Definition of Air Pollution

Air pollution may be defined as the presence of one or more contaminants or combinations thereof in the
air in such quantities and of such duration as may be or tend to be injurious to human, animal and plant life,
or property, or which unreasonably interferes with the comfort and well-being of life or property. An air
pollutant can be solid (large or sub-molecular), liquid or gas and could be present in the air temporarily or
permanently. These air pollutants adversely impact the environment by interfering with the health, comfort,
or by interfering with the food chain to be consumed by the people [1].
Air pollution can also be defined as the presence of toxic chemicals or compounds (including those of
biological origin) in the air, at levels that pose a health risk. In an even broader sense, air pollution means the
presence of chemicals or compounds in the air which are usually not present and which lower the quality of
the air or cause detrimental changes to the quality of life (such as the damaging of the ozone layer or causing
global warming).
Types of Air Pollutants
• Air pollutant is known as a substance in the air which can cause harm to humans and the environment
and can be in the form of solid particles, liquid droplets, or gases.
• Besides, they may be natural or man-made and can also be classified as either primary or secondary
pollutants.
• Primary air pollutants are substances directly emitted from a process and are present in the atmosphere
with the same composition as they are emitted, such as ash from a volcanic eruption, the carbon
monoxide gas from vehicular emissions or sulphur dioxide released from industries. Secondary
pollutants are not emitted directly into atmosphere but when primary pollutants react or interact, they
form or transform into another compound in the atmosphere like ground-level ozone and
photochemical smog.

1. Primary Air Pollutants

The primary pollutants are “directly” emitted from the processes such as fossil fuel consumption,
volcanic eruption and industries thereby releasing pollutants in the form of oxides of Sulphur, oxides of
Nitrogen, oxides of carbon, particulate matter, Methane, Ammonia, Chloro-fluorocarbons, toxic metals, etc.
The description of these primary air pollutants are as under:
A. Oxides of Sulphur
Sulphur Oxides are generally a product of the volcanoes, industrial processes, coal, and petroleum
because most of them have Sulphur in their composition. The Sulphur Dioxide in the presence of a catalyst
such as NOx causes acid rain due to the formation of Sulphuric acid. The Indian coal is though low in
sulphur content coal consumption in large quantities poses a major danger of acid rain because of the coal-
based power plants.
B. Oxides of Nitrogen
Nitrogen Oxides are produced due to high-temperature combustion and the most important toxic gas is
Nitrogen dioxide which is brown in color and hasa sharp odor. The brown haze dome observed above the
cities is mostly because of the Nitrogen Oxides.
C. Carbon Monoxide
Carbon Monoxide (CO) is colorless, odorless, tasteless and non-irritating but very poisonous gas which
is the product of incomplete combustion of the natural gas, coal or wood. The vehicle exhaust is the major
source of CO which is formed during the incomplete combustion of carbon-containing compounds. The
chemical reactions and formation of CO under different operating conditions are given hereunder:
2C + O2= 2CO ... (1)
It is also produced in large amounts during the reaction between carbon-containing materials at high
temperatures as in blast furnaces.
CO2+ C = 2CO ... (2)

Besides, Carbon monoxide is also produced during the

dissociation of CO2 at high temperature.
CO2 +C =2CO ... (3)
 The carbon monoxide enters the bloodstream through the lungs where it reacts with hemoglobin (Hb) to
convert oxy- hemoglobin (O2Hb) to carboxy-hemoglobin (COHb) as per following equation.
O2Hb+ CO= COHb+ O2... (4)
Carbon monoxide has a much greater affinity for hemoglobin as compared to oxygen thereby it reduces
the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood and affects the brain function resulting in elevated heart rate.
D. Carbon Dioxide
The Carbon Dioxide is associated with the ocean acidification and is emitted from combustion,
industries, and respiration of living organisms. We have also primary pollutants such as Volatile Organic
Compounds or VOCs like methane (CH4) and non-methane (NMVOCs). Methane is a GHG which
contributes to global warming, while the NMVOCs include the
aromatic compounds such as Benzene, Toluene,and Xylene which are proved or suspected carcinogens.
Another dangerous compound is the 1,3-butadiene, often associated with industrial uses.
Our atmosphere significantly consists of nitrogen, oxygen, other gases, and particles whereas carbon
dioxide is a relatively insignificant non-pollutant gas (present level 356ppm) in the atmosphere. However,
increasing concentration of carbon dioxide along with methane, chloro fluorohydrocarbons, nitrous oxide,
water vapor in the atmosphere is of serious environmental concern. Methane and carbon dioxide mainly
contribute to global warming and the relative contribution of gases is shown in the following Table 1.
Table 1: Contribution of Gases in Global Warming.
Active % Contribution to
gas temperature rise
CO2 50
CH4 19
CFC 17
O3 8
N2O 4
H2O 2
E. Particulate Matter
The particulate matters are the fine particles which may be either solid or liquid, suspended or respirable
available in an air- polluting gas. They are different from aerosols in various ways. Aerosols are particles
and gas referred together. The aerosols which are created by the human activities are anthropogenic aerosols
and account for around 10% of the total aerosols in the atmosphere.
F. Other Primary Pollutants
Another category of the primary air pollutants is toxic metals such as Cadmium, Lead, and Copper which
are emitted from the industrial processes. Moreover, the Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are proved to be harmful
to the ozone layer and are emitted from products currently banned from use. Besides, Ammonia is emitted
from an agricultural process, fertilizer industries, ice factories, etc. and is characterized by a pungent odor.
2. Secondary Air Pollutants
The secondary pollutants are not emitted directly; rather they form when the primary pollutants react
with themselves or other components of the atmosphere. Most important secondary level Air Pollutants are
Ground Level Ozone, Smog, and POPs (Persistent Organic Pollutants) and most importantly Particulate
Matter. The description of these secondary air pollutants are as under:
A. Ground Level Ozone
The most important secondary pollutant is the ground level Ozone or Tropospheric Ozone. The
emissions from industrial facilities and electric utilities, motor vehicle exhaust, gasoline vapors, and
chemical solvents are some of the major sources of NOx and VOC. Ground-level Ozone forms due to
reactions of the NOx, Carbon Monoxide and VOCs in the presence of sunlight.
Tropospheric ozone to some extent arises from the natural transport of ozone from the stratosphere where
it is formed by the action of energetic UV rays from the sun but the rest is produced in the troposphere by
the photochemical ozone formation. The photochemical ozone or ground-level ozone formation can
proceed through the following four steps:
i. The reaction between VOCs or CO and OH to form peroxy radicals, ROO.
ii. The peroxy radicals oxidize NO to NO2.
iii. NO2 is split by sunlight with the formation of NO and release of oxygen atoms.
 iv. Oxygen atoms react with molecular oxygen, O2, to form ozone.
B. Smog
"Smog" is a term originally formed by the combination of the words "smoke" and "fog". The burning
of large amounts of coal results in the emission of smoke and sulphur dioxide which, along with vehicular
and industrial emissions in the presence of fog causes smog. The primary emissions released from the
vehicles and industries into the atmospherereact with ultraviolet light from the sun to form secondary
pollutants in the form of photochemical smog. Though there are thousands of reactions taking place in the
atmosphere on a smoggy day there are some which help in understanding the formation of photochemical
smog. Six sequential reactions are given hereunder for brief understanding.
In the first reaction, the Nitric Oxide (NO) which is emitted from various combustion processes
combines with oxygen in the atmosphere to form nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and further breaks into single
oxygen radicals (O) in the presence of UV rays of sunlight, which triggers many subsequent reactions of
photochemical smog.
NO + O2 --->NO2 + U.V. --->O + NO
The second reaction is about the formation of ozone from the single oxygen radical under the presence
of various catalysts
O + O2 --->O3
The third reaction is a scavenging reaction and usually occurs in the evening where conversion from ozone to
oxygen takes place thereby dropping the ozone concentration during the evening.
O3 + NO---> O2 + NO2
The fourth reaction is related to the hydrocarbons (represented here as RC) combining with the oxygen-free
radicals to form RCO which represents a variety of Aldehydes and ketones whereas some of these
constituents can combine with oxygen to form
Peroxide radicals (RCO3).

RC + O --->RCO + O2 ---> RCO3

The fifth reaction demonstrates the importance of these
peroxide radicals (RCO3) where they accelerate the formation of ozone.
O2+ RCO3 --->O3 + RCO2
The last reaction shows the role of the peroxide radicals which accelerate the formation of nitrogen dioxide
which subsequently will go on to form more ozone [2].
NO + RCO3 --->NO2 + RCO2

C. Particulate Matter
• Particulate matter (PM) : A wide variety of airborne material. PM pollution consists of materials
(including dust, smoke, and soot), that are directly emitted into the air or result from the
transformation of gaseous pollutants.
• Particles come from natural sources (e.g., volcanic eruptions) and human activities such as
burning fossil fuels, incinerating wastes, and smelting metals.
• Coal grinding, fugitive road dust and dust from rock quarries are examples of physical processes
that release particulate matter to the atmosphere. These particles are usually large (>100 mm
diameter), do not have a long residence time in the atmosphere, and are not taken into the body
during respiration.
• PM formed through chemical reactions are typically much smaller (<10 mm diameter) . Chemical
processes that release particulate matter to the atmosphere include all forms of combustion
(automobiles, fossil fuel power plants, forest fires and residential fireplaces) and. atmospheric
emissions from volcanoes).
Particles in the Atmosphere
 Characteristics of Particles
• The most important characteristic of particulate matter (PM) is the particle size.
• This property has the greatest impact on the behavior of particulate matter in control equipment, the
atmosphere, and the respiratory tract.
• Particles of importance in air pollution control span a broad size range from extremely small (0.01
micrometer) to more than 1,000 micrometers. A human hair has a diameter of approximately 50
micrometers.
• The chemical composition of the particulate matter is also important.
• Absorption and heterogeneous nucleation of vapor phase pollutants onto existing
particles can create toxic particulate matter.

Sources of Air Pollution

There are two main types of air pollution sources, namely, manmade sources and natural sources, the
details of which are described hereunder and as reflected in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Showing sources of air pollution.

 Manmade Sources
Manmade sources are further classified under following categories:
a. Mobile sources in the form of cars, buses,
trucks, scooters, autos, planes, and trains
b. Stationary sources, such as power plants, oil
refineries, industrial facilities, and factories
c. Area sources such as agricultural areas, cities,
and wood- burning fireplaces, mining, etc.
Natural sources
Natural sources are in the form of forest fires,
volcanic eruptions, dust storms, etc.
Manmade sources
The manmade sources can further be divided
into the following:
a. Particulate matter and gas
b. Elevated and ground
c. The point, area, and mobile
d. Indoor and outdoor
There are two types of emissions:
a. Point source emissions: channeled through a pipe such as a chimney stack or vent.
b. Non-point source (diffuse or fugitive) emissions: caused by direct contact between volatile
substances or particulate matter into the environment. These emissions may originate from field
sources (tanks, pools, mounds, etc.) or leaks from equipment (valves, taps, couplings, etc.).
Sources of Energy Generation
This is where CO2 and SO2 and water vapor are released in theatmosphere as large amount of coal, oil, L.P/ natural gas,
gasolineand biofuels are used in combustion.

Burning of Wastes and Incinerators

This is a more severe threat to the environment as it contaminates the atmosphere with persistent organic
pollutants (POP) such as dioxins, furans probably major sources are plastics and electronic wastes. In
addition, normal combustion emits carbon as oxides and soot. Wastes are in a vast array such as plastic,
electronic wastes, cement dust, industrial chemicals, paper, glass, steel and various derivatives of soil
minerals, biological and medicinal wastes, drugs and other chemicals. Incinerators destroy the hazardous
effect of any gas or particle and the remaining dust emission could be as smalls as PM10- PM2.5 or lesser.
Unless the right particle filters are used, it will end up with adverse results [3].
Natural Sources
These include the compounds released from volcanic activities such as black smoke, ash, metals, SO2,
CO2,and release of methane from thawing of permafrost regions in the Northern hemisphere, wetlands,
sanitary landfills. Forest fires and bush fires, dust storm, sea spray and conversion of land use and release of
isoprenes and terpenes by forest (precursors of low-level ozone).

EFFECT OF AIR POLLUTION ON HUMAN HEALTH

❑ Air pollution : one of the greatest “ENVIRONMENTAL EVIL”.
❑ The air we breathe has not only LIFE SUPPORTING properties but also LIFE DAMAGING
properties.
❑ An average man breathes 22,000 times a day and takes in 16 kg of air each day.
❑ All the impurities in the inhaled air do not necessarily cause harm. Some may be harmful when
present in air in small concentration and others only if they are present in high concentration.

Factors affecting human health

❑ Nature of the pollutants
❑ Concentration of the pollutants
❑ Duration of exposure
❑ State of health of the receptor
❑ Age group of the receptor

• Acute effects are usually immediate and often reversible when exposure to the pollutant ends. Some
acute health effects include eye irritation, headaches, and nausea.
• Chronic effects are usually not immediate and tend not to be reversible when exposure to the
pollutant ends.
– Some chronic health effects include decreased lung capacity and lung cancer resulting from long-term
exposure to toxic air pollutants.
 Table 1: Sources, Health and Welfare Effects for Criteria Pollutants.

Pollutant Description Sources Health Effects Welfare

Effects
Carbon Colorless, odorless gas Motor vehicle exhaust, indoor Headaches, reduced mental Contribute to
Monoxide sources include kerosene or alertness, heart attack, the formation
(CO) wood burning stoves. cardiovascular diseases, of smog.
impaired fetal development,
death.

Sulfur Colorless gas that Coal-fired power plants, Eye irritation, wheezing, chest Contribute to
Dioxide dissolves in water vapor petroleum refineries, tightness, shortness of breath, the formation
(SO2) to form acid, and manufacture of sulfuric acid lung damage. of acid rain,
interact with other gases and smelting of ores visibility
and particles in the air. containing sulfur. impairment,
plant and
water damage,
aesthetic
damage.
 Nitrogen Reddish brown, highly Motor vehicles, electric Susceptibility to respiratory Contribute to
Dioxide reactive gas. utilities, and other industrial, infections, irritation of the lung the formation
(NO2) commercial, and and respiratory symptoms of smog, acid
rain, water
quality
deterioration,
global
warming,
residential sources that burn (e.g., cough, chest pain, difficulty and visibility
fuels. breathing). impairment.

Ozone Gaseous pollutant when Vehicle exhaust and certain Eye and throat irritation, Plant and
(O3) it is formed in the other fumes. Formed from coughing, respiratory tract ecosystem
troposphere. other air pollutants in the problems, asthma, lung damage. damage.
presence of sunlight.

Lead (Pb) Metallic element Metal refineries, lead Anemia, high blood pressure, Affects animals
smelters, battery brain and kidney damage, and plants,
manufacturers, iron and steel neurological disorders, cancer, affects aquatic
producers. lowered IQ. ecosystems.

Particulate Very small particles of Diesel engines, power plants, Eye irritation, asthma, Visibility
Matter soot, dust, or other industries, windblown dust, bronchitis, lung damage, cancer, impairment,
(PM) matter, including tiny wood stoves. heavy metal poisoning, atmospheric
droplets of liquids. cardiovascular effects. deposition,
aesthetic
damage.
 EFFECT OF AIR POLLUTION ON VEGETATION

❖ Air pollutants affect plants worldwide.

❖ These effects may be severe or subtle.
❖ Various air pollutants have been identified as phytotoxic agents.
❖ Phytotoxicity of sulfurdioxide (SO2) has been recognized for about a century.
❖ Effects of ozone (O3) for more than 30 years).
❖ Acidic precipitation for almost 20 years.
❖ Effects of elevated levels of nitrogen compounds (nitrogen oxides [NOX] and ammonia
[NH3]) in the last decade.

HOW TO DETERMINE EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTANTS ON PLANTS

• Under field conditions detection of physiological changes in plants and identification
of their causes is difficult.
• Therefore visible symptoms of injury are most commonly used for detecting air
pollution damage.
However, changes in physiology of plants may occur before visible, morphological damage
takes place.
EFFECTS ON VEGETATİON
• Injury vs damage
Injury: An observable alteration in the plant when exposed to air pollution.
Damage: An economic or aesthetic loss due to interference with the use of a plant.

Two ways of pollutant entrance to plant

• Direct way: Through stomates which open and close to allow air through the interior
parts
• Indirect way: Through the root system. Pollutants deposit in soil and water and these
pollutants were taken by the roots of the plant.

Leafs are important because of its functions

 • Photosynthesis accomplished by chloroplasts
6CO2+6H2O C2H12O6+6O2
• Transpiration: Movement of water from the root system up to the leaves. Nutrient
movement and cooling
• Respiration:Oxidation of carbonhydrates, energy producing process.
• C2H12O6+6O2 6CO2+6H2O

OZONE INJURY
❑ Symptoms vary depending on the concentration of ozone in the air and the length
of exposure, Ozon. e injury occurs on the most recently emerged leaves.
❑ Typical ozone injury may not be evident on leaves exposed to a mixture of
pollutants. Symptoms differ in different areas of the province
❑ Ozone, the major component of oxidants is formed by the action of sunlight on
products of fuel combustion and can be moved to nearby growing areas by wind.
Examples of physiological changes in trees caused by air pollution
Chlorophyll fluorescence: also proved to be a good indicator of ozone effects. Under the
conditions of a well-defined ozone stress ponderosa pine seedlings showed a wide range of
responses:
1 Gradual increase of visible injury (chlorotic mottle) was accompanied by reduction of
net photosynthesis, stomatal conductance, starch accumulations and pigment
concentrations.
2 More pronounced reduction of net photosynthesis than stomatal conductance
 suggested that ozone injury to mesophyll, carboxylation, or excitation components of
the CO2 diffusion pathway were greater than injury to the stomata. As a result of all
these changes plants reduced their growth and biomass production (TEMPLE &
BYTNEROWICZ 1993).

Effects on materials
Effects on metals
• Rusting
• Corrosion due to moisture, temperature and pollutants
• Alteration of electrical properties
Effects on stone
• Discoloration
• Blackening
• gypsum formation
• Cracking Gypsum formation
CaCO3+H2SO4+2H2O CaSO4.2H2O+H2CO3
CaCO3+H2CO3 Ca(HCO3)2
These damaged areas seem to receive rain or rain runoff and seem to be formed
by sulfur dioxide uptake, in the presence of moisture, on the stone surface.
Subsequent conversion of the sulfur dioxide to sulfuric acid results in the
formation of a layer of gypsum on the marble surface.
 EFFECT OF AIR POLLUTION ON ATMOSPHERE
❖ GLOBAL WARMING
❖ Global warming is largely caused by increasing CO2 and other heat trapping gases
(e.g. methane) in the atmosphere.
❖ Large amount of heat trapped on Earth; Earth becomes hotter.
❖ It results in rise in sea levels, flooding of low-lying lands, melting of polar ice caps and
changes in global climate.
Measures to reduce global warming-use of fossil fuels (to reduce CO2 emission)
❖ Use tidal, wind and hydroelectric energy to generate electricity -use of solar energy.
ACID RAIN
WHAT IS ACID RAIN?
➢ Generally, rain water has a pH valueof 5.6 because of the carbondioxide from air
dissolved in it.
➢ Any rainfall has a pH value lessthan 5.6 is defined as acid rain.
➢ When emissions of sulphur dioxide and nitric oxide from stationary sources are
transported long distances by winds, they form secondary pollutants such as nitrogen
dioxide, nitric acid vapor, and droplets containing solutions of sulphuric acid, sulphate,
and nitrate salts.
➢ These chemicals descend to the earth's surface in wet form as rain or snow and in dry
form as a gases fog, dew, or solid particles, it is known as acid rain or acid deposition

When gas pollutants e.g. sulphurdioxide, nitrogen dioxide dissolve in rain water, various
acids are formed.
CO2 + H2O → H2CO3 (carbonic acid)
SO2 + H2O → H2SO4 (Sulphuric acid ) NO2 + H2O → HNO3 (nitric acid)

IMPACT OF ACID RAIN

Acid Rain can impact
❖ Surface water (lakes, river etc) and aquatic animals
❖ Soils
❖ Forest and Vegetation
❖ Human Health
❖ Building and the urban environment
 SMOKE
Smoke is a visible collection of a variety of solid, liquid, and gas particles left unburned during the
combustion process.(Figure 1) It is possible for smoke to contain a large number of different chemicals and
fumes, although visible smoke is mostly carbon or soot, tar, oils, and ash. Because of its long list of
components, smoke can contain a variety of different pollutants.
Smoke is created when a substance undergoes incomplete combustion. This simply means that there is not
enough oxygen present when the material is burned to completely burn the fuel. Instead of only carbon
dioxide and water vapour being created, incomplete combustion can result in the production of soot, smoke,
and ash. There are a variety of different sources of smoke, including:

• Fires (including wildfires, campfires, industrial fires, candles, fireplaces)

• Cooking devices (including wood-burning stoves or barbecues)
• Pest control activities (fumigation)
• Cigarettes

It is important to note that cigarette smoke is not completely the same as smoke from wildfires or other
"conventional" fires as there are significantly more hazardous chemicals released from cigarettes.

Composition

Depending on the fuel that is being burned smoke can contain a wide variety of different components.
Generally speaking, smoke always contains carbon, oils, and ash as they are what makes smoke visible. In a
fire containing only wood, the smoke created contains volatile organic compounds that evaporate from the
wood. The smoke also contains carbon (the main component of the wood), water vapour, and minerals that
existed in the tree's cells such as calcium, potassium, and magnesium. Since these minerals do not burn,
they make up the ash that is also produced. Any other substances, such as plastics, that are burned introduce
hazardous chemicals to the smoke that depend strongly on the composition of the substance itself.

Smoke from cigarettes is much more complex in its composition, and often carcinogenic. It can include
chemical components such as carbon monoxide, hydrogen cyanide, nitrogen oxides, formaldehyde,
benzene, nicotine, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.

Health Effects

Exposure to different types of smoke can result in different health effects. Mild exposure to smoke from
forest fires or a campfire is generally not extraordinarily harmful to health, whereas exposure to secondhand
smoke from a cigarette is more harmful. General smoke from wildfires and other wood-based fires can
make it difficult to breathe, and exposure to it can aggravate existing heart and lung conditions. Symptoms
of smoke exposure can cause sore eyes, tears, cough, and a runny nose. Lung problems can develop if
exposure is high and excessive smoke exposure can result in death.

Smoke from cigarettes is especially harmful as it contains over 7,000 chemicals; hundreds of which are
toxic and around 70 can cause cancer. Exposure to secondhand smoke can result in more frequent and
severe asthma attacks, respiratory infections, ear infections, and an increased risk of developing heart
disease and lung cancer. Exposure to cigarette smoke drastically increases stroke risk.

Exposure to smoke during a house fire is extremely dangerous, and smoke inhalation is the primary cause
of death for victims of indoor fires. About 75% of home fire victims die as a result of smoke inhalation, not
burns. Depending on what is being burned, smoke that is generated during combustion can be toxic or
irritating. For example, when plastics are burned they produce soot along with poisonous gases such as
carbon monoxide and hydrogen chloride. Any additional chemicals produced from burning different
materials introduces a new set of health effects associated directly with exposure to that chemical.

SMOG
Smog is the term derived from two words smoke and fog. It is a kind of intense air pollution. The word
 smog was coined in the 20th century.

What is Smog?

Smog is air pollution that reduces visibility. The word “smog” was coined in the early 20th century, and is a
contraction (portmanteau) of the words smoke and fog to refer to smoky fog due to its opacity, and odour.

The word was then intended to refer to what was sometimes known as pea soup fog, a familiar and serious
problem in London from the 19th century to the mid-20th century.

This kind of visible air pollution is composed of nitrogen oxides, sulphur oxides, ozone, smoke and other
particulates. Man-made smog is derived from coal combustion emissions, vehicular emissions, industrial
emissions, forest and agricultural fires and photochemical reactions of these emissions.

How is Smog created?

Smog is the result of the reaction of emissions from automobiles, factories, and industries with the sunlight
and atmosphere.

Why is Smog Harmful to Health?

When smog is inhaled, it may cause the following harmful effect on humans

1. Coughing and wheezing

2. Burning sensation in eyes and throat
3. Risk of serious heart diseases
4. Risk of serious lung disease.
5. Dangerous for people suffering from asthma.
6. Smogs can also kill plants.

Smog – 2 Types

The causes behind the formation of the smogs are different. Hence they are classified into 2 different types.

1. Photochemical Smog (Also called Los Angeles Smog)

2. Sulfurous smog (Also called London Smog)

Which is the Most Commonly Occurring Smog?

Photochemical smog is the most common occurring smog.

What Causes Photochemical Smog?

1. Photochemical smog is created when sunlight reacts with nitrogen oxides and at least one volatile organic
compound (VOC) in the atmosphere. This kind of smog requires neither smoke nor fog.
2. Nitrogen oxides are emitted in the atmosphere from automobiles, power plants, factory emissions.
3. Volatile organic compounds are released in the atmosphere due to paints, gasoline, and cleaning solvents.

What Causes Sulfurous Smog?

Sulfurous smog is the result of a high concentration of sulfur oxides in the atmosphere. This is usually
caused by the burning of fossil fuels like coal.
 Where Do We Find Smogs?

1. Usually found in big cities with a heavy presence of vehicles and industries
2. Found in cities that are located in basins surrounded by mountains, since the smog gets trapped and cannot
be carried away by the wind.

How Long Does it Take to Form a Smog?

The time required to form a fog is directly dependent on the temperature.

How to Control Smog?

1. Using renewable sources of energy

2. Reducing the number of vehicles, for this to happen there should be an efficient public transport system
with last-mile connectivity
3. Increase in energy efficiency.
4. Use Smog towers, this has been used successfully in China.

OZONE LAYER DEPLETION

Ozone layer is an umbrella 24 km [15 miles] from earth surface, an essential component of the
stratosphere that absorbs short wavelength ultraviolet radiation from the sun, heating the gases of the
stratosphere in the process. World ozone day is celebrated on Sept, 16 of every year.

Stratospheric ozone is measured in Dobson units [DU] named after G.M.B Dobson who pioneered the
study; [I Dobson unit = 0.01 mm thickness of stratospheric ozone], Average ozone thickness in
stratosphere is 300 DU, & when it falls below 200 DU, it’s considered as Ozone hole. It is thinnest around
equator and thickest near poles.

Stratospheric ozone depletion is the term applied to the loss of stratospheric ozone molecules (O 3) and
the disruption of Oxygen-Ozone concentration equilibrium in stratosphere [i.e., when chlorine atoms
upset the natural O2/O3 equilibrium in the stratosphere]. Oxygen molecules interact with the intense
solar radiation present at this elevation to form oxygen atoms. The oxygen atoms thus generated react
with other oxygen molecules to form ozone (O3).

Causes

Ozone depletion is caused by the release of chlorofluorocarbons (CFC's) and other ozone-depleting
substances (ODS), which were used widely as refrigerants, insulating foams, and solvents. The discussion
below focuses on CFCs, but is relevant to all ODS [NO, NO 2 (aircraft exhaust), Br-, UV rays, [O] Atomic
oxygen etc].

Although CFCs are heavier than air, they are eventually carried into the stratosphere in a process that
can take as long as 2 to 5 years. When CFCs reach the stratosphere, the ultraviolet radiation from the
sun causes them to break apart and release chlorine atoms which react with ozone, starting chemical
cycles of ozone destruction that deplete the ozone layer. One chlorine atom can break apart more than
100,000 ozone molecules.

Other chemicals that damage the ozone layer include methyl bromide (used as a pesticide), halons
(used in fire extinguishers), and methyl chloroform (used as a solvent in industrial processes). As
methyl bromide and halons are broken apart, they release bromine atoms, which are 40 times more
destructive to ozone molecules than chlorine atoms.

Chapman’s Reaction
 Ozone Depletion by CFC’s

All above reactions occur in the presence of UV rays, while the 2nd set of reactions governs the oxygen-
ozone equilibrium due to its spontaneity.

Effects

Effect of ozone hole include cataract, genetic mutation, constriction of blood vessels, reduced crop yield,
leukemia, breast cancer, damage to crop, aqua culture, etc.,

The higher energy UV radiation absorbed by ozone is generally accepted to be a contributory factor to
skin cancer. In addition, increased surface UV leads to increased tropospheric ozone, which is a health
risk to humans such as Snow Blindness [photo keratosis], i.e., inflammation of cornea (outer coating of
eyeball). The most common forms of skin cancer in humans, basal and squamous cell carcinomas have
been strongly linked to UVB exposure. Another form of skin cancer, malignant melanoma, is much less
common but far more dangerous, being lethal in about 15% - 20% of the cases diagnosed. In India there
is no standard for Ozone. However WHO standard is 100 ppm for 8 hrs – avg.

Control Measures

The Montreal Protocol, an international agreement signed by 139 nations, banning the production of
CFCs by the year 2000. We can't make enough ozone to replace what's been destroyed, but provided
that we stop producing ozone-depleting substances, natural ozone production reactions should return
the ozone layer to normal levels by about 2050. It is very important that the world comply with the
Montreal Protocol; delays in ending production could result in additional damage and prolong the ozone
layer's recovery. Control mechanism stresses on replacement of the banned chemical by ammonia,
steam, helium etc.

GREEN HOUSE EFFECT

Introduction

Objects that absorb all radiation upon them are called "blackbody" absorbers. The earth is close to being
a black body absorber. Gases, on the other hand, are selective in their absorption characteristics. While
many gases do not absorb radiation at all some selectively absorb only at certain wavelengths. Those
gases that are "selective absorbers" of solar energy are the gases we know as "Greenhouse Gases."
Definition

The greenhouse effect is a phenomenon that ought to create a condition in the upper atmosphere,
causing a trapping of excess heat and leading to increased surface temperatures.
Mechanism

The Earth receives energy from the Sun in the form of radiation. The Earth reflects about 30% of the
incident solar flux; the remaining 70% is absorbed, warming the land, atmosphere and oceans. The visible
solar radiation heats the surface, not the atmosphere, whereas most of the infrared radiation escaping
to space is emitted from the upper atmosphere, not the surface. The infrared photons emitted by the
surface are mostly absorbed by the atmosphere and do not escape directly to space. Hence earth’s
greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon that helps regulates the temperature of our planet. Simply
put, the sun heats the earth and some of this heat, rather than escaping back to space, is trapped
in the atmosphere by clouds and greenhouse gases, such as water vapor and carbon di oxide. If
all these greenhouse gases were to suddenly disappear, our planet would be 60° F colder and
uninhabitable.

GREENHOUSE GASSES – SOURCES & SINKS

On Earth, the major natural greenhouse gases are water vapor, which causes about 36– 70% of the
greenhouse effect (not including clouds); carbon dioxide (CO2), which causes 9–26%; methane (CH4),
which causes 4–9%; and ozone, which causes 3–7%.

Carbon Dioxide

Sources: Released by the combustion of fossil fuels (oil, coal, and natural gas), flaring of natural gas,
changes in land use (deforestation, burning and clearing land for agricultural purposes), and
manufacturing of cement.
Sinks: Photosynthesis and deposition to the ocean.
Significance: Accounts for about half of all warming potential caused by human activity.
Methane

Sources: Landfills, wetlands and bogs, domestic livestock, coal mining, wet rice growing,
natural gas pipeline leaks, biomass burning, and termites.
Sinks: Chemical reactions in the atmosphere.
Significance: Molecule for molecule, methane traps heat 20-30 times more
efficiently than CO2. Within 50 years it could become the most significant greenhouse
gas.

Nitrous Oxide [296 times potential than CO2]

Sources: Burning of coal and wood, as well as soil microbes'

digestion. Sinks: Chemical reactions in the atmosphere.
Significance: Long-lasting gas that eventually reaches the stratosphere where
it participates in ozone destruction.

Ozone

Sources: Not emitted directly, ozone is formed in the atmosphere through

photochemical reactions involving nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons in the presence of
sunlight.
Sinks: Deposition to the surface, chemical reactions in the atmosphere.
Significance: In the troposphere ozone is a pollutant. In the stratosphere it
absorbs hazardous ultraviolet radiation.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

Sources: Used for many years in refrigerators, automobile air conditioners, solvents,
aerosol propellants and insulation.
Sinks: Degradation occurs in the upper atmosphere at the expenses of the ozone
layer. One CFC molecule can initiate the destruction of as many as 100,000 ozone
molecules.
Significance: The most powerful of greenhouse gases — in the atmosphere one
molecule of CFC has about 20,000 times the heat trapping power on a molecule of
CO2.