Process of Language Revitalisation.........................................................................................7
4.1 Revitalisation programme of the Kaurna language.................................................................9
5 Conclusion....................................................................................................................................11
6 Bibliography.................................................................................................................................12

2
1 Introduction

Language is a key part of a person’s identity. It is a unique form of human expression, cultural
identify as well as historical knowledge. As our world becomes more interconnected and as
dominant languages continue to spread, many minority languages are at risk of disappearing.
Language death often occurs when a language is no longer passed down from one generation
to the next which is often due to factors such as cultural assimilation, political oppression or
globalisation. Language death is a highly complex issue that has significant social, cultural
and intellectual consequences. To the native speakers of the language, the death of their
language is often connected to the loss of their unique way of seeing and understanding the
world. When a language dies, often times the traditions of that culture die with it. As the
extinction of languages has such dire consequences efforts are being made around the world
to preserve these endangered languages before they are eternally lost. These attempts of
revitalisation take on many forms and include many different programmes.

This paper aims to provide a definition for ‘language death’ and aims to give insight into the
different types of language death and provide an explanation of these. Furthermore, the
revitalisation of these dead languages will be explained and the revitalisation attempts will be
described. Lastly the theoretical input will be applied to an example of language death,
namely the Kaurna language of the aboriginal people of the Adelaide Plains in Australia. The
history of the language will be briefly touched upon as will the current status of the language.
Following this, the revitalisation attempts of the Kaurna language will be explained. The
information given in this paper about the Kaurna language are mainly sourced from
University Professor at the University of Adelaide, Rob Amery. Rob Amery has been working
with aboriginal communities since the 1980s and has been involved in the Kaurna
revitalisation project for two decades now. He is part of the Kaurna Warra Pintyanthi (KWP)
Team that are to this day working on the revitalisation of the Kaurna language.

2 Dead Languages

Throughout history language speakers have continuously given up their native language for
another language. Often the language was given up for that of a foreign conqueror. (Hock
2019:392) Language loss has been around since pre-historic times, but the most severe losses
3
occurred during the European colonialisation. Since this period language loss has been
accelerating. Today linguists mainly work with indigenous/aboriginal languages but are also
concerned with dialect loss and the loss of enclaved languages as both of these sectors share
similar fates (Tsonuda 2005: 36). In today’s world there are currently around 6000 languages
being spoken and around 250 nations meaning that the majority of languages do not belong to
a country. This poses a problem as languages that do not belong to a government or act as a
language of communication are usually under threat. (Hinton 2013: 3) Indigenous languages
make up a big portion of the world’s endangered and dead languages.

According to the Oxford dictionary dead languages are defined by ‘one (a language) no
longer ordinarily spoken’. (Dead Language Oxford Dictionary) Amery refers to the
differentiation between classically regarded ‘dead languages’ and aboriginal languages. 1 The
author explains that when thinking of dead languages most people tend to think of Latin or
Sanskrit. While these are dead languages, they are considerably different to the dead
aboriginal languages in many ways. Latin and Sanskrit have changed and evolved over
centuries and have birthed many daughter languages while this is not the case for indigenous
languages. While speakers of Latin or Sanskrit died during its use the language did not die
with them because of the evolution and adaptation. When speakers of indigenous languages
die, the language often dies with them. Most of the Australian indigenous languages have died
because of language shift rather than of language change. 2 (Amery 2016: 21-23)

2.1 Types of language death

The death of a language passes through various phases and cannot be defined by a simple
definition. Tsunoda explains that language death is often used in a metaphorical sense as
languages do not die but rather cease to be used. Tsonuda provides four factors by which
language death can be characterised:

1) Locus of language death

2) Degree of proficiency

1
Amery explains his dislike towards the terms such as ‘dead’ and ‘extinct’ language as it gives the community
of the concerned language a feeling of hopelessness and the implication of the status not being able to be
changed. (Amery 2016: 22)
2
Some linguists do not even deem Latin as a dead language because it does not fit their criteria for exinct
languages. (Amery 2016: 22-23)

4
 3) Use of the language as a vehicle for communication
4) Transmission of the language to children

There are several definitions of language death that contain various different components.
Languages can, for example, cease to develop meaning that the language is no longer
undergoing change. They can also cease to be transmitted. In this case elder members of the
community no longer transmit the language to the young learners of the community. A
language can be considered dead if this scenario occurs. Another form of language death is
the disuse of a language in the whole of the community. However, this scenario often occurs
after languages ceases to be transmitted. It is seldom the case that languages are still being
transmitted while not being used as a vehicle of communication. A language can also cease to
be transmitted in all families. Languages may be spoken and taught to children in a small
number of families. If these families, however, also stop transmitting the language the
language will gradually die. In addition to this, Tsunoda also mentions the language disuse in
all families. In this case a language may not be use as a vehicle of communication in the
community as a whole but is still used in a small number of families. If the use is also ceased
in the small number of families, the language is considered dead. (Tsonuda 2005: 63-68)

A language may be deemed as dead when all the native or fluent speakers pass away.
(Tsonuda 2005:) However, Crystal argues that a language can already be considered as dead
when there is only one native speaker left. She argues that a language can only be considered
to be ‘alive’ if there can be a discourse between at least two people. (Crystal 2014: 11) When
a language becomes extinct, the world is left with ‘rememberers’, second language speakers
and researchers. According to Campbell and Muntzel there are various types of language
death. These types have been developed by analysing the cause, the speed of a given language
death as well as the combination of cause and speed involved in language death.

1: Cause

The cause of language death can be classified through two factors. Firstly, the cause of
language death can occur due to the death of a population. A language will be considered
dead if the entire population who speaks it dies as well. In history this type of death has been
caused by warfare, genocide, extermination as well as natural disasters. This type of language
death is also referred to as ‘glottocide’. This form of language death is a lot rarer than death
due to language shift. There have however, been numerous incidents of glottocide throughout

5
history. Secondly the death of a language can occur because the speakers of a language shift
to the use of another. Unlike in glottocide the speakers of a language still exist but the
language dies during their lifetime. The minority language slowly gets replaced by the
dominant language.

2: Speed

There are two types of speed in which a language can die. It can either die instantly or
gradually. Instant death is more uncommon than gradual death. Tsonuda points out that the
speed in which a language dies is very subjective as there is no set scale on which can be
measured when a language death is considered instantaneous or slow. The author explains
that decade long death can still be considered instant and makes clear that context is highly
important in these observations.

3: Combination of cause and speed

While cause and speed are independent from each other the combination of the two creates
the classification of; sudden glottocide, gradual glottocide, sudden language shift and gradual
language shift in language death. Sudden glottocide occurs when a population suddenly dies
out which is fairly uncommon. Gradual glottocide describes the slow reduction of a
population. This slow reduction will continue until there is only one language speaker left
which is also fairly uncommon. Sudden language shift happens when a population suddenly
switches to another language. The most common cause of language death, however, is gradual
language shift. In this type of death a group of people slowly shift to another language.
Usually this starts with bilingualism, then is followed a proficiency change and results in
cessation of language transmission. (Tsonuda 2005 :69-74)

3 The Kaurna Language

The Kaurna language was spoken by the Kaurna people who resided in the Adelaide Plains
located in South Australia. The people are a small minority that were dispersed throughout
large metropolitan cities as well as the surrounding country towns. The Kaurna language 3 has
not been used as an everyday language for communication for more than a century. According

3
In history the Kaurna people were often referred to as the ‘Adelaide Tribe’ although other names were also in
use. The Kaurna language was therefore also known as ‘the Adelaide language’ but now is strictly referred to as
Kaurna. (Amery 2016: 3)
6
to Amery the last woman who spoke the language died in 1929. In addition, there are no
sound recordings of the language as it was used in the past century however, there are limited
print sources that exist. Most documents come from the period of the first colonialisation of
South Australia and the contemporary period. Most of what is known about the Kaurna
language has been learnt through oral history. The members of the community pass on
information amongst themselves throughout many generations. (Amery 2016 :3-6)

3.1 Current status

Almost all words that are known and are unique to solely Kaurna are placenames as these
often appeared on maps or common words that were shared by neighbouring communities.
The Kaurna language that was spoken in the 19th century was only able to be recorded by non-
aboriginal observers. Information about the language can also be found in aboriginal art, still
many aspects of the language remain unknown and unknowable. (Amery 2012: 265–273)
Kaurna people are currently in the process of reclaiming their identity as well as revitalising
their language which by many of the community was seen as ‘sleeping’ 4. This is part of the
general aboriginal movement in Australia today that is experiencing a cultural renaissance.
The Kaurna people wish their names and words to be spelled and pronounced correctly and
have uttered the desire of places in the Adelaide Plains receiving aboriginal names. It has also
been attempted to decode the meaning of the placenames which has been proven very difficult
as there is no set criteria on how to decode words. (Amery 2016: 180-187) Kaurna people
today refer to themselves as Nunga, aboriginals, Narungga or Ngarrindjeri people while very
few actually called themselves Kaurna. However, this is currently changing. More and more
of the aboriginals refer to themselves as Kaurna. (Amery 2014:7)

4 The Process of Language Revitalisation

Language revitalisation of extinct languages is very challenging, and the process of

revitalisation often varies from language to language.5 Many linguists state that total

4
Amery explains that many of the Kaurna people do not see their language as ‘dead’ or ‘extinct’ while most
linguists have deemed the language as truly ‘dead’. (Amery 2016: 3-5)
5
Hock also begs the question if linguists should even interfere with language death or if dead languages should
be left and accepted as part of history. The author asks if linguists have a social responsibility in this case or not.
This question is answered very differently by different linguists. (Hock 2019: 397)
7
immersion is the most efficient way to fluency, however, all languages have different
prerequisites and different needs. (Daigenault 2019)

A well-known example of the immersion method is the creation of ‘language nests’ in which
toddlers and other beginners are being taught the language from semi-fluent elders. This
teaching happens on a regular basis, however, is not applicable for long extinct languages
such as Kaurna. The method has proven to be successful for newly extinct languages or
endangered languages and promotes the strengthening of cultural identity amongst
community members. The immersion method requires significant funding and resources to be
successful in the long-term and is easier to implement in countries that do not have a large
linguistic diversity. (Daigenault 2019)

Hinton refers to language revitalisation as

‘the development of programs that result in re-establishing a language which has

been ceased being the language of communication in speech community and bringing
it back into full use in all walks of life’ (Hinton 2013:5)

This type of revitalisation can be applied to endangered languages as well as dead languages.
Hinton adds that for languages that are nearly or completely extinct and languages of a
smaller community the goal might be smaller. These groups might not want to achieve
complete fluency but rather want to assure the continuation of their language through select
people. Hinton also mentions that the revitalisation process is highly specific to each language
and also very dependent on the resources available. This automatically means that small
communities with fewer resources will find it harder to revitalise their language. There are
always some levels of revitalisation that are possible, however. According to Hinton and
Daigneault all it takes to start the revitalisation process is one person who is dedicated to the
cause.

A model that likes to be used as a guide for language revitalisation is that of Fisher. Fisher’s
model was designed to reverse language shift and encompasses eight steps. This model was
largely based on the Hebrew RSL model and is the basis of Hinton’s revised model. As each
language revitalisation process is unique there are various approaches being taken. Most of
these can be grouped into five categories: 1) school-based programmes, 2) children’s
programmes outside of school, 3) adult language programs, 4) documentation and materials
development and 5) home-based programs. In the spirit of brevity, the programmes within the
categories will not be explained in detail.

8
In school programmes curricula might feature endangered language as a subject, bilingual
education, immersion schools or classrooms, as well as a language and culture subject.
Children’s programmes outside of school can either maintain the work that has been done in
school or be completely independent from it. Examples for these programmes would be after
school classes or summer courses. Popular amongst adults and families are evening classes of
various kinds. Documentation and materials development is important for endangered
languages. As speakers are dying out it is of great importance to preserve the knowledge that
is still there for future generations. The importance of records is exemplified by the Kaurna
language. If there were no remnants of the language there would be no way to revitalise it.
Home based programmes promote the phenomenon of bilingualism. Parents are encouraged
to raise their children bilingually which can be achieved through the ‘one parent one
language’ method. In this method one parent only speaks their native language to the child.
(Hinton 2013: 7-13)

4.1 Revitalisation programme of the Kaurna language

According to Amery the revitalisation attempt of the Kaurna language faces big challenges,
and the successful revitalisation faces great odds. However, the author reports that there have
been positive results in various criteria. Amery also questions this observation and argues that
it is impossible to revitalise the language as one of everyday communication. Currently
governments in Australia are slowly recognising the challenges indigenous people face and
are paying more attention to granting and preserving their rights. The trend currently shows
that the cultures and therefore the languages are not going to be forgotten in the near future.
The revival of the Kaurna language is a small step forward in this process. Amery stresses that
this is not a ‘fad’ that will soon fade into oblivion. The status of the Kaurna language has
already been lifted from ‘extinct’. It is now seen as an important and worth-while pursuit
which has been proven successful by the already conducted research and schooling.

The revitalisation of the Kaurna language involves restoring the language as well as
transforming it. Today mostly the phonology and the lexicon of the Kaurna language have
been analysed and worked with. According to Amery the language will develop slowly at a
pace that is acceptable to the Kaurna community. Rushing the revitalisation can lead to

9
alienating the language to the community. The sources that still exist of the Karuna language
are analysed according to closely linked neighbour languages. While comparing the Kaurna
language to languages that are very similar, linguist are able to distinguish patterns and in
future will be able to establish norms. The sound of Kaurna is still needing to be discovered.
There have been no sound recordings of the language, so linguist have to, with the help of
written observations of the language, attempt to figure out the sounds of the words that are
known of the language. The pronunciation is still being analysed and established by relying
on the Nukunu language that shares many similarities with the Kaurna language. (Amery
2016: 142-153)

Lexical resources are being recovered from the available historic sources and are being made
available to the community and Kaurna programmes. The lexicon is consistently being
updated. Grammar and syntax of the language is currently being written and reconstituted.
The word order of the Kaurna language is flexible, although teachers usually tend to use a
SOV structure. The Kaurna language is also known to have past tenses that are distinguished
by various affixes. Discourse features of the language are still fairly unknown because of the
scarcity of texts. Most of the Kaurna texts that still exist are ‘dream texts’. All contemporary
Kaurna texts today have been developed as translations of English texts. Kaurna people have
coined new terms and created neologisms in order for them to speak about life in the 21 st
century. (Amery 2016: 152-155)

Kaurna language activities within the education sector began slowly with little funding but
were well received. These inspired the first Kaurna establishment within the LOTE (Language
other than English) programme which was established in all levels of education within 5
years. While the number of students was still small the programme gained a lot of
respectability and received financial funding. There has been growing interest throughout the
Adelaide region to implement Kaurna language programmes. The programmes are offered to
adults and children of all ages. Meanwhile there are many different programmes at different
educational institutions. All of the programmes feature involvement of the Kaurna
community. The programmes feature many different revitalisation techniques while the
language is still being discovered by linguists. (Amery 2016: 165-1879

An example of a programme would be the Nunga students that have been offered workshops
which were well received and have proven to have a positive and identity strengthening effect
of the members of the community. The members have felt pride in their culture and felt
encouraged to work with other aboriginal students in order to keep their traditions alive. It has
10
also had a healing effect for the marginalised and often repressed group. In the eyes of the
Kaurna people the revitalisation has been successful even though according to Amery only
time will tell if the process will be truly successful. At the moment the process of the
revitalisation of the Kaurna language is still in its early stages. Not only the Kaurna people
have deemed this revitalisation attempt as successful, also the formal education sector and
political sectors share this opinion. (Amery 2016: 16-21)

5 Conclusion

Language death is the process in which a language, usually a minority language, ceases to be
used. The death of a language can have many reasons, the main reason being gradual
language shift. Languages shift when native speakers of a language over time tend to use a
dominant language more than their own. These minority languages then slowly fade into
oblivion making them extinct. The revitalisation attempt of the Kaurna language is a
collaborative effort between many different institutions. Currently the most prominent
organisation the KWP is promoting the use of the language and is raising awareness of
Kaurna history and culture. The revitalisation began with the collection and analysis of
existing records which included written materials by observers of the language. With these
records lexicon, syntax grammar and discourse features are currently still being developed
and discovered. A range of initiatives promoting the use of the Kaurna language have been
developed that feature language classes for everyone, workshops for schools and community
groups as well as dictionaries and materials. The revitalisation of the Kaurna language is an
ongoing process that is not easy. The KWP is continually working with community members
in order to develop new initiatives and programmes. The revitalisation has so far been
successful, and the language is no longer considered dead.

11
6 Bibliography

Amery, Rob & Buckskin, Vincent (Jack) Kanya. (2014). “Pinning down Kaurna names:
Linguistic issues arising in the deelopment of the Kaurna Placenames Database”. In:
Indigenous and Minority Placenames, Australian and International Perspectives.
Australian National University Press. p. 187-212.

Amery, Rob. (2016) Warraparna Kaurna!: Reclaiming an Australian Language.

Adelaide: University of Adelaide Press.

Amery, R. (2012). “The History of Aboriginal Languages and Linguistics at the University of
Adelaide”. In; N. Harvey, J. Fornasiero, G. McCarthy, C. Macintyre, & C. Crossin
(Eds.), A History of the Faculty of Arts at the University of Adelaide: 1876-2012 (pp.
265–298). University of Adelaide Press.

Crystal, D. (2014). Language Death. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Daigneault, A. L. (2019). How to Resurrect Dying Languages. Sapiens:

https://www.sapiens.org/language/language-revitalization/ (2023, February 06).

Dead Language.(n. d.). Oxford Learner’s Dictionary. [Online]. Oxford Dictionary.

https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/dead_1#:~:text=a%20dead
%20language%20(%3D%20one,longer%20spoken%2C%20for%20example%20Latin) (2023,
February 12).

Hinton, Leanne. (2013) The Green Book of Language Revitalization in Practice. Berkley,
California: Academic Press
Hock, H. H., & Joseph, B.D. (2019). Language History, Language Change, and Language
Relationships. Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter.

King, K. A. (2001). Language Revitalization Processesand Prospects. (ed. N. Hornberger, &

C. Baker) Clevedon, Buffalo, Toronto, Sydney : Multilingual Matters LTD.

Tsunoda, T. (2005). Language Endangerment and Language Revitalization. Berlin, New

York: Mouton de Gruyter.

12