Applied Acoustics 170 (2020) 107527

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Applied Acoustics
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apacoust

Acoustic performance enhancement in a railway passenger carriage

using hybrid ray-tracing and image-source method
Emad Panahi, Davood Younesian ⇑
School of Railway Engineering, Iran University of Science and Technology, Tehran 16846-13114, Iran

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Geometry of cabins, corridors, and materials used in railway passenger carriages can play important roles
Received 26 February 2020 in acoustic performance inside the rail cars. In order to evaluate the noise level inside a rail car, a hybrid
Received in revised form 7 May 2020 method based on the ray-tracing and image-source techniques is employed. A parametric model is con-
Accepted 1 July 2020
structed based on the field experiment performed in a typical coach cabin namely Fadak train in Iranian
Railway. An Omni-directional sound source inside the passenger carriage is employed inside the cabin
once for an unequipped cabin and once for operational one. Acoustic parameters such as reverberation
Keywords:
time (T30), Center time (Ts), and the sound pressure level have been calculated and results are validated
Geometrical acoustics
Ray-tracing
with experimental acoustic measurements. The model is experimentally calibrated and then acoustics
Image-source performance of the passenger coach is enhanced by modifying the materials and absorption coefficients
Passenger coach against two dominant sound sources in low to middle speed ranges. It is found the simple recommenda-
Hybrid method tion can remarkably enhance the acoustic performance over a broad range of frequencies.
Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction and cabins [7,8]. So this is not as straight-forward as the well-

Acoustic performance analysis in railway passenger carriages
has become an essential part of their design procedure over the
past years. Precise identification of interior noise is the prerequisite
condition to reduce the interior noise in a train [1], and also the
sound quality refinement in rail cars [2]. Wheel and track contribu-
tions to the rolling noise are recognized to be the main component
of the cabin noise in middle-speed range [3,4]. Interior noise mod-
eling and its mitigation by considering cabins, corridors, and mate-
rials used in a railway passenger carriage, have become more
important over the past years [5]. Therefore coach designers need
to in advance predict the interior sound field as early in the design
phase as possible. In an early stage, acoustic design is relatively
cheap and straightforward, where on the other hand changes to
an already built car are mostly very hard to implement and can
be very cost-intensive [6].
In a closed space, such as a passenger coach, when a sound
source starts to distribute sound energy, the sound emitted in early
moments advance in an energy-free space in all directions. The
main and reflected sounds interfere together, and gradually the
acoustic field becomes diffused. This leads to an uneven distribu-
tion of energy and sound decay along the length of the corridor
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: Younesian@iust.ac.ir (D. Younesian).
known theories interpreting the sound distribution in regularly
shaped rooms. Helmholtz equation can thoroughly analyze the
propagation and expansion of sound in the rooms and spaces with
regular and simple geometries [9,10]. In this very particular case of
the rail vehicle interiors, the problem gets more complicated due
to the cabins and corridor-like shape of the room. Methods such
as wave equation and statistical energy analysis cannot fully con-
sider all details of different materials and geometries in a railway
passenger carriage [11,12]. In order to understand the sound prop-
agation and to calculate acoustic parameters in a passenger car-
riage, an appropriate method should be selected. This proper
calculation technique should be able to take details of different
geometrical components of the train coach into calculation. Geo-
metrical methods have been extensively used in calculations of
the sound fields in rooms with complicated geometries. They have
provided low-cost predictions for complicated cases for many
years [13,14]. The most popular room acoustic calculation tech-
niques i.e. the ray/beam tracing, and image-source model are based
on the purely specular reflections. Another least used method i.e.
acoustical radiosity, works basically on the purely diffuse reflec-
tions, represented by Lambert’s scattering law [15,16]. In reality,
the reflection on a wall seems to be a mixture of these two
extremes, and several authors have presented hybrid models
[17]. The main principles of geometrical acoustics are very general
and analogically are employed in numerous other fields such as

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apacoust.2020.107527
0003-682X/Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 E. Panahi, D. Younesian / Applied Acoustics 170 (2020) 107527
optics and underwater acoustics [18,19]. The first paper on the ray-
tracing was published on the field of computer graphics. Although
these two research areas seem to be different at the first glance
however many analog overlaps are addressable [20,21]. The ray-
tracing model uses a large number of particles, which are emitted
in various directions from a source point [22]. The particles are
traced around the room and lose their energy at each reflection
according to the absorption coefficient of the surface. The image-
source model is based on the principle that a specular reflection
can be constructed geometrically by mirroring the source in the
plane of the reflecting surface. The intrinsic disadvantages of the
two classical methods resulted in development of hybrid models,
which combine the best features of each method. The idea is that
an efficient way to find image sources with high level of probability
is to trace rays from the source and not the surfaces they hit
[23,24].
In acoustic modeling of a train cabin two approaches are appli-
cable based on the modeling target. (i) fluid–solid interactive
approach, in which structural acoustic formulations are employed.
The target of such kind of modeling is to investigate effects of
structural stiffness and damping on the sound generation and
propagation in a cabin. In such kind of modeling, the source of
sound is normally vibration of the cabin structure due to irregular-
ities over the railway track. Hybrid FEM/SEA modeling is very well
matched for this purpose [25,26]. In this kind of modeling, thin
walled structures are modeled by use of the plate and shell theo-
ries [27,28]. An active line of research is ongoing on the vibro-
acoustic performance optimization of the thin walled structures
[29–31]. (ii) room acoustics approach, in which the cabin is mod-
eled by different adjacent rooms or spaces and the walls and sur-
faces are modeled by their transmission loss and acoustic
impedance. The target in such kind of modeling is to investigate
in what extent the sound is absorbed at absorbing surfaces or
attenuated during transmission from the walls. Sound sources
are idealized as point or line sources in such kind of modeling. Each
methodology has its own importance and applications based on
the characterization of the noise source. In our case study, the main
sources are the rolling noise in wheel/rail contact patch and the fan
noises in air condition system. They can be both assumed as point
sources with reasonable justification. The target is also retuning
the absorption properties since the objective frequencies are high
values and far from structural resonance frequencies. There is no
doubt that in case of focusing to low frequency range, the struc-
tural born sound is the most important part of the acoustic
calculations.
In this paper, numerical model for a Fadak train in Iranian Rail-
way (IR) is provided using the hybrid method based on the ray-
tracing and image-source techniques. The purpose of this work is
to analyze the physics of the sound distribution in train interiors
and to estimate acoustic parameters of the coach such as reverber-
ation time (T30), center time (Ts), and sound pressure level.
Numerical results are validated with experimental acoustics mea-
surements. In the second part of this paper, for two typical noise
sources i.e. rolling and fan noise, the acoustics performance of
the passenger coach is enhanced by modification of the materials
and their absorption coefficients used in the cabin.
2. Simulation and acoustic measurements
An enclosed space can be generally assumed to be a linear time-
invariant system in which any change in inputs yields to corre-
sponding results in the system outputs. In this paper, the input is
a power of sound source level (dB) at a certain point, and outputs
are the Sound Pressure Level (SPL) at four different points inside
the cabins; also, T30 and Ts are taken as the acoustic characteristic
parameters of the system i.e. the coach. Physical characteristics
such as dimensions, number and absorption/scattering parameters
of the reflecting surfaces are the main influencing parameters. Geo-
metrical modeling of the train coach is carried out using by Sketch-
Up software to construct the model according to the features of the
ray-tracing and image-source techniques. Geometrical models are
then imported to ODEON 14 for acoustic simulations. Figs. 1 and 2
illustrate the coach geometrical model with and without equip-
ments, respectively.
In order to validate the numerical model, an omni-directional
sound source is used at the specific position to provide a 90 dB
sound pressure level as a monopole input point source. Having this
input source one can calculate the sound pressure level at four dif-
ferent points as receivers inside the cabins. The required number of
rays is calculated automatically according to the dimensions of the
model and equations implemented in ODEON 14 based on the ray-
tracing and image-source methods. Simulation models as well as
the input and output position are illustrated in Figs. 3 and 4.
Absorption and scattering coefficients of the coach materials in
both models are selected based on the real material properties
used inside the coach. These absorption coefficients for both cases
are shown in Figs. 5 and 6, respectively [32,33]. Absorption coeffi-
cients are effective in calculating reverberation time (T30) and
sound pressure level inside the coach. Results of the reverberation
time (T30), sound pressure level, and the center time (Ts) provided
by experimental acoustic measurements and simulations are later
calculated and discussed.
In this paper, two routine field acoustic measurements are
designed and implemented. First, Sound Pressure Level (SPL) inside
both types of cabins is measured according to ISO-3382 [34].
Acoustics parameters such as reverberation time (T30) and center
time (Ts) are measured according to ISO-354 [35]. The same
parameters are numerically calculated by ODEON hybrid model
and then compared by experimental measurements to check the
model validation. Acoustic equipments used in this research are
(i) Omni-directional speaker, (ii) Rode NT5 microphones with fre-
quency range 100–10000 Hz, (iii) Focusrite Scarlett 18i20 G2 sound
card and (iv) SpectralPlus software to generate input noise. Acous-
tic measurement setup is shown in Fig. 7.
White noise with power of 90 dB is generated by the omni-
directional sound source and the acoustic pressure is measured
at different output locations. The sound source has 12 speakers
on a twelve-sided surface, and these speakers produce coherent
phases of sounds then the sound source has the same characteris-
tics as a pulsating sphere (monopole source). In order to measure
acoustic parameters such as reverberation time (T30), the omni-
directional sound source has been located in the middle of the
Fig. 1. Model of un-equipped Fadak car.
 E. Panahi, D. Younesian / Applied Acoustics 170 (2020) 107527
Fig. 2. Model of Fadak car with complete equipments.
Fig. 3. Simulation model for the coach without equipments, (blue points: receivers,
red point: sound source). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this
figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
Fig. 4. Simulation model for the coach with equipments, (blue points: receivers, red
point: sound source). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure
legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
Fig. 5. Absorption coefficients of the empty coach, red line: wooden board
separating cabs, green line: wagon body steel, yellow line: double glazed window
with 10 mm air space. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure
legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
3
Fig. 6. Absorption coefficients of the equipped coach, red line: wooden bed with
cloth, green line: wagon body steel, blue line: double glazed window with 10 mm
air space, yellow line: thin wooden carpet, black line: wooden board separating
cabs, grey line: hollow wooden panel mounted on the ceiling of corridors. (For
interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred
to the web version of this article.)
Fig. 7. Acoustic measurement equipment setup, A: Omnidirectional speaker, B:
Focusrite Scarlett 18i20 G2 sound card, C: Rode NT5 microphone.
coach, an audio pulse (the sound of a Balloon Burst) has been
played inside the coach by SpectralPlus software. According to
standards, the height of the microphone positioned in the passen-
ger seat should be 1.2 m from the floor, and the duration of the
acoustics pressure measurement inside the stationary coach is rec-
ommended to be at least 20 s. For instance, result of the impulse
response obtained in the field experiments at position microphone
No. 2 is illustrated in Fig. 8. This impulse response measurement
has been made for the source of Balloon Burst inside the train
coach according to ISO 354.
4 E. Panahi, D. Younesian / Applied Acoustics 170 (2020) 107527

Fig. 8. Impulse response measurement on microphone No. 2 (empty coach).

Fig. 9. Simulated and measured reverberation time (T30) at 4 points (empty coach).
 E. Panahi, D. Younesian / Applied Acoustics 170 (2020) 107527
Fig. 10. Simulated and measured reverberation time (T30) at 4 points (equipped coach).
One of the acoustic parameters considered in this study is the
reverberation time (T30), which is determined by the experimental
acoustic measurements. According to the standards ISO 354 and
3382, standard reverberation time (T60) could be replaced by T30
since one cannot usually reach to 60 dB SPL drop while there is
not enough injected sound. Numerical simulation results gives the
average reverberation time (T30) to be 0.52 s in an empty coach.
This value is measured to 0.49 s. Frequency spectrums of the RT30
are compared for the empty coach in Fig. 9. It is seen that the numer-
ical and experimental results are in very good agreement particu-
larly in 500–8000 Hz (high-frequency range). Similar results are
compared for the equipped coach in Fig. 10. The average RT30 are
calculated numerically and obtained experimentally to be 0.41
and 0.38 s, respectively.
The other acoustic parameter which is important in evaluating
the acoustic performance of the passenger carriages is the Center
Time (Ts). Center time is a parameter to evaluate the ratio of direct
and reflective sounds, whereas the low Ts indicates a high direct-
5
to-sound ratio due to secondary reflections, and the high value of
Ts corresponds to low clarity of sound. Center Time is expressed in
milliseconds. It is targeted that the difference between the simula-
tion and measurement does not exceed 10 percent. Results of Ts
from simulation and experimental measurements for two models
are compared for the empty and equipped coach respectively in
Figs. 11 and 12.
It is seen that by getting away from the sound source we get
a larger values for the Ts since we have larger ratio of reflec-
tions against the direct sound. It is also found that equipped
coach has smaller values of Ts compared to the empty coach.
The values obtained in Fig. 12 indicate better quality of the
acoustics performance inside the coach with complete equip-
ment. It is also seen that in high-frequency range, the results
of simulation and field measured are in very good agreement.
These results demonstrate the accuracy of the hybrid method
(ray tracing and image source methods) in high-frequency
ranges.
6 E. Panahi, D. Younesian / Applied Acoustics 170 (2020) 107527

Fig. 11. Simulated and measured Center Time (Ts) at 4 points (empty coach).

Another acoustic parameter of particular importance in deter-
mining the total sound perceived by the human ear, is the Sound
Pressure Level (SPL). For both cases of the empty and equipped
wagon, the SPL has been numerically simulated and measured;
Corresponding results are presented in Figs. 13 and 14. It is seen
that the simulated SPL is in an acceptable accordance with mea-
surement results particularly in high-frequency range (500–
8000 Hz). However, at low frequencies, this difference is higher.
Comparing the total SPL, one can find a very good correlation
between the numerical and test results. For instance at location
of Mic2, in an empty wagon (Fig. 13), the sound pressure level
obtained from numerical simulation is obtained to be 74.52 dB
(A). This value is measured to be 72 dB(A) at the field test. At the
same location in an equipped coach, this value is calculated to be
72.60 dB(A). The total SPL is measured in the field test and
recorded to be 70.3 dB(A). As a general conclusion, one can say that
the hybrid model is quite reliable in total SPL and has acceptable
accuracy in high-frequency range.
Sound pressure level along the coach length has been measured
and presented in Fig. 15. It is seen that by getting far from the
omni-directional source, the measured SPL is monotonically
decreasing. An average decay rate of 1.5 dB/m has been captured
in the test. This rate is almost constant over the whole frequency
range. It is also seen that 250 Hz is dominant frequency in all the
microphones locations.
3. Acoustic performance modification
There are different sources of noise in a train cabin which could
be categorized in three classes. Class 1: Low-speed (<20 km/hr)
 E. Panahi, D. Younesian / Applied Acoustics 170 (2020) 107527 7

Fig. 12. Simulated and measured Center Time (Ts) at 4 points (equipped coach).

range in which the noise is originated from the equipments includ-
ing the engine, brake and air spring compressors and air condition
system. Class 2: Middle-speed (20 km/hr < speed > 200 km/hr)
range in which the rolling noise is the dominant source of the
sound inside the cabin and Class 3: High-speed (>200 km/hr) range
called aerodynamic regime in which the turbulent flow around the
cabin is the main source of noise.
Two dominant sources i.e. the rolling noise as well as the fan
noise are taken into acoustic calculations. These two sources are
principle sources of the railway noise in low to middle speed range
(<200 Km/hr). They are assumed to be point sources located at
bogie tops (for the rolling noise) and in middle location of the
coach (for the fan noise) as seen in Fig. 16. The frequency spectrum
of the two sources are measured and inserted into the hybrid
model. The fan noise total SPL is 75 dB and independent of the trav-
elling speed. The total SPL for rolling noise is measured to be
90.5 dB at 95 Km/hr. Locations of the two new receivers are illus-
trated in Fig. 15. Figs. 16 and 17 illustrate the numerical simulation
results for the sound pressure level within the passenger carriage
based on rolling and fan noise sources, respectively. According to
the results depicted in the Fig. 17, total SPL inside the cabins at
location No.1 and No.2 are 63.7 dB(A) and 63.9 dB(A), respectively.
Also, in Fig. 18, the total SPL inside the cabins at location No.1 and
No.2 respectively are 52.4 dB(A) and 52 dB(A).
An optimization method based on the searching in available
material data is performed in this section. Type of material and
thickness/density of any element are the design parameters in this
procedure. The total SPL at the two receiver locations is the objec-
tive function to get minimized. The search engine works within the
ODEON software library according to the category of materials
used in transportation systems. Materials used in cabin doors, sep-
arating walls, roof and floor, beds and seats, tables and windows
8 E. Panahi, D. Younesian / Applied Acoustics 170 (2020) 107527

Fig. 14. Simulated and measured SPL at 4 points (equipped coach).

Fig. 15. Longitudinal distribution of the sound pressure level measured in different frequencies (a) empty coach, (b) equipped coach.
 E. Panahi, D. Younesian / Applied Acoustics 170 (2020) 107527 9

Fig. 16. Hybrid model with two types of sound sources (blue points: receivers and red points: noise sources). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure
legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Fig. 17. Sound pressure level inside the train wagon due to rolling noise source.

are taken into calculations. More than 2500 configurations are
assembled and taken into calculations. Based on the acoustic calcu-
lations and using different arrangements for the cabin interior
material, a new feasible design recommendation has been
concluded. Sensitivity analysis shows that the three following
modifications can give maximum impact on the noise reduction.
1- wooden bed with cloth replaced by leather cover bed, 2- double
glazed window with 10 mm air space replaced by double glazed
window with 20–30 mm air space 3- thin wooden carpet replaced
by wooden carpet flooring. An average overall noise reduction of
2 dB was achieved with this new design. The absorption coeffi-
cients of new and former elements are illustrated in Fig. 19. Figs. 20
and 21 illustrate the numerical simulation results after modifica-
tions. According to the plots obtained in the Fig. 20, the modified
SPL inside the cabins for receivers No. 1 and No. 2 are 61.5 dB(A)
and 62 dB(A), respectively. Also, in Fig. 21, the modified SPL inside
the cabins for receivers No.1 and No.2 are respectively 50.4 dB(A)
and 50.8 dB(A). Fig. 22, is comparing the frequency spectrum after
10 E. Panahi, D. Younesian / Applied Acoustics 170 (2020) 107527
Fig. 18. Sound pressure level inside the train wagon due to fan noise source.
Fig. 19. Modified selection of absorption coefficients for the fully equipped coach
(red line: wagon body steel, green line: wooden board separating cabs, blue line:
wooden carpet flooring, yellow line hollow wooden panel mounted on the
ceiling of corridors, black line: leather cover bed, grey line: double glazed
window with 20–30 mm air space). (For interpretation of the references to
colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this
article.)
and before the acoustic modification for two different sound
sources. It is seen that this modification is effective in a broad fre-
quency range.
4. Conclusions
A hybrid model based on the ray-tracing and image-source
methods was developed for a passenger coach in this paper. Differ-
ent field tests were designed and performed to evaluate the accu-
racy and validity of the model. Results of the sound pressure level,
reverberation time (T30), and Center time (Ts) show that the
hybrid model can precisely predict the acoustic performance in
high-frequency range (500–8000 Hz). In terms of the total SPL,
the hybrid model was proved to be reliable and valid with accuracy
of 2.5 dB (A). An average decay rate of 1.5 dB/m was measured
inside the coach length. A modification procedure was imple-
mented on material properties of different elements. A look-up
table was provided on the available materials for a railway coach.
Using the search algorithm and setting the SPL value to be the
objective function, the optimization was carried out and set of
key replacements were obtained. For both types of the noise
sources in low to middle speed range, i.e. the rolling noise and
the fan noise we could get a 2 dB noise reduction in total SPL. It
was also found that the modification is effective in a broad range
of frequencies up to 8 kHz. It was found the changing the bed
cover, air space between the double glazed windows and type of
carpet floors have dominant roles in this case study.
 E. Panahi, D. Younesian / Applied Acoustics 170 (2020) 107527 11

Fig. 20. Modified Sound Pressure Level inside the coach (for rolling noise source).

Fig. 21. Modified Sound Pressure Level inside the coach (for fan noise source).
12 E. Panahi, D. Younesian / Applied Acoustics 170 (2020) 107527
Fig. 22. Difference values of the Sound Pressure Level (dB) for regular and modified coaches (right plot: fan noise, left plot: rolling noise).
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Emad Panahi: Methodology, Software, Validation. Davood
Younesian: Conceptualization, Supervision, Writing - review &
editing.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
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