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Design of Floating Offshore Platform

Technical Report · January 2021

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.10384.84486

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Islamic University of Technology

Technical Report
On

Floating Offshore Platform Design

Foyez Ahmad
Student ID: 170011060
MCE – 4671: Fossil Fuel Engineering
23-12-2020
Summary: This technical report intends to provide a glimpse regarding floating offshore
platforms. Offshore platform is typically used in deep water oceans to extract minerals such as
crude oil, natural gas etc. from the underlying land. Here the paper is expected to bring about a
general understanding of how and which procedure they perform their work in addition to design
process.
 Contents:
I. Introduction
II. Historical Development
III. Types of floating offshore platforms
IV. Tension Leg Platform (TLP)
• Background
• Structural Details of the TLP Platform
• Design Process of Tension Legs Platform
• Transportation of TLP
• Advantages and Disadvantages of the Tension Leg Platform
V. Semi-submersible Platform
• Background
• Configurations of Semi-submersibles Platform
• Types of Semi-submersible platform
• Design considerations of semi-submersible platform
• Transportation
• Advantages and disadvantages of Semi-submersible Platform
VI. SPAR Platform
• Background
• Structural Details of SPAR platform
• Configurations of SPAR platform
• Design Considerations of SPAR Platform
• Advantages and disadvantage of spar
VII. Floating Production, Storage and Offloading system (FPSO)
• Background:
• System Composition:
• design criteria
• advantages and disadvantages of FPSO
VIII. Case Study: Tension Leg Platform (TLP)
IX. Conclusions
X. References
Introduction: Offshore platform can be defined as a large structure at sea used to house crew
and machinery for exploration and production of natural resources such as fossil fuels from
beneath the ocean bed. The platform boasts storage facilities for crude and gas until they're
transported to refineries, and sometimes may also have facilities to provide accommodation to the
workforce. Larger lake- and sea-based offshore platforms are some of the largest transportable
man-made structures in the world. The platform has no fixed access to dry land and may be
required to stay in position in all weather conditions. Normally this type of platform is located
within the continental shelf however might be in deeper waters.[1]
Depending on the circumstances, offshore structures may be installed on the seabed or may be
floating. Floating structures may be attached to the seabed, dynamically mounted by thrusters, or
may be freely drifted. These platforms have hulls (columns and pontoons) with adequate buoyancy
to allow the structure to float, but with enough weight to hold the structure upright. By modifying
the amount of flooding in buoyancy tanks, semi-submersible platforms can be shifted from place
to place and can be ballasted up or down. . Floating offshore platforms are self-sufficient in energy
and water needs, containing electricity generation, water desalinators and all the facilities required
to handle oil and gas in such a manner that they can either be transported directly onshore by
pipeline or to a Floating Storage Unit or to a tanker loading station.
However the construction of a floating offshore platform is an expensive proposition and mobile
exploratory drilling rigs are used to dig wells in order to determine the presence or absence of
crude oil and natural gas at offshore. If there is an appropriate quantity of crude oil or natural gas,
the well shall be plugged before a permanent production platform is built. In addition, offshore
activities include the transport of crude oil and natural gas from offshore output to land refineries
and plants. Exploration, drilling and production of crude oil and natural gas requires a broad variety
of methods, many of which are close to those used by land-based exploration and production.
Nevertheless, offshore operations should introduce additional technology related to the maritime
environment. In comparison to crude oil and natural gas activities on land, offshore operations
include meteorology, naval architecture, mooring and anchoring techniques likewise as buoyancy,
stability, and trim of the vessel or platform.[2]

Historical Development: Offshore oil and gas exploration dates back to the nineteenth
century. In 1890, the first offshore oil wells were drilled from extended piers into the seas of the
Pacific Ocean, offshore Summerland, California. However, the birth of the offshore industry is
generally recognized to be around 20 feet (6.1 m) of water depth off the coast of Louisiana in 1947.
Today there are more than 7,000 offshore platforms in the water depths of up to 1,850m in 53
countries around the world. A large number of new oil would come from deep and ultra-deep water
extraction from three offshore regions known as the Golden Triangle: the Gulf of Mexico, West
Africa and Brazil.
Floating platforms are especially suitable for deepwater: Floating Production, Storage and
Offloading (FPSO), Semi-submersible, TLP and Spar. Among them, the Tension Leg Platform
(TLP) and the spar are the only floaters used today for dry trees. There is little standardization of
the floating units. Shell Offshore and its associates obtained substantial cost savings by
constructing multiple TLPs using common design practices. (i.e. Ram-Powell, Mars, Brutus). By
building the Nansen and Boomvang Spars identically, Kerr McGee obtained some savings.
However, for the most part, each deepwater field has been constructed for a "fit for purpose"
design.[3]

Figure: Mr. Charlie, first mobile offshore drilling platform ( 1954)[4]

Types of floating offshore platforms: Floater types may be influenced by a set of factors
such as functionality, stability, motion, load or capability, transportability, reusability, etc. There
are mainly four distinct types of floating platforms:
i. Tension Leg Platform (TLP)
ii. Semi-submersible Platform
iii. Spar Platform
iv. Floating Production, Storage and Offloading system (FPSO)

Each platform has a notable difference in terms of architecture, efficiency, construction and
implementation. Like FPSOs, they have a moderately shallow draft, but a large waterplane area
where semi-submersibles have a limited waterplane area and a mild draft. Spars, on the other hand,
has a very deep draft and a moderate to small waterplane area.
Table: Distinctive functions of floaters[5]
Tension Leg Platform (TLP): Tension Leg Platform (TLP) is a vertically moored platform.
The mooring device performs the role of station-keeping and is essential to the safe operation of
offshore floating installations. The floating platform, with its excess buoyancy, is vertically
supported by taut mooring lines called tendons (or tethers). The structure is vertically restricted,
prohibiting vertical (heave) and rotational gestures (pitch and roll). It is horizontally compatible,
allowing lateral movements (surge and sway). The strength of this floating production system is
that it can be used to develop deep-water oil fields with a depth of up to 600 m.
The platform is permanently anchored by means of tethers or tendons organized at each corner of
the frame. A feature of the construction of the tethers is that they have relatively high axial stiffness
(low elasticity) such that nearly all vertical motion of the platform is neglected. That ensures that
the platform will have the production wells on the deck (with rigid rises linked directly to the
underwater wells), rather than on the shore. Subsequently, this enables faster completion of the
well, increases regulation of oil or gas reservoir production and easier access for downhole
intervention operations.[3]

Background: Since the early 1980s, TLPs have been in use. The first tension leg platform was
installed in the early 1980s for the Conoco Hutton field in the North Sea. The hull was constructed
in the dry dock at the highland manufacturer's Nigg yard in the north of Scotland, with the deck
portion being built at the McDermott yard at Ardersier. The two parts were put together in the
Moray Firth in 1984.

Originally, the Hutton TLP was planned for a service life of 25 years at depths of 100 to 1000
meters in the Nord Sea. Typically big TLPs will usually have a full drilling rig on the platform
from which to dig and operate on the wells. Smaller TLPs may have a workover rig or, in a few
cases, no production wellheads placed on the platform at all. A TLP example is the Ursa (Shell Oil
Company) platform, which was scheduled to begin production in 1999. This platform is installed
in 4,000 ft of water, the largest structure in the Gulf of Mexico and will have a depth record for a
drilling platform and production platform. Additional models of the TLP include the SeaStar and
MOSES versions with a mini TLP, comparatively low cost in depths of 600-3,500 ft (200 and
1,100 m).In water depths ranging from 600 to 3500 feet, SeaStar platforms are available. British
Borneo is preparing to construct the world's first SeaStar in the Gulf of Mexico in the Ewing Bank
at a depth of 1,700 ft. British Borneo considers Morpeth for this prospect. [1]

Figure: Tension Leg Platform (TLP)[6]

Structural Details of the TLP Platform: The basic structure of the TLP consists of four
air-filled columns forming a square. These columns are supported and linked by a pontoon. The
buoyant hull holds the top of the platform and the complex mooring system retains the platform in
place. The buoyancy of the platform hull balances the weight of the platform, requiring clusters of
strong tendons or tension legs to anchor the structure to the foundation on the seabed. The
foundation is then maintained stable by piles that are steered into the seabed. The constructional
configuration of the TLP platform can be categorized into following components:

• Hull
• Topsides
• Production Risers
• Export Risers
• Tendons
• Foundations
• Wellhead

Hull: A standard TLP hull has a square setup with a horizontal ring pontoon that connects four
vertical columns. Alternatively, the mini-TLPs have a smaller water-plane region with either a
single central column or four broadly spaced small columns, and an expanded immersed pontoon
frame with 3 or 4 radiating pontoons to provide a substantial foundation for tendon attachment.
The purpose of the hull seems to be, in all situations, to provide buoyancy and structural stability
to support the topsides and the production and export risers and tendons. It is important that the
TLP hull have adequate buoyancy to sustain the total weight and retain the tendons at the necessary
tension level required for safe service.

Various Hull Configurations of TLP:

Figure: TLP Hull Types

Topsides: Topsides include everything relating to oil and gas production, drilling, infrastructure
for drilling and production. Topsides are usually multi-level decks of offshore oil and gas
platforms, with both modular and optimized setups. The deck and hull are structurally combined
and form a fully integrated continuous floating frame.

Production Risers: The key functionality of the TLP concept is to provide sufficiently regulated
motions to allow the use of rigid top-tensioned production risers that sustain relatively traditional
dry-surface trees. These risers are stabilized by a topside (or hull) frame using a tensioning system
(usually designed as multiple hydraulic or pneumatic tensioners) that accommodates relatively
minor vertical motions between the risers and the TLP when exposed to wind, wave and current.
The designs now also include the E-TLP, which has a ring pontoon linking the four air-filled
columns; the Moses TLP, which controls the four-column hull; and the SeaStar TLP, which
contains only one central column for the hull.

Export Risers: Export risers are used to transport the supply of refined oil and gas from the TLP
to the subsea pipeline channel. Export risers are either high-tensioned rigid risers, identical to
production risers, flexible risers (using flexible pipes) or Steel Catenary risers (SCRs).

Figure: Schematic diagram of tension leg platform (TLP).[7]

Tendons: Tendons are used to firmly attach the TLP to the seafloor, as well as to restrict TLP
horizontal excursions and shear, roll and pitch motions. In order to preserve stability and/or
position of the TLP, the tendons should always be in a particular stress range. Usually, there must
be eight to twelve tendons for the configuration of four column hulls (two or three tendons per
column) and either six or eight tendons for the configuration of mini-TLP hulls (with two tendons
for each of the three or four horizontal legs).
Foundations: Early TLP's, like Jolliet in the GOM, used subsea Template(s) which were piled to
the seafloor to protect the lower ends of the tendons. Starting with Mars, all of the GOM TLPs
used a vertical pile operated for each tendon as a foundation. Other types of foundations have been
used in other areas, especially where soils vary from traditional GOM sediments. That involve
large gravity based caissons and/or suction pile foundations.

Wellhead: For TLPs that support top-tensioned risers and surface trees, the wellhead for each well
is mounted on the sea floor immediately below the TLP and is used to attach the riser to the well
casing system

Deck: The topside of the TLP is the same as the standard production platform, consisting of a deck
that keeps the drilling and production equipment, the power module and the living space. Dry tree
wells are typical to TLPs due to reduced vertical movement on platforms.[3]

Design Process of Tension Legs Platform: It is important to consider the whole

construction order and its correlation with external restrictions such as financial conditions,
scheduling, facilities and human resources. It is necessary to execute the contract strategy of the
operator for infrastructure, production and installation in the preparation of the design process.
Based on how the arrangement is organized, the main parties are concerned. The design process
should include proposals and timetables for future concept testing of the platform.

The tethers are designed for high axial stiffness (low elasticity), so that almost all vertical
rotation of the platform is omitted. This enables the platform to provide the production wellheads
at the deck (directly linked by rigid risers to the subsea wells) instead of at the seabed. This
makes the production of oil or gas reservoirs cheaper and provides greater power.[2]

Transportation of TLP: Transportation of TLPs should be designed, taking into

consideration the structural configuration, in order to specifically distinguish loadings during
loading, tow and setup. Applicable rules and/or standards such as those of the United States Coast
Guard and the International Maritime Organization should be considered. Model testing could be
used to check the results of the analysis. The approaches used should be based on well-known
concepts, procedures, processes and equipment. Skilled experienced workers should be involved
in these activities. Precautions should be taken during transportation to the sea to avoid damage to
the structure. Transportation may be either by towing or by carriage on a mobile heavy-lift vessel.
Attention should be given to support tugboats to provide protection against damage. The stability
requirements for transportation should be chosen as suitable for the time, length and location of
the road, as well as for the degree of risk prevention and control afforded. The ability to overrun
or locate a safe harbor during a disaster would have a major impact on the transport motion criteria.
Relevant transport specifications will depend on whether or not the vessel is run.[8]

Advantages of the Tension Leg Platform:

i. Simple and economical structure: Compared to the steel platform, the construction of
the tension leg platform is simple, and when the water depth is higher than 360 m, the steel
consumption is lower than that of the steel platform.
 ii. Less offshore work: Construction is not affected by the environment, and thus the cost of
construction is smaller than that of a semi-submersible platform.
iii. Strong mobility: It is convenient to transfer.
iv. Applicable to deep-water fields: It is insensitive to depth of water and earthquakes, but it
is applicable to deep-water areas.
v. Stable: Since the platform has limited vertical motion, it is stable.
vi. Can be assembled onshore and towed to the final position: The tension leg platform can
assembled onshore easily comparatively than that of offshore and then towed to the final
destination.

Disadvantages of the Tension Leg Platform:

i. High initial budget: The amount of the initial budget is higher comparatively.
ii. Costly subsea cost: Subsea cost corresponds to the cost of the whole project, which
typically includes capital expenditure (CAPEX) and operational expenditure (OPEX) for
subsea field development. In TLP, the expense of the subsea is high.
iii. Fatigue problem: Tension Leg Platform (TLP), a deep-water offshore oil exploration
system, is susceptible to substantial fatigue damage during its construction lifetime
considering the dynamic excitations caused by oscillating waves and wind. In the presence
of random loadings such as those created by wind and waves, fatigue reliability and fracture
failure are significant.
iv. Obstructions in maintenance of subsea systems: Maintenance of subsea systems are
difficult.
v. Difficult installation process: Due to inherent instability during the towing, installation
process is difficult.
vi. High loads on the mooring and anchoring system.
vii. Concerns about the lifetime of tendons.
viii. Often requires specialized installation vessels and installation is a risky operation.

Semi-submersible Platform: The semi-submersible platform is a versatile underwater vessel

used in offshore operations, including offshore drilling rigs, safety vessels, oil production
platforms and heavy lift cranes. They've got decent ship stability and seakeeping, better than
drillships. Semi-submersibles are multi-legged floating structures with large decks. These legs are
connected at the bottom of the underwater with horizontal buoyant members called pontoons.
These types of platforms float like a ship as they are towed to a place where their pontoons can
then be flooded, partly submerging the deck.
Semi-submersible systems can operate in a wide variety of depths of water, including deep water,
and are typically anchored with six to 12 anchor chains, which are computer operated to maintain
the orientation of the vessel. The standard architecture consists of four columns joined at the
bottom by a pontoon with a nominally rectangular cross-section. The truss structure connects the
top columns and supports the topside modules. The platform can be used at ranges from 600 to
6,000 ft.
 Figure: Schematic diagram of Semi- submersible Platform
Semi-submersible platforms provide a variety of advantages, including high payload capability,
minimal water depth sensitivity, quayside integration, and the ability to shift the vehicle after field
abandonment.The idea of partially submerging rigs eliminates both rolling and pitching on semi-
submersible platforms in rough seas. Semis-submersibles are robust and cost-effective platforms.
As offshore oil and gas exploration progressed into shallow water, the use of semi-submersible
platforms became more common due to their expansive deck area to support large topside
installations and ease of topside-hull integration at the quayside.[3]

Background: Semi-submersibles originated from the "submersible" type of drilling vessel,

which operated sitting on the bottom in comparatively shallow water and provided a working
deck well above the maximum predicted waves. These units were flown afloat on pontoons and
required "stability columns" to submerge safely into a bottom-based mode of operation. In order
to operate in deeper water, the marine riser was installed and the spread of moorings was refined
to enable the drilling of the afloat. This first submission was for barges. To resolve the
unfavorable motions of the barges, the simple submersible architecture of the time was adjusted
to the floating drilling purpose. That was the "Bluewater." This was a creation funded by Shell
Oil, with Bruce Collip as the record inventor.

The first semi-submersible landed by accident in 1961. Blue Water Drilling Company owned and
run the four-column drilling rig Blue Water Rig No. 1 in the Gulf of Mexico for the Shell Oil
Company. As the pontoons were not adequately buoyant to withstand the weight of the rig and
its consumables, it was towed between the draught positions halfway between the top of the
pontoons and the bottom of the deck. It was noticed that the motions at this draught were very
small, and Blue Water Drilling and Shell collectively agreed that the rig should be run in floating
mode. In 1963, the first purpose built semi-submersible drilling Ocean Driller was launched.
There were 30 semi-submersible units by 1972.[1]

Classification: Drilling semis can be divided into sixth generations based on the year built and
water depth capability:
The first generation, starting with the "Bluewater I," includes a wide range of configurations
developed throughout the 1960s. A lack of technical exchange, a lack of consistent design theory,
and the fact that no one design demonstrated a full understanding of the important concepts of
semi-submersible design were the key elements influencing design during this time. The majority
of the units constructed were created by the 2nd generation. A higher level of diffusion of design
and performance experience was a significant feature of this era. There is a very sharp boundary
between the 2nd and 3rd centuries. Just two units were delivered in 1979 and there were none in
1980. [9]

Configurations of Semi-submersibles Platform: The semi-submersible platform

consists of a hull, multiple columns and pontoons holding up the deck. The center of gravity is
located above the center of buoyancy, so the configuration of the columns determines the SSP's
stability. The weight of all constant parameters and variable loads, including equipment and
machine resources and equipment for operations, should be measured. The four main
configurational components are:
• Pontoons
• Stability columns
• Deck
• Space frame bracing
Pontoons: Pontoons are the only source of semi-submerged floatation while not semi-submerged.
Both semi-submersibles have at least two flotation states: semi-submerged (afloat on the columns)
and afloat on the pontoons. Pontoons provide stability and floatability to their ballast and
waterproofing properties. The pontoons are positioned beneath the surface of the water and the
action of the waves. Both pontoons and columns are attached and fastened together in a circular
cross-section layout, which increases the strength and flexibility of the structure. The lower
pontoons and legs are hollow so that seawater can provide ballast to submerge the system to carry
vast volumes of fuel oil, fracking mud and fresh drinking water. Beyond that, the size,
submergence, proportion and spacing of columns and pontoons are the main factors in the
hydrodynamic efficiency of semi-submersibles.
The following diagram displays the sectional views of four semi-submersible configurations,
defining the four elements. Waterlines are seen at their usual working condition, "semi-
submerged." Although each component has been identified, each component is distinctive. Case
A is characteristic of the 3rd generation of semi-submersibles, while case B is more typical of the
2nd generation. Similarly, the cases C and D are representative of the third and fourth centuries,
respectively.

Figure: Semi-submersible sectional arrangements

Stability columns: The key components of floatation and floatation stabilization when semi-
submersed are the stability columns. While they can work structurally, the structural strength of
the columns is not the main function. The purpose of the columns is to provide stabilization and
the crucial point of stability is that when the semi is underwater, the flotation undergoes changes
from being afloat on the pontoons to being afloat on the columns.
Pontoons and columns are typically organized and linked in a manner that can have tremendous
global power. Generally, the deck is also organized and linked. If this arrangement does not have
adequate global power, a space frame bracing system is used. This was very much the case with
the earlier prototypes.
Decks: The decks of the early semi-designs were single-level structures with individual decks
organized without a cohesive interrelated structural feature. This arrangement was often referred
to as "a piece of butter toast." Supporting a single deck requires a space frame bracing system or
near column spacing. Single decks were preferred in the earlier semi-design due to the available
erection tools at the time. What has emerged since then is a hull-type superstructure with an
intrinsic connection to the tops of the column. Such a setup will remove much of it.
Bracings: The arrangement and form of the bracings are very critical. These configurations require
a cross-sectional reinforcing, on the bottom of the braces, to make the force stand out due to friction
and compression. Cross-inclined bracing combined with horizontal transverse resistance and
protection of deck weight, provide lateral resistance and robust against sea-quarter phenomena.
The reinforcement system is specifically designed for the 3rd generation model of SSP and newer
drilling. The great and good construction, as well as the good jointing and linked deck structure
and the ordered and closed rows of the pontoon, will minimize the number of bracings required.[2]

Figure: 3rd generation semi-submersible bracing

Types of Semi-submersible platform: Based on the way the rig is submerged in the
water, there are two main types of semisubmersibles:
• Bottle-type semi-submersible
• Column-stabilized semi-submersible
Bottle-type semi-submersible: Bottle-type semi-submersible consists of bottle-shaped hulls
below the drilling deck, and can be submerged by loading the hulls with water. The first incarnation
of this type of semi-submersible the bottle-type drilling rig was initially conceived as submersible
rigs. As a submersible, the bottles under the rig is fully submerged, floating on the ocean bottom.
As a semi-submersible, the platform provided excellent stability for drilling activities, and the
rolling and pitching of waves and winds was significantly minimized. In addition to intermittent
environmental hazards, such as earthquakes, cyclones or hurricanes, some fracking sites are often
harsh with persistent rough waters. Being able to drill in deeper and rougher waters, semi-
submersible has opened up a new avenue for discovery and development.
Column-stabilized semi-submersible: Column-stabilized semi-submersible platform is a more
common semi-submersible platform. Here, two horizontal hulls are attached to the drilling deck
above the water through cylindrical or rectangular columns. To support the structure, smaller
diagonal columns are used. The submersion of this type of semi-submersible is accomplished by
partly filling the horizontal hulls with water before the rig is submerged to the desired depth.
Mooring lines anchor the rig over the well, and complex positioning will help hold the semi-sub
on-site as well. Further the column stabilized semisubmersible platform design can be classified
as follows:
• Ring Pontoon Semisubmersible: Ring-pontoon designs usually have one constantly
lower hull serving 4-8 vertical columns (pontoons and nodes). The vertical columns
support the upper hull (deck).
• Twin Pontoon Semisubmersible: The Twin Pontoon designs have two lower hulls
(pontoons), each supporting 2-4 vertical columns. The 4-8 vertical columns protect the
upper hull (deck). In addition, diagonal bracelets protecting the deck and horizontal
bracelets linking the pontoons or columns can be reinforced.[10]

Design considerations of semi-submersible platform: The methodology to be

followed in the subsequent discussion is to resolve the general design and not to rely on theoretical
approaches. "Design" is more about making smart choices than about accuracy and rigor in
deciding the different facets of results. At the end, all of these components require effective
architecture. The key challenge in the semi-submersible design is the proper configuration of the
unique functions needed and the development software. Beyond that, there's a problem with a
rational scale. One of the features of the initial design process is that advanced subsystem design
and analysis (mooring, riser, etc.) will proceed on the basis of early models and continue at the
same time as individual design iterations.
The initial design is a rationally based model for subsequent comprehensive designs and rigorous
analysis, from which a preliminary design is created. One of the goals of the process is to deter
numerous, trial-and-error, thorough analyzes of what might be models of insufficient configuration
and scale.
Initial Design Considerations: In sizing of a semi, it is informative to re-examine the most
fundamental functions of the type:
• To stably support a payload above the highest waves
• To minimally respond to waves
Noting the terms "payload" and "above the most extreme waves," two very significant scale
problems are discussed:
• The number, size and spacing of the stability columns.
• The height of the deck
The second basic feature, "minimum response to waves," refers to the height, form and
submergence of the pontoons relative to the waterplane column area and the spacing of the
pontoons and columns.

Transportation: All SSPs are usually built in onshore (fabrication yard) for economic purposes
and after completion of production, filled and shipped to offshore. Offshore installations that are
heavier can be reached or weigh 10,000 tons or more. So it has to be moved, usually by slipping,
into the water or onto a wide, overweight lift craft that can carry it to its target. Basic technological
constraints for moving systems include load flexibility at the quay, depth of water and wave
hazards. The study of sea fastening before transporting the platform is carried out.
When loading, the alignment and balance of the watercraft required to be adjusted and corrected
to be constantly corrected to secure the geometry and tidy, suitable to the loading operation.
Commonly both the structure and the vessel require correct load and transport tension. Sea
fastenings should have ample resistance to a heavy hurricane for long-distance sea transport.[11]

Advantages of Semi-submersible Platform:

• Semi-submersibles can achieve a strong (small) motion response and can thus be more
conveniently placed over a good template for drilling.
• Most stable of any floating rig.
• Semi-submersibles provide a significant number of versatile risers. Large number of
adjustable risers due to the lack of a weather venting system, holding the platform fixed.
• Large working areas from the broad platform deck size
• Transportation from location to location is easy.
• Can be reused and converted to other support vessels
• High mobility
• Easily placed over well prototype for well-drilling.
• Stable in high sea conditions
• Not more expenses
• Fast tow speeds
• High working platform away from the wave actions

Disadvantages of Semi-submersible Platform:

• High operating and building cost
• Stability depends on the limitations of capacities, where it will fail if the weight limit is not
exceeded.
• Expensive to tow beyond the distance limit
• Well operations and mooring are difficult to manage in extreme conditions
• Pipeline infrastructure, or other means of exporting processed oil, is required.
• Building schedules are typically longer than jack-up rigs for semi-submersibles.
• Limited deck load (low reserve buoyancy).
• Structural fatigue.
• Expensive to move large distances.
• Limited dry-docking facilities available.
• Mooring devices and risers in heavy conditions are difficult to navigate

Spar Platform: A spar is a type of floating oil platform broadly used in very deep waters and
is named for logs used as buoys in shipping that are vertically moored. Spar production platforms
have been installed as an alternative to conventional platforms. The deep draft design of the spars
makes them less affected by wind, waves and tides and facilitates both dry-tree and subsea
production. SPAR platforms are one of the largest offshore platforms in operation. The spar is the
only effective dry-tree solution for deep-water production that can work efficiently in the deepest
and most extreme conditions. They are moored to the seabed like the TLP, but although the TLP
has vertical tension tethers, the SPAR has more conventional mooring lines.
The Spar Platform consists of a single vertical cylinder with a wide diameter supporting the deck.
It has a standard FP topside (surface deck with drilling and processing equipment), three types of
risers (production, drilling and export) and a hull moored using a 6-20 line taut catenary framework
bolted into the sea floor. Spars are the most prominent in the US Gulf of Mexico; however, there
are also offshore spars installed in Malaysia and Norway.[2]

Background: The Brent Spar, a structure designed for storing and discharge of crude oil goods,
was the first spar. It was mounted in June 1976 at Brent Field. Greenpeace's proposed deep-sea
dumping of the base in the 1990s generated a major backlash. Eventually, the spar was removed
and sections were used in Norway as a base for a quay. The Neptune Spar, installed in 1996 by
Oryx Energy Company (now Kerr-McGee) and CNG, was the first production Spar in the world.
The hull of the Neptune Spar is 705 feet (215 m) long with a center-well of 32 x 32 ft2 (10 x 10
m2) and a diameter of 72 ft (22 m). Six lines composed of a wire rope and a cord composed of the
mooring system.
The first three production Spars consisted of a long cylindrical outer shell with "hard tanks" close
to the top to provide buoyancy. The middle section was empty, free of flooding and the lower
section consisted of "soft tanks" which were used mainly to enable the Spar to float horizontally
during installation and to keep the ballast fixed. A third generation “cell” Spar was introduced in
2004. It is identical to that of the other Spars, but it is built differently. The hull consists of several
ring-shaped tubes or "cells" which are bound by horizontal and vertical plates. This is less
expensive than the conventional approaches of plate and frame.

Figure: Configuration of different Spar

There are actually 17 Spars, i.e. 3 Classic Spars, 13 Truss Spars, and just 1 Cell Spar. All of them
can be found in the Gulf of Mexico, except the Kikeh Truss SPAR, situated off the Malaysian
coast. Shell's Perdido SPAR in the Gulf of Mexico, suspended in 2,438 meters of water, is actually
the world's deepest platform. It was designed on a $3 billion capital spending basis.[3]

Structural Details of SPAR platform: Three types of production spars have been built to
date: the “Classic” and “Truss” spars shown in and recently the third generation cell spar (Finn
and Maher, 2003). The main structural parts of the classic and truss spar include:
• Deck
• Hard Tank
• Midsection (steel shell or truss structure)
• Soft Tank
Deck: The Topsides Deck is usually a multi-level structure to mitigate the cantilever requirement.
For decks of up to 18,000 tons, the deck weight is balanced by four columns connecting the hard
tank at the intersection of the radial bulkhead with the outer shell. Additional columns for heavier
decks are adjusted. Decks of up to 10,000 tons can be built offshore with a single lift. Larger decks
require a variety of lifts.
Hard Tank: "Hard Tank" means that the compartments are designed to endure maximum
hydrostatic pressure. There are usually five or six tank levels between the spar deck and the bottom
of the hard tank, each of which is detached by a watertight deck. Each level is further divided into
four compartments by radial bulkheads emanating from the center well corner. The tank level at
the waterline requires extra cofferdam tanks to minimize the submerged volume in the case of
intrusion of the outer hull due to a ship collision. There are also up to 28 different compartments
in the hard tank.
Midsection: The Midsection reaches below the hard tank to give the spar its deep draft. In the
early "classic" spars, the mid-section was basically an addition of the outer shell of hard tanks.
There was no internal structure, except as needed to provide support for the range of risers in the
mid-section. This "truss spar" arrangement resulted in a lighter weight, cheaper hull construction.
Even, the truss has less drag and lowers total mooring loads in high-current conditions.
Soft Tank: The Soft Tank at the bottom of the spar is intended to provide floatation during the
construction process while the spar is floating horizontally. It also includes compartments for the
positioning of the fixed ballast until the spar is overturned. The soft tank has a centerwell and a
keel guide that controls the risers at that stage.[5]

Configurations of SPAR platform: SPAR platforms have been designed in three

configurations:
• Conventional SPAR
• Truss SPAR
• Cell SPAR
Conventional SPAR: The original design for conventional spars was created in the mid '90s with
the first developed for the Neptune field in the Gulf of Mexico. The classic spar consists of the
cylindrical hull shown above with heavy ballast tanks located at the bottom of the cylinder. The
conventional spar, as seen in the diagram, consists of a wide, single vertical cylinder supporting a
high deck. The cylinder is ballasted at the bottom by a chamber filled with a substance that is
denser than water to lower the center of gravity of the platform, thereby improving stability. Spars
are permanently secured to the seabed by means of a spreading mooring system consisting of either
a chain-wire-chain or chain-polyester-chain configuration.
Truss SPAR: The next variant of the spar was the truss spar, which is identical to theoriginal
traditional spar configuration, except the cylindrical hull is shortened and the truss is inserted
below. The Truss Platforms were introduced by Kerr-McGee in 2001 when the Nansen was
mounted on the SPAR Platform of the Gulf of Mexico. The architecture of the Truss SPAR has
three major components:
• Hard Tank: Hard Tank provides most of the in-place buoyancy for the SPAR.
• Truss Section: Truss Section Supports the heave plates and provides separation between
the keel tank and hard tank.
• Keel Tank (“Soft Tank”): Keel Tank contains the fixed ballast and acts as a natural hang-
off location for export pipelines and flowlines.
One of the key benefits of Truss Spar over other floating platforms is its minimized heave and
pitch motion. Low movements in these degrees of freedom allow the use of dry trees. Dry trees
provide direct vertical access from the deck to the wells, allowing Truss Spar to be designed for
complete drilling, workover, output or some combination of these operations.

Figure: Components of Classic SPAR & Truss SPAR

Cell SPAR: The third type of spar, the cell spar, has a wide central cylinder enclosed by smaller
cylinders of alternate lengths. The soft tank at the bottom of the longer cylinders comprises hard
ballast content, equivalent to a truss spar. Cell spars are intended for small-scale production. It's
essentially made up of several vertical cylinders.

Design Considerations of SPAR Platform: All SPAR platforms utilize strakes to minimize
vortex-induced motion. Anodes are commonly found in SPAR hulls to reduce corrosion. Every
design upgrades the older model and provides better features at a reduced cost. Depending on the
work, various topside decks may be connected to SPARs. Some of these decks are:

• A full drilling rig (3,000hp)

• A workover rig (600-1,000hp)
• Production equipment
The main design criteria for sizing a spar are:

1. Maximum weight of the topsides and risers supported by the spars that needs to be
accommodated
2. Eccentricity of the deck which needs to be trimmed by variable ballast
3. Area required in the centrewell to enclose risers and buoyancy cans
4. Maximum pitch motions in a 100-year event less than about 10°
5. Centrewell sufficient to support the riser buoyancy cans and other riser requirements
6. Maximum riser stroke less than about ± 15 ft
7. Ability to be single piece transported on a heavy lift vessel
8. Ability to float-off heavy lift vessel (maximum draft less than 10m)

Spay Hull Sizing Parameters: Apart from the centrewell size, the key sizing parameters for the
spar hull include:
1. Diameter
2. Hard Tank Depth
3. Fixed Ballast
4. Draft
5. Fairlead Elevation
The minimum weight (or cost) configuration that satisfies all of the requirements is chosen as the
baseline configuration. At this point, some restrictions may be considered. In addition to the
limitations on the transport proposal, other requirements may include:
• Maximum hull diameter for easy construction at a particular yard
• Minimum length of hard tank to enclose buoyancy cans
• Optimum diameter for accommodating deck leg spacing[12]

Advantages of SPAR Platform:

• Simple design that can be easily fabricated
 • Allows surface wellheads and enable vertical access to wells
• Supports of remote wells
• Capable to conduct drilling and workover capability
• Provide drilling access to a large well pattern by active lateral mooring system on the spar
structures.
• SPAR is more economical to build for small and medium sized rigs than the TLP.
• Since it has a large counterweight at the bottom and does not depend on the mooring to
hold it upright, it has good stability
• It also has the ability, by use of chain-jacks attached to the mooring lines, to move
horizontally over the oil field.
• Less sensitive than Tension Leg Platform (TLP) to water depth and payload
• Few active systems or complicated components.

Disadvantages of SPAR Platform:

• Assembly in shallow water not possible
• Fatigue load in tower and blades might be higher than for TLP.
• Requires large drafts for onshore assemblies.
• Less support for top tension risers (TTRs) in very deep water
• Consumed more extensive offshore campaign for integration and installation
• Very sensitive to long period waves, i.e., affect the stability and structural buoyancy

Floating Production, Storage and Offloading system (FPSO): FPSOs are the most
prominent floating platforms for production. This floating production system is a floating
production storage and offloading system (FPSO) with production and processing equipment,
water (gas) equipment, public facilities, and living facilities mounted on a ship with storage and
an offloading vessel. Oil and gas are sent to the single point mooring structure (SMS) through
pipes at the seabed, and then sent to the FPSO to be attached to the SMS, by way of a riser and
soft pipe connected to the SMS, finally to the refining system. Properly trained crude oil is stored
by the FPSO and sent to the shuttle tanker after evaluation and treatment of the calibration. FPSOs
are usually ship-shaped floaters with arrangements for storing and offloading of oil at the same
time. They may be built so that they still face the weather, eliminating rolls and heave
movements.[2]

Background: FPSOs have been utilized in offshore production since the 1970s, usually within
the North Sea, offshore Brazil, Asia Pacific, the Mediterranean Sea, and offshore West Africa.
Moreover, since these structures can be moved, they are a more economical option for more
marginal regions, as the vehicle can be transferred to further growth and redeployed once the initial
region has been drained. Oil has been produced in offshore areas since the late 1940s. The first
FPSO oil was installed in 1977 in shell Castellon on the Mediterranean Sea of Spain. Early FPSOs
were limited to mild conditions that permitted the use of tankers conversions. The turret mooring
was installed in 1986, and in turn raised the door for the FPSOs into more crucial environments.
The first North Sea FPSOs were also launched that year. Today, the North Sea and Brazil are the
main FPSO industries. Despite their existence in the offshore oil-producing regions of the world,
there was no single FPSO in the Gulf of Mexico since 2004. The US government has only recently
allowed its use in the Gulf of Mexico, but no oil company has made a plan to build one since
2004.[3]

System Composition: The floating production device has another term, namely that the main
component is an oil tanker with the purpose of storing and offloading oil (FSO). (FSO). The crude
oil and gas is only extracted elsewhere, given the lack of an oil, gas, and water extraction and
processing infrastructure. Then the FSO receives qualified oil and gas to store through submarine
pipelines. Frequently, the oil tanker is shipped. A little old tanker can be changed to the FSO and
the construction time is short.

Figure: Functional schematic of a typical FPSO

The floating production storage tanker may be constructed using two techniques, either the
construction of a new tanker or the transformation of an old tanker. The former is applicable to the
long-term development of the oil field, while the latter is appropriate for the early development of
the oil field owing to its shortened construction time. Converted FPSOs also provide the fastest
and cheapest way to initiate production. Their key drawbacks are the lack of capacity to operate
dry trees and the technical difficulties of mooring in very deep water in rugged conditions. The
turret assembly can be very complex and difficult to incorporate with the hull.
A FPS consists of a semi-submersible with drilling and production Facilities. It's got wire rope and
chain links to the anchor, or it might be. Dynamic placement using rotating thrusters. Wellheads
are on the ocean, Floor and linked to the surface deck by means of production lifts equipped to
consider the motion of the platform. The FPS should be used in depths of water 600 to 6,000 feet.
Developed by numerous mooring systems, FPSOs are effective solutions for both deep-water and
ultra-deep-water production. The central mooring system allows the vessel to rotate easily in order
to adapt effectively to weather conditions, while the spreading mooring system supports the vessel
from different positions on the seafloor. In addition, since FPSOs can be moved, they are a more
economical option for more marginal regions, in that the vessel can be moved to further
development and reallocated after the original region has been drained. FPSOs are also an ideal
option for construction where there are no current pipelines or facilities for transporting supply to
shore. In addition to the economic benefits of FPSOs, existing tankers are also turned into
FPSOs.[13]

Design criteria of Hull: There are four major criteria regulating the scale of a standard FPSO;
• Provision of oil storage space consistent with the pace of production and offloading
arrangements, i.e. turnaround time for the shuttle tanker
• Provision of the topsides for the safe layout of the process plant, the storage and utilities
• Provision of displacement and hydraulic capacity to reduce the impact of movements on
process plant and riser structures.
• Provision of area for the production turret (bow, stern or internal). As a result, the sum of
hull storage capacity reduced (new-build or conversion).
The length of the hull should be modified with respect to the expected wavelengths to ensure that
intense environmental conditions do not produce wavelengths located beyond the range of peak
heave and/or pitch response, thereby minimizing turret vertical motion and related dynamic loads.
This optimization also eliminates the need for specific topside configuration criteria for process
equipment, such as baffles for separators. In recent FPSO advancements, there have been instances
where FPSO cargo carrying capacity is not measured against the initial production flow rate, but
further into production life, where decreased and more economical storage can be accomplished.
Floater functional requirements:

• Topsides weight and dimensions

• Environmental conditions
• Water Depth and geometric properties
• Loads and functional requirements for risers

Floating after collision and damage:

• Sufficient compartmentation to withstand flooding of any main compartment

• Residual Stability
• Residual reserved buoyancy[14]

Advantages of FPSOs:

i. FPSO( Floating Production Storage and Offloading) is particularly efficient in remote or

deep water locations where seabed pipelines are not cost effective, i.e., ice berg prone area.
 ii. Eliminate the need to lay long distance pipelines from the processing facility to an offshore
terminal
iii. Provide an economically better solution for smaller oil fields, which can be exhausted in a
few years and do not justify the expense of installing a pipeline.
iv. Any pipeline can be connected by FPSOs. Furthermore an FPSO may switch to another
position when an existing oilfield is exhausted. This saves time, resources and reduces the
need for costly pipelines and installations.
v. The pipelines and gas wells to which FPSOs are moored can be disconnected. In areas with
extreme weather conditions, FPSOs are therefore more stable.
vi. FPSOs can store large amounts of oil and gas, increasing the market profitability of areas
that are difficult to access.
vii. mobile & reusable.

Limitations of FPSO:
i. It can take up to two years to turn a tanker into an FPSO. Although it is something that
has to be addressed, the construction of a pipeline is considerably quicker.
ii. Companies can find that they compete with their own infrastructure dependent on
pipelines which can be considered as self-competition
iii. The initial expense of the FPSO could be higher than the cost of constructing a big
offshore fixed platform.
iv. Limited to small fields operation
v. Very low deck load capacity
vi. Might be damaged to riser due to motion.

Case Study: Tension Leg Platform (TLP)

The tension leg platform (TLP) is a vertically linked non-sinkable structural device that generates
tension in the anchoring system due to the buoyancy of the platform. The TLP has usually been
developed to perform a variety of practical functions in contact with offshore oil and gas
processing. It is primarily used for deep-water applications. The TLP structure consists of several
subsystems, each of which has a precedent in the offshore or maritime industries. The value of the
TLP is seen in the systematic influence of one factor on the other.
The major limitations of TLPs include High initial budget, costly subsea cost, fatigue problem,
obstructions in maintenance of subsea systems. Regarding design process, these such kind of
drawbacks should be considered. The design is a highly collaborative method that should be taken
into account for operating conditions, size of parts and ratio, equipment design and allocation of
space, hydrodynamic reactions, structural specifics, weight and center of gravity.
 Figure: Terminology used in design calculations of the TLP.

Materials used in the design: Selection of strength and consistency standards for steel, cement,
concrete and other materials for the platform, base and other elements will typically meet the
requirements widely used for offshore structures. The tendons work under high-cycle fatigue stress
superimposed on the mean stress tensile load in the seawater environment. The material should
have sufficient fracture strength to withstand the largest non-rejectable welding fault permitted by
the tendon manufacturing standard at full load design and minimum exposure temperatures.
Resistance to stress corrosion cracking under working conditions is important, since it is difficult
to detect such cracks during operation.

Environmental, seafloor and regulatory conditions: It is the duty of the operator to choose the
environmental data required. The diverse nature of the TLP allows the platform designer to work
closely with the meteorological-oceanographic expert to create the data and interpretation in the
form required for the technical design/analysis methods to be used. The characteristics of the
seafloor are collected by surveys of the seafloor location. Seafloor site survey used to collect data
for the geological assessment of the foundation soils and the nearby regions. It is often used to
classify aquatic hazards that may cause operational risks, such as pockmarks, shallow gas, near-
surface faults, debris flows and hard land.[8]

Loads used for the design of the TLP’s: Dead loads are non-variable static loads of TLPs. This
aspects of the structure of the platform and any permanent equipment do not alter over the life of
the structure. Live loads are variable static loads which can be adjusted, transferred or replaced
over the life of the structure. Maximum and minimum payload must be considered.

• Wind Forces
• Ice Loads
• Wave Impact Forces
• Earthquakes
• Accidental Loads
• Fire and Blast Loading
Tension of the mooring leg: The mooring leg should be strained, i.e. the tension value is positive.
In fact, the difference in tension should be as low as possible.

Platform motion cycle: In order to avoid vibration, the six-degree cycle of freedom of movement
of the platform should be expanded past the real wave cycle.

Platform geometry: As long as the other performance is not affected, we should follow a steel-
saving program that is convenient for replacement and maintenance. We ought to pay a great deal
of attention to the fatigue power of the stress leg and consider corrosion.

Figure: TLP tendon mechanics

TLP tendon mechanics: TLP is held in place by means of lateral forces produced by tendons as
the TLP is pushed out of the center. The lateral force relies on the tension of the tendon. As a
result, a large portion of the TLP buoyancy is focused on the development of tendon tension. In
addition, though dynamic mooring loads of other floating systems are effectively lessened by the
platform inertia, the mooring loads of the TLPs are directly connected to the first wave loads on
the structure. The left side of the TLP demonstrates the forces acting on the TLP in still water
without lateral loading. The total weight is given as:

W= Wo + 𝛿W

Wo =lightship weight; 𝛿W = variable load; Tr = Riser load; Tt = Downward force

The tendon tension is therefore given as: ntTt = ρ g ∇ - W- Tr

Here, V = displacement volume of the hull; ρ = mass density of the seawater; g = acceleration of
gravity the buoyant force is expressed as (ρ g∇). Tt =the individual tendon tension and nt = number
of tendons.
Installation procedures of the tension leg platform: Installation procedures for the
tension leg platform are as follows:

a) At First the anchor pile is installed in the predetermined submarine location, and then the tension
leg platform is placed at a location about 40m away from the horizontal position of the anchor pile.
b) The tension leg is lifted to the turnbuckle motion compensator that is the same as that on the
drilling platform.
c) Then the tension leg platform is moved and it is adjusted to be accurately located above the
anchor pile.
d) The anchor joints (anchor connector) are made on the tension leg insert into the anchor pile.
e) The anchor joint is locked.
f) Finally the remaining tension leg is installed.

Figure: Installation procedures for the tension leg platform[12]

Conclusion: Due to the excellent capabilities of extracting natural gas or crude oil by means of
operating several operations, offshore floating platforms play an enormous role in the related
industry. Each type of platform is chosen mainly considering the depth of the water and the deck
material required to perform its service. Like FPSOs, they have a relatively shallow draft, but a
wide water-plane area where semi-submersibles have a small water-plane area and a mild draft.
On the other side, Spars have a very deep draft and a medium to minimal region of the waterplane.
Each platform is suitable for each specific purpose and field of operation zone. If ultra deep water
oil extraction is required then Spar platform is the best option. Besides this, considering small field
operation, FPSOs are the most prominent for providing great opportunities of early production as
well as storage facility. Although several other issues need to be discussed, the paper presents the
whole procedure in a straightforward and simple way.
 References:
[1] R. Sharma, “An introduction to offshore platforms,” no. December, 2019, doi:
10.13140/RG.2.2.31319.21925.
[2] J. G. Speight, Offshore Platforms. 2015.
[3] S. K. Chakrabarti, HANDBOOK OF OFFSHORE ENGINEERING, vol. I. 2005.
[4] “Mr. Charlie, First Mobile Offshore Drilling Rig.” [Online]. Available:
https://www.aoghs.org/offshore-history/mr-charlie-first-mobile-offshore-drilling-rig/.
[5] J. F. Wilson, Dynamics of Offshore. .
[6] “TLP.” [Online]. Available: https://www.modec.com/business/floater/tlp/.
[7] “Schematic diagram of tension leg platform.” [Online]. Available:
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Schematic-diagram-of-tension-leg-platform-
TLP_fig1_265379065.
[8] K. Sadeghi and H. Tozan, “TENSION LEG PLATFORMS : AN OVERVIEW OF
PLANNING , DESIGN , CONSTRUCTION AND INSTALLATION,” vol. 9, no. June,
2018.
[9] “Semi-submersibles Platform.”
[10] “Types of Semi-submersible platform.” [Online]. Available:
https://www.rigzone.com/training/insight.asp?insight_id=338&c_id=.
[11] K. Sadeghi and M. K. Musa, “SEMISUBMERSIBLE PLATFORMS : DESIGN AND
FABRICATION : AN OVERVIEW,” vol. 10, no. March, pp. 28–38, 2019.
[12] Fang, Marine Petroleum (Gas) Engineering and Equipment 3. 2014.
[13] J. K. Hwang and M. Roh, “Detailed design and construction of the hull of a floating ,
production , storage and off-loading ( FPSO ) unit,” no. February 2020, 2010, doi:
10.1080/17445300903169168.
[14] J. R. Macgregor, “Design and construction of FPSO vessel for the Schiehallion field,” no.
January 2000, 2019.

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