Air pollution

“Bad air quality” and “Air quality” redirect here. For the 1 Pollutants
obsolete medical theory, see Bad air. For the measure
of how polluted the air is, see Air quality index. For the Main articles: Pollutant and Greenhouse gas
properties of air, see Qualities of air.
Air pollution is the introduction of particulates,

Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere if half of global-

warming emissions[3][4] are not absorbed.
(NASA simulation; 9 November 2015)

Air pollution from a fossil-fuel power station

Nitrogen dioxide 2014 - global air quality levels

(released 14 December 2015).[5]

An air pollutant is a substance in the air that can have

adverse effects on humans and the ecosystem. The sub-
biological molecules, or other harmful materials into stance can be solid particles, liquid droplets, or gases. A
Earth’s atmosphere, causing diseases, death to humans, pollutant can be of natural origin or man-made. Pollu-
damage to other living organisms such as animals and tants are classified as primary or secondary. Primary pol-
lutants are usually produced from a process, such as ash
food crops, or the natural or built environment. Air pol-
lution may come from anthropogenic or natural sources. from a volcanic eruption. Other examples include carbon
monoxide gas from motor vehicle exhaust, or the sulfur
The atmosphere is a complex natural gaseous system that dioxide released from factories. Secondary pollutants are
is essential to support life on planet Earth. Stratospheric not emitted directly. Rather, they form in the air when
ozone depletion due to air pollution has been recognized primary pollutants react or interact. Ground level ozone
as a threat to human health as well as to the Earth’s is a prominent example of a secondary pollutant. Some
ecosystems. pollutants may be both primary and secondary: they are
Indoor air pollution and urban air quality are listed as both emitted directly and formed from other primary pol-
two of the world’s worst toxic pollution problems in the lutants.
2008 Blacksmith Institute World’s Worst Polluted Places Major primary pollutants produced by human activity in-
report.[1] According to the 2014 WHO report, air pollu- clude:
tion in 2012 caused the deaths of around 7 million people
worldwide.[2] • Sulfur oxides (SOₓ) - particularly sulfur dioxide, a

1
2 1
Before flue-gas desulfurization was installed, the emissions from
this power plant in New Mexico contained excessive amounts of
sulfur dioxide.
3
CH4 CO2
1 CFC
SOX
5 4 PM
O3
6 NOX 2 nificant amounts of aerosols. Averaged world-
Schematic drawing, causes and effects of air pollution: (1) green-
house effect, (2) particulate contamination, (3) increased UV ra-
diation, (4) acid rain, (5) increased ground level ozone concen-
tration, (6) increased levels of nitrogen oxides.
chemical compound with the formula SO2 . SO2
is produced by volcanoes and in various industrial
processes. Coal and petroleum often contain sulfur
compounds, and their combustion generates sulfur
dioxide. Further oxidation of SO2 , usually in the
presence of a catalyst such as NO2 , forms H2 SO4 ,
and thus acid rain.[2] This is one of the causes for
concern over the environmental impact of the use of
these fuels as power sources.
• Nitrogen oxides (NOₓ) - Nitrogen oxides, particu-
larly nitrogen dioxide, are expelled from high tem-
perature combustion, and are also produced during
thunderstorms by electric discharge. They can be
seen as a brown haze dome above or a plume down-
wind of cities. Nitrogen dioxide is a chemical com-
pound with the formula NO2 . It is one of several
nitrogen oxides. One of the most prominent air pol-
lutants, this reddish-brown toxic gas has a charac-
teristic sharp, biting odor.
• Carbon monoxide (CO) - CO is a colorless, odor-
less, toxic yet non-irritating gas. It is a product by
incomplete combustion of fuel such as natural gas,
POLLUTANTS
coal or wood. Vehicular exhaust is a major source
of carbon monoxide.
• Volatile organic compounds (VOC) - VOCs are a
well-known outdoor air pollutant. They are cate-
gorized as either methane (CH4 ) or non-methane
(NMVOCs). Methane is an extremely efficient
greenhouse gas which contributes to enhanced
global warming. Other hydrocarbon VOCs are also
significant greenhouse gases because of their role in
creating ozone and prolonging the life of methane
in the atmosphere. This effect varies depending on
local air quality. The aromatic NMVOCs benzene,
toluene and xylene are suspected carcinogens and
may lead to leukemia with prolonged exposure. 1,3-
butadiene is another dangerous compound often as-
sociated with industrial use.
• Particulates, alternatively referred to as particu-
late matter (PM), atmospheric particulate matter,
or fine particles, are tiny particles of solid or liq-
uid suspended in a gas. In contrast, aerosol refers
to combined particles and gas. Some particulates
occur naturally, originating from volcanoes, dust
storms, forest and grassland fires, living vegeta-
tion, and sea spray. Human activities, such as the
burning of fossil fuels in vehicles, power plants
and various industrial processes also generate sig-
wide, anthropogenic aerosols—those made by hu-
man activities—currently account for approximately
10 percent of our atmosphere. Increased levels of
fine particles in the air are linked to health hazards
such as heart disease,[6] altered lung function and
lung cancer.
• Persistent free radicals connected to airborne fine
particles are linked to cardiopulmonary disease.[7][8]
• Toxic metals, such as lead and mercury, especially
their compounds.
• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) - harmful to the ozone
layer; emitted from products are currently banned
from use. These are gases which are released
from air conditioners, refrigerators, aerosol sprays,
etc. CFC’s on being released into the air rises to
stratosphere. Here they come in contact with other
gases and damage the ozone layer. This allows
harmful ultraviolet rays to reach the earth’s surface.
This can lead to skin cancer, disease to eye and can
even cause damage to plants.
• Ammonia (NH3 ) - emitted from agricultural pro-
cesses. Ammonia is a compound with the formula
NH3 . It is normally encountered as a gas with a
characteristic pungent odor. Ammonia contributes
significantly to the nutritional needs of terrestrial or-
ganisms by serving as a precursor to foodstuffs and
fertilizers. Ammonia, either directly or indirectly,
1.1 Sources 3

is also a building block for the synthesis of many 1.1 Sources

pharmaceuticals. Although in wide use, ammonia is
both caustic and hazardous. In the atmosphere, am-
monia reacts with oxides of nitrogen and sulfur to
form secondary particles.[9]
• Odours — such as from garbage, sewage, and indus-
trial processes
• Radioactive pollutants - produced by nuclear explo-
sions, nuclear events, war explosives, and natural
processes such as the radioactive decay of radon.

Secondary pollutants include:

This video provides an overview of a NASA study on the human
fingerprint on global air quality.
• Particulates created from gaseous primary pollu-
tants and compounds in photochemical smog. Smog
is a kind of air pollution. Classic smog results from
large amounts of coal burning in an area caused by a
mixture of smoke and sulfur dioxide. Modern smog
does not usually come from coal but from vehicular
and industrial emissions that are acted on in the at-
mosphere by ultraviolet light from the sun to form
secondary pollutants that also combine with the pri-
mary emissions to form photochemical smog.
• Ground level ozone (O3 ) formed from NOₓ and
VOCs. Ozone (O3 ) is a key constituent of the tro-
posphere. It is also an important constituent of cer-
tain regions of the stratosphere commonly known as
the Ozone layer. Photochemical and chemical re- Dust storm approaching Stratford, Texas.
actions involving it drive many of the chemical pro-
cesses that occur in the atmosphere by day and by
night. At abnormally high concentrations brought
about by human activities (largely the combustion
of fossil fuel), it is a pollutant, and a constituent of
smog.
• Peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) - similarly formed from
NOₓ and VOCs.

Minor air pollutants include:

Controlled burning of a field outside of Statesboro, Georgia in

• A large number of minor hazardous air pollutants.
preparation for spring planting.
Some of these are regulated in USA under the Clean
Air Act and in Europe under the Air Framework Di-
rective There are various locations, activities or factors which are
responsible for releasing pollutants into the atmosphere.
• A variety of persistent organic pollutants, which can These sources can be classified into two major categories.
attach to particulates
Anthropogenic (man-made) sources:

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic com- These are mostly related to the burning of multiple types
pounds that are resistant to environmental degradation of fuel.
through chemical, biological, and photolytic processes.
Because of this, they have been observed to persist in • Stationary sources include smoke stacks of power
the environment, to be capable of long-range transport, plants, manufacturing facilities (factories) and waste
bioaccumulate in human and animal tissue, biomagnify incinerators, as well as furnaces and other types of
in food chains, and to have potentially significant impacts fuel-burning heating devices. In developing and
on human health and the environment. poor countries, traditional biomass burning is the
4 2 AIR POLLUTION EXPOSURE

major source of air pollutants; traditional biomass 1.2 Emission factors

includes wood, crop waste and dung.[10][11]
Main article: AP 42 Compilation of Air Pollutant Emis-
• Mobile sources include motor vehicles, marine ves-
sion Factors
sels, and aircraft.
Air pollutant emission factors are reported representa-
• Controlled burn practices in agriculture and forest
management. Controlled or prescribed burning is
a technique sometimes used in forest management,
farming, prairie restoration or greenhouse gas abate-
ment. Fire is a natural part of both forest and grass-
land ecology and controlled fire can be a tool for
foresters. Controlled burning stimulates the germi-
nation of some desirable forest trees, thus renewing
the forest. Beijing air on a 2005-day after rain (left) and a smoggy day
• Fumes from paint, hair spray, varnish, aerosol (right)
sprays and other solvents
tive values that attempt to relate the quantity of a pollu-
• Waste deposition in landfills, which generate tant released to the ambient air with an activity associated
methane. Methane is highly flammable and may with the release of that pollutant. These factors are usu-
form explosive mixtures with air. Methane is also ally expressed as the weight of pollutant divided by a unit
an asphyxiant and may displace oxygen in an en- weight, volume, distance, or duration of the activity emit-
closed space. Asphyxia or suffocation may result if ting the pollutant (e.g., kilograms of particulate emitted
the oxygen concentration is reduced to below 19.5% per tonne of coal burned). Such factors facilitate estima-
by displacement. tion of emissions from various sources of air pollution. In
most cases, these factors are simply averages of all avail-
• Military resources, such as nuclear weapons, toxic
able data of acceptable quality, and are generally assumed
gases, germ warfare and rocketry
to be representative of long-term averages.
Natural sources: There are 12 compounds in the list of Persistent organic
pollutants. Dioxins and furans are two of them and in-
• Dust from natural sources, usually large areas of tentionally created by combustion of organics, like open
land with little or no vegetation burning of plastics. These compounds are also endocrine
disruptors and can mutate the human genes.
• Methane, emitted by the digestion of food by
animals, for example cattle The United States Environmental Protection Agency has
published a compilation of air pollutant emission factors
• Radon gas from radioactive decay within the Earth’s for a multitude of industrial sources.[14] The United King-
crust. Radon is a colorless, odorless, naturally oc- dom, Australia, Canada and many other countries have
curring, radioactive noble gas that is formed from published similar compilations, as well as the European
the decay of radium. It is considered to be a health Environment Agency.[15][16][17][18]
hazard. Radon gas from natural sources can accu-
mulate in buildings, especially in confined areas such
as the basement and it is the second most frequent 2 Air pollution exposure
cause of lung cancer, after cigarette smoking.
• Smoke and carbon monoxide from wildfires Air pollution risk is a function of the hazard of the pol-
lutant and the exposure to that pollutant. Air pollution
• Vegetation, in some regions, emits environmen-
exposure can be expressed for an individual, for cer-
tally significant amounts of Volatile organic com-
tain groups (e.g. neighborhoods or children living in a
pounds (VOCs) on warmer days. These VOCs
county), or for entire populations. For example, one
react with primary anthropogenic pollutants—
may want to calculate the exposure to a hazardous air
specifically, NOₓ, SO2 , and anthropogenic organic
pollutant for a geographic area, which includes the var-
carbon compounds — to produce a seasonal haze
ious microenvironments and age groups. This can be
of secondary pollutants.[12] Black gum, poplar, oak
calculated[19] as an inhalation exposure. This would ac-
and willow are some examples of vegetation that
count for daily exposure in various settings (e.g. differ-
can produce abundant VOCs. The VOC production
ent indoor micro-environments and outdoor locations).
from these species result in ozone levels up to eight
The exposure needs to include different age and other
times higher than the low-impact tree species.[13]
demographic groups, especially infants, children, preg-
• Volcanic activity, which produces sulfur, chlorine, nant women and other sensitive subpopulations. The ex-
and ash particulates posure to an air pollutant must integrate the concentra-
 5

tions of the air pollutant with respect to the time spent in
each setting and the respective inhalation rates for each
subgroup for each specific time that the subgroup is in
the setting and engaged in particular activities (playing,
cooking, reading, working, etc.). For example, a small
child’s inhalation rate will be less than that of an adult.
A child engaged in vigorous exercise will have a higher
respiration rate than the same child in a sedentary activ-
ity. The daily exposure, then, needs to reflect the time
spent in each micro-environmental setting and the type
of activities in these settings. The air pollutant concen-
tration in each microactivity/microenvironmental setting
is summed to indicate the exposure.[19]
3 Indoor air quality (IAQ)
Though its use has now been banned in many countries,
the extensive use of asbestos in industrial and domes-
tic environments in the past has left a potentially very
dangerous material in many localities. Asbestosis is a
chronic inflammatory medical condition affecting the tis-
sue of the lungs. It occurs after long-term, heavy ex-
posure to asbestos from asbestos-containing materials in
structures. Sufferers have severe dyspnea (shortness of
breath) and are at an increased risk regarding several dif-
ferent types of lung cancer. As clear explanations are not
always stressed in non-technical literature, care should be
taken to distinguish between several forms of relevant
diseases. According to the World Health Organisation
(WHO), these may defined as; asbestosis, lung cancer,
and Peritoneal Mesothelioma (generally a very rare form
of cancer, when more widespread it is almost always as-
sociated with prolonged exposure to asbestos).

Main article: Indoor air quality
A lack of ventilation indoors concentrates air pollu- as gases and airborne particulates. Pets produce dander,
Biological sources of air pollution are also found indoors,
people produce dust from minute skin flakes and decom-
posed hair, dust mites in bedding, carpeting and furni-
ture produce enzymes and micrometre-sized fecal drop-
pings, inhabitants emit methane, mold forms on walls and
generates mycotoxins and spores, air conditioning sys-
tems can incubate Legionnaires’ disease and mold, and
houseplants, soil and surrounding gardens can produce
pollen, dust, and mold. Indoors, the lack of air circula-
tion allows these airborne pollutants to accumulate more
than they would otherwise occur in nature.

4 Health effects
Air quality monitoring, New Delhi, India.

tion where people often spend the majority of their
time. Radon (Rn) gas, a carcinogen, is exuded from
the Earth in certain locations and trapped inside houses.
Building materials including carpeting and plywood emit
formaldehyde (H2 CO) gas. Paint and solvents give off
volatile organic compounds (VOCs) as they dry. Lead
paint can degenerate into dust and be inhaled. Intentional
air pollution is introduced with the use of air fresheners,
incense, and other scented items. Controlled wood fires
in stoves and fireplaces can add significant amounts of
smoke particulates into the air, inside and out.[20] Indoor
pollution fatalities may be caused by using pesticides and
other chemical sprays indoors without proper ventilation.
Carbon monoxide poisoning and fatalities are often
caused by faulty vents and chimneys, or by the burning of
charcoal indoors or in a confined space, such as a tent.[21]
Chronic carbon monoxide poisoning can result even from
poorly-adjusted pilot lights. Traps are built into all do-
mestic plumbing to keep sewer gas and hydrogen sulfide,
out of interiors. Clothing emits tetrachloroethylene, or
other dry cleaning fluids, for days after dry cleaning.
See also: Neuroplastic effects of pollution
Air pollution is a significant risk factor for a number of
health conditions including respiratory infections, heart
disease, COPD, stroke and lung cancer.[2] The health ef-
fects caused by air pollution may include difficulty in
breathing, wheezing, coughing, asthma and worsening of
existing respiratory and cardiac conditions. These effects
can result in increased medication use, increased doctor
or emergency room visits, more hospital admissions and
premature death. The human health effects of poor air
quality are far reaching, but principally affect the body’s
respiratory system and the cardiovascular system. Indi-
vidual reactions to air pollutants depend on the type of
pollutant a person is exposed to, the degree of exposure,
and the individual’s health status and genetics.[19] The
most common sources of air pollution include particu-
lates, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, and sulphur dioxide. Chil-
dren aged less than five years that live in developing coun-
tries are the most vulnerable population in terms of total
deaths attributable to indoor and outdoor air pollution.[22]
6 4 HEALTH EFFECTS

4.1 Mortality air pollution is associated not with hemorrhagic but with
ischemic stroke.[37] Air pollution was also found to be
It is estimated that some 7 million premature deaths may associated with increased incidence and mortality from
be attributed to air pollution.[2] India has the highest death coronary stroke in a cohort study in 2011.[38] Associa-
rate due to air pollution.[23] India also has more deaths tions are believed to be causal and effects may be me-
from asthma than any other nation according to the World diated by vasoconstriction, low-grade inflammation and
Health Organization. In December 2013 air pollution was atherosclerosis[39] Other mechanisms such as autonomic
estimated to kill 500,000 people in China each year.[24] nervous system imbalance have also been suggested.[40]
[41]
There is a correlation between pneumonia-related deaths
and air pollution from motor vehicles.[25]
Air pollution is estimated to reduce life expectancy by al-
most nine months across the European Union.[26] Causes 4.3 Lung disease
of deaths include strokes, heart disease, COPD, lung can-
cer, and lung infections.[2] Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) includes
diseases such as chronic bronchitis and emphysema.[42]
The US EPA estimates that a proposed set of changes in
diesel engine technology (Tier 2) could result in 12,000 Research has [43]
demonstrated increased risk of develop-
[44]
fewer premature mortalities, 15,000 fewer heart attacks, ing asthma and COPD from increased exposure to
6,000 fewer emergency room visits by children with traffic-related air pollution. Additionally, air pollution
asthma, and 8,900 fewer respiratory-related hospital ad- has been associated with increased hospitalization and
[45][46]
missions each year in the United States. [27] mortality from asthma and COPD.

The US EPA estimates allowing a ground-level ozone A study conducted in 1960-1961 in the wake of the Great
concentration of 65 parts per billion, would avert 1,700 Smog of 1952 compared 293 London residents with
to 5,100 premature deaths nationwide in 2020 compared 477 residents of Gloucester, Peterborough, and Norwich,
with the current 75-ppb standard. The agency projects the three towns with low reported death rates from chronic
stricter standard would also prevent an additional 26,000 bronchitis. All subjects were male postal truck drivers
cases of aggravated asthma, and more than a million cases aged 40 to 59. Compared to the subjects from the out-
of missed work or school.[28][29] lying towns, the London subjects exhibited more severe
respiratory symptoms (including cough, phlegm, and dys-
A new economic study of the health impacts and asso- pnea), reduced lung function (FEV1 and peak flow rate),
ciated costs of air pollution in the Los Angeles Basin and increased sputum production and purulence. The dif-
and San Joaquin Valley of Southern California shows that ferences were more pronounced for subjects aged 50 to
more than 3,800 people die prematurely (approximately 59. The study controlled for age and smoking habits, so
14 years earlier than normal) each year because air pollu- concluded that air pollution was the most likely cause of
tion levels violate federal standards. The number of an- the observed differences.[47]
nual premature deaths is considerably higher than the fa-
talities related to auto collisions in the same area, which It is believed that much like cystic fibrosis, by living in a
average fewer than 2,000 per year.[30][31][32] more urban environment serious health hazards become
more apparent. Studies have shown that in urban areas
Diesel exhaust (DE) is a major contributor to patients suffer mucus hypersecretion, lower levels of lung
combustion-derived particulate matter air pollution. function, and more self-diagnosis of chronic bronchitis
In several human experimental studies, using a well- and emphysema.[48]
validated exposure chamber setup, DE has been linked
to acute vascular dysfunction and increased thrombus
formation.[33][34] This serves as a plausible mechanistic 4.4 Cancer
link between the previously described association
between particulates air pollution and increased cardio-
A review of evidence regarding whether ambient air
vascular morbidity and mortality.
pollution exposure is a risk factor for cancer in 2007
found solid data to conclude that long-term exposure to
PM2.5 (fine particulates) increases the overall risk of
4.2 Cardiovascular disease non-accidental mortality by 6% per a 10 microg/m3 in-
crease. Exposure to PM2.5 was also associated with an
A 2007 review of evidence found ambient air pollution increased risk of mortality from lung cancer (range: 15%
exposure is a risk factor correlating with increased total to 21% per 10 microg/m3 increase) and total cardiovas-
mortality from cardiovascular events (range: 12% to 14% cular mortality (range: 12% to 14% per a 10 microg/m3
per 10 microg/m3 increase).[35] increase). The review further noted that living close to
Air pollution is also emerging as a risk factor for stroke, busy traffic appears to be associated with elevated risks
particularly in developing countries where pollutant lev- of these three outcomes --- increase in lung cancer deaths,
els are highest.[36] A 2007 study found that in women, cardiovascular deaths, and overall non-accidental deaths.
4.5 Children
Cancer mainly the result of environmental factors.[49]
The reviewers also found suggestive evidence that ex-
posure to PM2.5 is positively associated with mortality
from coronary heart diseases and exposure to SO2 in-
creases mortality from lung cancer, but the data was in-
sufficient to provide solid conclusions.[50] Another inves-
tigation showed that higher activity level increases depo-
sition fraction of aerosol particles in human lung and rec-
ommended avoiding heavy activities like running in out-
door space at polluted areas.[51]
In 2011, a large Danish epidemiological study found an
increased risk of lung cancer for patients who lived in
areas with high nitrogen oxide concentrations. In this
study, the association was higher for non-smokers than
smokers.[52] An additional Danish study, also in 2011,
likewise noted evidence of possible associations between
air pollution and other forms of cancer, including cervical
cancer and brain cancer.[53]
In December 2015, medical scientists reported that
cancer is overwhelmingly a result of environmental fac-
tors, and not largely down to bad luck.[49] Maintaining a
healthy weight, eating a healthy diet, minimizing alcohol
and eliminating smoking reduces the risk of developing
the disease, according to the researchers.[49]
7
4.5 Children
In the United States, despite the passage of the Clean
Air Act in 1970, in 2002 at least 146 million Americans
were living in non-attainment areas—regions in which
the concentration of certain air pollutants exceeded fed-
eral standards.[54] These dangerous pollutants are known
as the criteria pollutants, and include ozone, particulate
matter, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monox-
ide, and lead. Protective measures to ensure children’s
health are being taken in cities such as New Delhi, India
where buses now use compressed natural gas to help elim-
inate the “pea-soup” smog.[55] A recent study in Europe
has found that exposure to ultrafine particles can increase
blood pressure in children.[56]
4.6 “Clean” areas
Even in the areas with relatively low levels of air pollution,
public health effects can be significant and costly, since
a large number of people breathe in such pollutants. A
2005 scientific study for the British Columbia Lung As-
sociation showed that a small improvement in air quality
(1% reduction of ambient PM2.5 and ozone concentra-
tions) would produce $29 million in annual savings in the
Metro Vancouver region in 2010.[57] This finding is based
on health valuation of lethal (death) and sub-lethal (ill-
ness) affects.
4.7 Central nervous system
Data is accumulating that air pollution exposure also af-
fects the central nervous system.[58]
In a June 2014 study conducted by researchers at the
University of Rochester Medical Center, published in
the journal Environmental Health Perspectives, it was
discovered that early exposure to air pollution causes
the same damaging changes in the brain as autism and
schizophrenia. The study also shows that air pollution
also affected short-term memory, learning ability, and
impulsivity. Lead researcher Professor Deborah Cory-
Slechta said that “When we looked closely at the ven-
tricles, we could see that the white matter that normally
surrounds them hadn't fully developed. It appears that in-
flammation had damaged those brain cells and prevented
that region of the brain from developing, and the ventri-
cles simply expanded to fill the space. Our findings add to
the growing body of evidence that air pollution may play
a role in autism, as well as in other neurodevelopmental
disorders.” Air pollution has a more significant negative
effect of males than on females.[59][60][61]
In 2015, experimental studies reported the detection of
significant episodic (situational) cognitive impairment
from impurities in indoor air breathed by test subjects
who were not informed about changes in the air quality.
Researchers at the Harvard University and SUNY Up-
8 8
state Medical University and Syracuse University mea-
sured the cognitive performance of 24 participants in
three different controlled laboratory atmospheres that
simulated those found in “conventional” and “green”
buildings, as well as green buildings with enhanced ven-
tilation. Performance was evaluated objectively using
the widely used Strategic Management Simulation soft-
ware simulation tool, which is a well-validated assessment
test for executive decision-making in an unconstrained
situation allowing initiative and improvisation. Signif-
icant deficits were observed in the performance scores
achieved in increasing concentrations of either volatile or-
ganic compounds (VOCs) or carbon dioxide, while keep-
ing other factors constant. The highest impurity levels
reached are not uncommon in some classroom or office
environments.[62][63]
5 Agricultural effects
In India in 2014, it was reported that air pollution by black mobile sources includes primary regulation (many devel-
carbon and ground level ozone had cut crop yields in the oping countries have permissive regulations), expanding
most affected areas by almost half in 2010 when com- regulation to new sources (such as cruise and transport
pared to 1980 levels.[64]
6 Historical disasters
The world’s worst short-term civilian pollution crisis was
the 1984 Bhopal Disaster in India.[65] Leaked industrial
vapours from the Union Carbide factory, belonging to
Union Carbide, Inc., U.S.A. (later bought by Dow Chem-
ical Company), killed at least 3787 people and injured
anywhere from 150,000 to 600,000. The United King-
dom suffered its worst air pollution event when the De-
cember 4 Great Smog of 1952 formed over London. In
six days more than 4,000 died and more recent estimates
put the figure at nearer 12,000.[66] An accidental leak of
anthrax spores from a biological warfare laboratory in the
former USSR in 1979 near Sverdlovsk is believed to have
caused at least 64 deaths.[67] The worst single incident of
air pollution to occur in the US occurred in Donora, Penn-
sylvania in late October, 1948, when 20 people died and
over 7,000 were injured.[68]
7 Alternatives to creating air pollu-
tion
There are now practical alternatives to the three princi-
pal causes of air pollution. Combustion of fossil fuels
for space heating can be replaced by using ground source
heat pumps and seasonal thermal energy storage.[69] Elec-
tric power generation from burning fossil fuels can be re-
placed by power generation from nuclear and renewables.
REDUCTION EFFORTS
Motor vehicles driven by fossil fuels, a key factor in urban
air pollution, can be replaced by electric vehicles.
8 Reduction efforts
There are various air pollution control technologies
and land-use planning strategies available to reduce air
pollution.[70][71] At its most basic level, land-use planning
is likely to involve zoning and transport infrastructure
planning. In most developed countries, land-use planning
is an important part of social policy, ensuring that land is
used efficiently for the benefit of the wider economy and
population, as well as to protect the environment.
Because a large share of air pollution is caused by com-
bustion of fossil fuels such as coal and oil, the reduc-
tion of these fuels can reduce air pollution drastically.
Most effective is the switch to clean power sources such
as wind power, solar power, hydro power which don't
cause air pollution.[72] Efforts to reduce pollution from
ships, farm equipment, and small gas-powered equipment
such as string trimmers, chainsaws, and snowmobiles), in-
creased fuel efficiency (such as through the use of hybrid
vehicles), conversion to cleaner fuels or conversion to
electric vehicles.
Titanium dioxide has been researched for its ability to
reduce air pollution. Ultraviolet light will release free
electrons from material, thereby creating free radicals,
which break up VOCs and NOx gases. One form is
superhydrophilic.[73]
In 2014, Prof. Tony Ryan and Prof. Simon Armitage
of University of Sheffield prepared a 10 meter by 20
meter-sized poster coated with microscopic, pollution-
eating nanoparticles of titanium dioxide. Placed on a
building, this giant poster can absorb the toxic emission
from around 20 cars each day.[74]
A very effective means to reduce air pollution is the
transition to renewable energy. According to a study pub-
lished in Energy and Environmental Science in 2015 the
switch to 100% renewable energy in the United States
would eliminate about 62,000 premature mortalities per
year and about 42,000 in 2050, if no biomass were used.
This would save about $600 billion in health costs a year
due to reduced air pollution in 2050, or about 3.6% of
the 2014 U.S. gross domestic product.[72]
8.1 Control devices
The following items are commonly used as pollution con-
trol devices in industry and transportation. They can ei-
ther destroy contaminants or remove them from an ex-
haust stream before it is emitted into the atmosphere.
 9

• Particulate control • Biofilters

• Mechanical collectors (dust cyclones, multicy- • Absorption (scrubbing)
clones) • Cryogenic condensers
• Electrostatic precipitators An electrostatic • Vapor recovery systems
precipitator (ESP), or electrostatic air cleaner
is a particulate collection device that removes • Acid Gas/SO2 control
particles from a flowing gas (such as air), using • Wet scrubbers
the force of an induced electrostatic charge.
Electrostatic precipitators are highly efficient • Dry scrubbers
filtration devices that minimally impede the • Flue-gas desulfurization
flow of gases through the device, and can eas-
• Mercury control
ily remove fine particulates such as dust and
smoke from the air stream. • Sorbent Injection Technology
• Baghouses Designed to handle heavy dust • Electro-Catalytic Oxidation (ECO)
loads, a dust collector consists of a blower, dust
• K-Fuel
filter, a filter-cleaning system, and a dust re-
ceptacle or dust removal system (distinguished • Dioxin and furan control
from air cleaners which utilize disposable fil-
ters to remove the dust). • Miscellaneous associated equipment
• Particulate scrubbers Wet scrubber is a form • Source capturing systems
of pollution control technology. The term de-
• Continuous emissions monitoring systems
scribes a variety of devices that use pollu-
(CEMS)
tants from a furnace flue gas or from other gas
streams. In a wet scrubber, the polluted gas
stream is brought into contact with the scrub-
bing liquid, by spraying it with the liquid, by 9 Regulations
forcing it through a pool of liquid, or by some
other contact method, so as to remove the pol-
lutants.
• Scrubbers
• Baffle spray scrubber
• Cyclonic spray scrubber
• Ejector venturi scrubber
• Mechanically aided scrubber
• Spray tower
• Wet scrubber
• NOx control
• Low NOx burners
Smog in Cairo
• Selective catalytic reduction (SCR)
• Selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR) Main article: Air quality law
• NOx scrubbers
In general, there are two types of air quality standards.
• Exhaust gas recirculation
The first class of standards (such as the U.S. National Am-
• Catalytic converter (also for VOC control) bient Air Quality Standards and E.U. Air Quality Direc-
• VOC abatement tive) set maximum atmospheric concentrations for spe-
cific pollutants. Environmental agencies enact regula-
• Adsorption systems, using activated carbon, tions which are intended to result in attainment of these
such as Fluidized Bed Concentrator target levels. The second class (such as the North Ameri-
• Flares can Air Quality Index) take the form of a scale with vari-
ous thresholds, which is used to communicate to the pub-
• Thermal oxidizers lic the relative risk of outdoor activity. The scale may or
• Catalytic converters may not distinguish between different pollutants.
10 11 CITIES

9.1 Canada 10 Hotspots

Main article: Toxic Hotspots
In Canada, air pollution and associated health risks are
measured with the Air Quality Health Index or (AQHI).
It is a health protection tool used to make decisions to Air pollution hotspots are areas where air pollution emis-
reduce short-term exposure to air pollution by adjusting sions expose individuals to increased negative health
activity levels during increased levels of air pollution. effects.[77] They are particularly common in highly popu-
lated, urban areas, where there may be a combination of
The Air Quality Health Index or “AQHI” is a fed-
stationary sources (e.g. industrial facilities) and mobile
eral program jointly coordinated by Health Canada and
sources (e.g. cars and trucks) of pollution. Emissions
Environment Canada. However, the AQHI program
from these sources can cause respiratory disease, child-
would not be possible without the commitment and sup-
hood asthma, cancer, and other health problems. Fine
port of the provinces, municipalities and NGOs. From
particulate matter such as diesel soot, which contributes
air quality monitoring to health risk communication and
to more than 3.2 million premature deaths around the
community engagement, local partners are responsible
world each year, is a significant problem. It is very small
for the vast majority of work related to AQHI implemen-
and can lodge itself within the lungs and enter the blood-
tation. The AQHI provides a number from 1 to 10+ to
stream. Diesel soot is concentrated in densely populated
indicate the level of health risk associated with local air
areas, and one in six people in the U.S. live near a diesel
quality. Occasionally, when the amount of air pollution is
pollution hot spot.[78]
abnormally high, the number may exceed 10. The AQHI
provides a local air quality current value as well as a lo- While air pollution hotspots affect a variety of popu-
cal air quality maximums forecast for today, tonight and lations, some groups are more likely to be located in
tomorrow and provides associated health advice. hotspots. Previous studies have shown disparities in ex-
posure to pollution by race and/or income. Hazardous
As it is now known that even low levels of air pollution
land uses (toxic storage and disposal facilities, manu-
can trigger discomfort for the sensitive population, the
facturing facilities, major roadways) tend to be located
index has been developed as a continuum: The higher
where property values and income levels are low. Low
the number, the greater the health risk and need to take
socioeconomic status can be a proxy for other kinds of
precautions. The index describes the level of health risk
social vulnerability, including race, a lack of ability to in-
associated with this number as 'low', 'moderate', 'high' or
fluence regulation and a lack of ability to move to neigh-
'very high', and suggests steps that can be taken to reduce
borhoods with less environmental pollution. These com-
exposure.[75]
munities bear a disproportionate burden of environmen-
The measurement is based on the observed relationship of tal pollution and are more likely to face health risks such
Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2 ), ground-level Ozone (O3 ) and as cancer or asthma.[79]
particulates (PM₂.₅) with mortality, from an analysis of
Studies show that patterns in race and income disparities
several Canadian cities. Significantly, all three of these
not only indicate a higher exposure to pollution but also
pollutants can pose health risks, even at low levels of ex-
higher risk of adverse health outcomes.[80] Communities
posure, especially among those with pre-existing health
characterized by low socioeconomic status and racial mi-
problems.
norities can be more vulnerable to cumulative adverse
When developing the AQHI, Health Canada’s original health impacts resulting from elevated exposure to pol-
analysis of health effects included five major air pollu- lutants than more privileged communities.[80] Blacks and
tants: particulates, ozone, and nitrogen dioxide (NO2), Latinos generally face more pollution than whites and
as well as sulfur dioxide (SO2 ), and carbon monoxide Asians, and low-income communities bear a higher bur-
(CO). The latter two pollutants provided little informa- den of risk than affluent ones.[79] Racial discrepancies are
tion in predicting health effects and were removed from particularly distinct in suburban areas of the US South
the AQHI formulation. and metropolitan areas of the US West.[81] Residents in
The AQHI does not measure the effects of odour, pollen, public housing, who are generally low-income and cannot
dust, heat or humidity. move to healthier neighborhoods, are highly affected by
nearby refineries and chemical plants.[82]

11 Cities

9.2 Germany Air pollution is usually concentrated in densely popu-

lated metropolitan areas, especially in developing coun-
tries where environmental regulations are relatively lax or
TA Luft is the German air quality regulation. nonexistent.[83] However, even populated areas in devel-
 11

ulations where the potential for health risks are highest.

Assessments include estimates of cancer and non-cancer
health effects based on chronic exposure from outdoor
sources, including assessments of non-cancer health ef-
fects for Diesel Particulate Matter. Assessments provide
a snapshot of the outdoor air quality and the risks to hu-
man health that would result if air toxic emissions levels
remained unchanged.”[86]

Nitrogen dioxide concentrations as measured from satellite 2002-

2004 13 Governing urban air pollution
In Europe, Council Directive 96/62/EC on ambient air
quality assessment and management provides a common
strategy against which member states can “set objectives
for ambient air quality in order to avoid, prevent or reduce
harmful effects on human health and the environment . .
. and improve air quality where it is unsatisfactory”.[88]
On 25 July 2008 in the case Dieter Janecek v Freistaat
Bayern CURIA, the European Court of Justice ruled that
Deaths from air pollution in 2004 under this directive[88] citizens have the right to require
national authorities to implement a short term action plan
that aims to maintain or achieve compliance to air quality
oped countries attain unhealthy levels of pollution, with
limit values.[89]
Los Angeles and Rome being two examples.[84] Between
2002 and 2011 the incidence of lung cancer in Beijing This important case law appears to confirm the role of
near doubled. While smoking remains the leading cause the EC as centralised regulator to European nation-states
of lung cancer in China, the number of smokers is falling as regards air pollution control. It places a supranational
while lung cancer rates are rising.[85] legal obligation on the UK to protect its citizens from
dangerous levels of air pollution, furthermore supersed-
ing national interests with those of the citizen.
12 National-scale air toxics assess- In 2010, the European Commission (EC) threatened the
UK with legal action against the successive breaching of
ments 1995-2005 PM10 limit values.[90] The UK government has identi-
fied that if fines are imposed, they could cost the nation
The national-scale air toxics assessment(NATA) is an upwards of £300 million per year.[91]
evaluation of air toxics by the U.S. EPA. EPA has
furnished four assessments that characterize nationwide In March 2011, the Greater London Built-up Area re-
mains the only UK region in breach of the EC’s limit val-
chronic cancer risk estimates and noncancer hazards from
inhaling air toxics. The lates was from 2005, and made ues, and has been given 3 months to implement an emer-
gency action plan aimed at meeting the EU Air Quality
publicly available in early 2011.
Directive.[92] The City of London has dangerous levels of
“EPA developed the NATA as a state-of-the-science PM10 concentrations, estimated to cause 3000 deaths per
screening tool for State/Local/Tribal Agencies to priori- year within the city.[93] As well as the threat of EU fines,
tize pollutants, emission sources and locations of interest in 2010 it was threatened with legal action for scrapping
for further study, in order to gain a better understanding the western congestion charge zone, which is claimed to
of the risks. NATA assessments do not incorporate re- have led to an increase in air pollution levels.[94]
fined information about emission sources, but rather, use
general information about sources to develop estimates In response to these charges, Boris Johnson, Mayor of
of risks which are more likely to overestimate impacts London, has criticised the current need for European
than underestimate them. NATA provides estimates of cities to communicate with Europe through their nation
the risk of cancer and other serious health effects from state’s central government, arguing that in future “A great
breathing (inhaling) air toxics in order to inform both na- city like London” should be permitted to bypass its gov-
tional and more localized efforts to identify and prioritize ernment and deal directly with the European
[92]
Commission
air toxics, emission source types and locations which are regarding its air quality action plan.
of greatest potential concern in terms of contributing to This can be interpreted as recognition that cities can
population risk. This in turn helps air pollution experts transcend the traditional national government organisa-
focus limited analytical resources on areas and or pop- tional hierarchy and develop solutions to air pollution
12 16 REFERENCES

using global governance networks, for example through

transnational relations. Transnational relations include
but are not exclusive to national governments and inter-
governmental organisations,[95] allowing sub-national ac-
tors including cities and regions to partake in air pollution
control as independent actors.
Particularly promising at present are global city
partnerships.[96] These can be built into networks, for
example the C40 Cities Climate Leadership Group,
of which London is a member. The C40 is a public
'non-state' network of the world’s leading cities that aims
to curb their greenhouse emissions.[96] The C40 has
been identified as 'governance from the middle' and is
an alternative to intergovernmental policy.[97] It has the
potential to improve urban air quality as participating Visualization of a buoyant Gaussian air pollution dispersion
cities “exchange information, learn from best practices plume as used in many atmospheric dispersion models.[98]
and consequently mitigate carbon dioxide emissions
independently from national government decisions”.[96]
A criticism of the C40 network is that its exclusive the U.S. Department of Transportation (then known as
nature limits influence to participating cities and risks the Federal Highway Administration) to understand im-
drawing resources away from less powerful city and pacts of proposed new highways upon air quality, espe-
regional actors. cially in urban areas. Several research groups were ac-
tive in this model development, among which were: the
Environmental Research and Technology (ERT) group
in Lexington, Massachusetts, the ESL Inc. group in
14 Atmospheric dispersion Sunnyvale, California and the California Air Resources
Board group in Sacramento, California. The research of
Main article: Atmospheric dispersion modeling the ESL group received a boost with a contract award
from the United States Environmental Protection Agency
The basic technology for analyzing air pollution is to validate a line source model using sulfur hexafluoride
through the use of a variety of mathematical models for as a tracer gas. This program was successful in validating
predicting the transport of air pollutants in the lower at- the line source model developed by ESL Inc. Some of
mosphere. The principal methodologies are: the earliest uses of the model were in court cases involv-
ing highway air pollution; the Arlington, Virginia portion
of Interstate 66 and the New Jersey Turnpike widening
• Point source dispersion, used for industrial sources
project through East Brunswick, New Jersey.
• Line source dispersion, used for airport and roadway Area source models were developed in 1971 through
air dispersion modeling 1974 by the ERT and ESL groups, but addressed a
smaller fraction of total air pollution emissions, so that
• Area source dispersion, used for forest fires or
their use and need was not as widespread as the line
duststorms
source model, which enjoyed hundreds of different ap-
• Photochemical models, used to analyze reactive pol- plications as early as the 1970s. Similarly photochemical
lutants that form smog models were developed primarily in the 1960s and 70s,
but their use was more specialized and for regional needs,
such as understanding smog formation in Los Angeles,
The point source problem is the best understood, since it
California.
involves simpler mathematics and has been studied for
a long period of time, dating back to about the year
1900. It uses a Gaussian dispersion model for continu-
ous buoyant pollution plumes to predict the air pollution 15 See also
isopleths, with consideration given to wind velocity, stack
height, emission rate and stability class (a measure of at-
mospheric turbulence).[98][99] This model has been exten- 16 References
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17 Further reading
• Brimblecombe, Peter. The Big Smoke: A History
of Air Pollution in London Since Medieval Times
(Methuen, 1987)
• Brimblecombe, Peter. “History of air pollution.” in
Composition, Chemistry and Climate of the Atmo-
sphere (Van Nostrand Reinhold (1995): 1-18
• Brimblecombe, Peter; Makra, László (2005). “Se-
lections from the history of environmental pollution,
with special attention to air pollution. Part 2*: From
medieval times to the 19th century”. International
journal of environment and pollution 23 (4): 351–
367. doi:10.1504/ijep.2005.007599.
• Cherni, Judith A. Economic Growth versus the En-
vironment: The Politics of Wealth, Health and Air
Pollution (2002) online
• Corton, Christine L. London Fog: The Biography
(2015)
• Currie, Donya. “WHO: Air Pollution a Continu-
ing Health Threat in World’s Cities,” The Nation’s
Health (February 2012) 42#1 online
18 EXTERNAL LINKS
• Dewey, Scott Hamilton. Don't Breathe the Air: Air
Pollution and US Environmental Politics, 1945-1970
(Texas A & M University Press, 2000)
• Gonzalez, George A. The politics of air pollution:
Urban growth, ecological modernization, and sym-
bolic inclusion (SUNY Press, 2012)
• Grinder, Robert Dale (1978). “From Insurgency
to Efficiency: The Smoke Abatement Campaign in
Pittsburgh before World War I.”. Western Pennsyl-
vania Historical Magazine 61 (3): 187–202.
• Grinder, Robert Dale. “The Battle for Clean Air:
The Smoke Problem in Post-Civil War America” in
Martin V. Melosi, ed., Pollution & Reform in Amer-
ican Cities, 1870-1930 (1980), p83-103.* Mosley,
Stephen. The chimney of the world: a history
of smoke pollution in Victorian and Edwardian
Manchester. Routledge, 2013.
• Schreurs, Miranda A. Environmental Politics in
Japan, Germany, and the United States (Cambridge
University Press, 2002) online
• Thorsheim, Peter. Inventing Pollution: Coal, Smoke,
and Culture in Britain since 1800 (2009)
18 External links
• Global real-time air quality index map
• International Conference on Urban Air Quality.
• UNEP Urban Issues
• European Commission > Environment > Policies >
Air >Air Quality
• Database: outdoor air pollution in cities from the
World Health Organisation
• Interactive map of US facilities emitting air pollu-
tion
• World Health Organization Fact Sheet on Air quality
and health
• American Lung Association of New England on air
quality.
• Impact assessment of the mortality effects of longer-
term exposure to air pollution: exploring cause-
specific mortality and susceptibility by BG Miller.
Institute of Occupational Medicine Research Report
TM/03/01
• Comparing estimated risks for air pollution with
risks for other health effects by BG Miller and JF
Hurley. Institute of Occupational Medicine Re-
search Report TM/06/01
 17

• The Mortality Effects of Long-Term Exposure to

Particulate Air Pollution in the United Kingdom,
UK Committee on the Medical Effects of Air Pol-
lution, 2010.
18 19 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

19 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

19.1 Text
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