CHAPTER 2: HUMAN AGGRESSION AND VIOLANCE

STUDY OUTCOMES

➢ Explain how aggression is utilised by human beings and indicate how the views regarding
the origin of aggression differ.

➢ Give a critical discussion of the problems concerning the definition of aggression.

➢ Distinguish between hostile (reactive-impulsive aggression) and instrumental (controlled-

instrumental) aggression.

➢ Explain what is meant by the interpretation by the victim in terms of aggressive behaviour.
➢ Explain the four definitional components of violence.
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➢ Give an exposition of road rage and explain how it could illustrate the workings of the
excitation transfer theory.
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➢ Discuss social learning factors in violence and aggression.
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➢ Discuss the cognitive models of aggression by referring to behaviour patterns, emotions,

cognitions, and development.
➢ Explain the importance of physiological arousal in behaviour.
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➢ Discuss the general aggression model (GAM) and the 1³ theory of aggression.

➢ Distinguish between overt and covert acts of aggression.

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➢ Distinguish between reactive and proactive forms of aggression.

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➢ Critically assess the occurrence of gender differences regarding aggression.

➢ Briefly indicate how the mass media could contribute towards the occurrence of violence.
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➢ Briefly explain what the contagion effect implies

 1. INTRODUCTION
• With Each technological advance – the threat of modern warfare takes us one more step closer to our
annihilation
• Violence is more likely to happen in
o People’s homes
o The streets of high crime areas
• No location is immune to violence this is proven by random and mass shootings
• People are targeted by violence in their
o Homes
o Schools
o Concert venues
o Churches
o Parks
o Theaters
o Shopping malls
• Not all aggression is violent in the physical sense of that word

AGGRESSION

• Aggression has been instrumental in helping people survive

• Through many years of experience humans have learned that affective behavior enables them to obtain
material goods, land and treasures, to protect property and family, to gain prestige status and power

• Historically and in the present = AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOR IS AT THE ROOT OF MANY SOCIAL AND
INDIVIDUAL PROBLEMS

• Aggression = a psychological concept

• If human aggression is a result of innate, biological mechanisms – the methods designed to control,
reduce or eliminate aggressive behavior differ from methods used if aggression is learned
• Some believe aggressive behavior is basically biological and genetic in origin = strong residue of our
EVOLUTIONARY PAST

• The physiological, genetic contention is joined by compelling evidence that explains human aggressive
behavior may be found in the animal kingdom as a whole

• Others who support the learning viewpoint believe that while some species of animals may be
genetically programed to behave aggressively – HUMANS LEARN TO BE AGGRESSIVE FROM THE SOCIAL
ENVIRONMENT

• AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOR CAN BE UNLEARNED specifically by applying intervention strategies that offer
alternative methods to cope with situations that promote aggression
 2. DEFINING AGGRESSION

AGGRESSION

• Social PSYCHOLOGISTS define aggression as

o Intent and attempt to harm another individual, physically or socially, or sometimes to destroy an object
▪ This definition has limitations
▪ Refusing to speak does not fit well- it is not an active attempt to harm someone nor is
blocking someone’s entry

PASSIVE-AGGRSSIVE BEHAVIORS

• Hostile behaviors that do not directly inflict physical harm such as

o Refusing to speak to someone
• These behaviors are interpreted as aggressive in intent but the behavior is passive and indirect

• Irrelevant in discussing crime

o Since we are concern with aggression that manifests itself directly in violent or antisocial
behavior

• Passive aggressive behavior can lead to different types of crime

• MALES employ more DIRECT forms of AGGRESSION

o Specifically, towards other males

• FEMALES tend to rely more on INDIRECT AGGRESSION

o Regardless of the gender of the target
 ACTIVE & PASSIVE AGGRESSION

ACTIVE AGGRESSION PASSIVE AGGRESION

DIRECT INDIRECT DIRECT INDIRECT

• Punching • Mean jokes • Obstructing • refusing to
• Hitting • Booby trap passage complete task
PHYSICAL

• Insulting the • Malicious gossip • Refusing to speak • refusing to lend

victim someone
VERBAL
money

REACTIVE-IMPULSIVE AND CONTROLED-INSTRUMENTAL AGGRESSION

➢ TYPES OF AGGRESSION

They are distinguished by their

o Hostile/ reactive-impulsive aggression goals or the reward they offer the
perpetrator

o Instrumental/ controlled-instrumental aggression The law makes no distinction

between the two
REACTIVE-IMPULSIVE CONTROLLED-
AGGRESSION INSTRUMENTAL AGGRESSION

Spontaneous aggression, possibaly in response to The type of aggression that is planned and it is
provacation used to accomplish a specific purmose

Purposeful and goal orientated

Occurs in response to anger-inducing conditions
● Aggressors goal is to hurt the victim The aggression starts with competition or the desire for an
● Behavior = anger. Elicited by arousal such as frustration object or status possessed by another person
oJewlery
oElectronics
Also known as hostile aggression or reactive oMoney
aggression oTerritory

Occurs in response to anger-inducing conditions, such as

oReal or perceived insults The perpetrator tries to obtain the desired object regardless of
oPhysical attack the coast
oOwn failures

It is an aggressive response to Main goal in a robbery is to obtain ietms of value

Frustration
Perceived threat
Provocation
This type of aggresiion ins normally a factor in crimes
such as
oHacking
Hostile: response to an angry situation. Emotional oRoobery
response oBurgluray
oLarceny
oWhite collar crimes
oPolitical crimes
The behavior is characterized by the intense and disorganizing
emotion of anger
oAnger is defined as arousal state elicited by certain stimuli, specifically
those evoking attack or frustration
Instrumental aggression is also a feauture of calculated murder
commited by a hired killer

Crimes directed at harming the victim are caused by reactive-impulsive

aggression, these crimes include: There is no interest to harm anyone physically
oCriminal Homicides oBut if in any situations something or someone interfere
oRape with the perpotrators goal, the perpetrator will harm the
oVIOLENT CRIMES victim to ensure the desired goal is not loosed
oEven though the crime might lead to muder the aggression
remains instrumental

The aggressors goal = to make victim suffer

 INTERPRETATION BY VICTIM

• Interpretation of aggression by victim

o Victim must interpret aggressive act as being provoking

An adequate definition of aggression must consider both the

- Injurious behavior of the perpetrator
- The social judgment of the victim

Aggression imply that aggression revolves around the behavior and intentions
residing within the perpetrator/performer

Behaviour perpetrated or attempted with the intention of harming one or

more individuals physically or psychologically or to destroy an object

Directed at people/innate objects, physical/manipulative

Aggression: behaviour or threat of behaviour

Psychological definition: intent or attempt to harm another

The psychological harm would cover aggressive actions that do not involve physical force but are still criminaly
accountable such as
AGGRESSION

- Indimidation
- Threats
- Stalking
- Cyberbullying

Passive deffinition – trying to create discomfort in somebody else.

Aggression does not need to be physical.

Accounts for psychological harm

Not all aggressive behavior will qualify as criminal
-Police officers using reasonable force.
-Hunter shooting a deer
- A person who reasonably believes life is in grave danger of serious bodily harm and defents himselve
against an aggressor without using force is not commiting a crime

Criminal behavior focuses on the aggression manifested in conduct and not aggression as
precieved by the victim
The perportators action is of most imporace
 UNDERSTANDING AGGRESSION

❖ Understanding aggression
o It can be used to obtain material goods and wealth
o It can be used to serve a protective function, and
o It can be used to establish, improve, or reinforce a person’s social status or power.

.
Violence = destructive physical Not all aggression is violence – but
aggression intentionally directed at some is A drunk driver kills
harming other persons or things All violent behavior is aggressive another driver =not a
Violence always harms or destroys but not all aggressive behavior is violent act the driver
or is intended to do so violent did not intent to harm
anyone

Bullying qualifies as a
VIOLENCE form of violence
especially if it results in
serious lasting
psychological harm
Violence can be
random or methodical Violence: once threat has been
Sustained or fleeting enacted
Intensive or uncontrolled

4 definitional components of violence

1- nonessential 4- intentional acts

The behavior does not serve a legitimate function Malicious behavior purposely designed to cause
that could not be obtained by nonviolent means harm or damage
The behavior is not essential It involves malice afterthought

4 COMPONENTES OF
VIOLENCE

3- harmful 2- unwanted
Actions that result in injury, death, psychological • Acts that the victim does not desire or seek from
harm, maldevelopment or deprivation the perpetrator
Definitions that suggest harm requires visible
physical injury or death = defining to narrow
 3. THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES ON
AGGRESSION
Are humans born aggressive and naturally violent or are they born relatively free of aggressive tendencies

Theories have been developed to provide answers, each theory explains different causes of aggression and
violent behavior in humans

Nature vs. Nurture: people are programmed vs. people follow models

• Aggression is part of a wider controversy about the respective merits of nature and nurture

• The first perspective states = humans are programmed aggressive to defend themselves, family and
territory from intruders

• The second perspective states = humans become violent by acquiring aggressive models and actions from
society

• The following perspectives move away from the biological perspective and lean more towards learning
based perspectives

Ethological viewpoint

❖ Study of animal behavior in relation to animal’s natural habitat, and it is compared to human behavior

❖ Lorenz believed that Aggression is inherited instincts of humans and animals

ANIMALS
❖ TERRITORY

o Staked out territory = a territory that ensures enough food, water and space to move around and
reproduce

o If this space is violated = the instinctive/genetically programmed response is to attack and thus
preventing territory violation
▪ Or at least to increase aggressive behavior towards intruder
 o The tendency to attack those who violate your space = TERRITORIALITY

o TERRITORIALITY = the tendency to attack violators of ones personal space

▪ This is an innate propensity developed through the process of evolution

o INTRASPECIFIC AGGRESSION =innate aggressive behavior among those of the same animal species

▪ This prevents overcrowding and ensures the best & most powerful mates
▪ Intraspecific aggression is reached by displaying force and superiority and
not by physical/actual combat

o The more deadly the animal’s evolutionary development weaponry the more intense the innate
inhibitions against engaging in physical combat
▪ Weaponry include
• Fangs
• Claws
• Size
• Strength
▪ The innately programmed inhibition is a form of insurance for survival

o RITUALIZED AGGRESSION = they symbolic display of aggressive intentions or strength without actual
physical combat/conflict

HUMANS
❖ Humans have outdistanced the evolutionary process of inhibiting aggression
o Instead of developing natural weapons, humans have developed technological
weaponry

❖ Humans recklessly injure and kill each other because

o They have not developed the ability to engage the species-preserving behavior of
ritualized aggression
o Instead through learning abilities – they have developed the capacity to annihilate

❖ The ethological perspective have not been supported by human aggression research

Problem with this perspective

❖ The ethological position relies on a strong analogy between animals and humans

❖ Human characteristics
o Motivation
o Action
o Capacity to exercise control over won thought processes
❖ Little evidence to prove humans are
o Innately dangerous
o Brutal
o Controlled by instinct

Evolutionary psychology
❖ Ethological perspective has evolved into = evolutionary psychology

❖ EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY = THE STUDY OF THE EVOLUTION OF BEHAVIOR USING THE PRINCIPLES OF
NATURAL SELECTION

❖ Human evolutionary history provides a fundamental framework for understanding human cognition and
behavior

❖ Evolutionary psychology sees aggression as normal and not as pathology

❖ The evolutionary perspective views aggression as a behavior that has been naturally selected over the
course of human evolution

❖ Evolutionary psychology has been used to explain gender differences found in serial killers
o Most SERIAL KILLERS ARE MALES who travel wide geographical areas to search for
victims
o FEMALE SERIAL KILLERS choose victims who are close to home including people who
are in their care

❖ Evolutionary psychology has been applied to gender differences in cyberbullying

 Frustration-aggression hypothesis

❖ Definition
o The theory formulated by Berkowitz- frustration leads to aggressive behaviour

❖ FRUSTRATION
o Aggression is a direct result of frustration
o People who are
▪ Frustrated
▪ Thwarted Will behave aggressively, since aggression is a natural almost
automatic response to frustrating situations
▪ Annoyed
▪ Threated

o AGGRESSION IS ALWAYS A CONSEQUENCE OF FRUSTRATION

o Not all people who are aggressive are invariably frustrated
o FRUSTRATION DOES NOT ALWAYS LEAD TO AGGRESSION

o AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR DOES NOT ALWAYS IMPLY FRUSTRATION

o People respond to anger and frustration differently

❖ REVISED VERSION
o Frustration increases the changes that an individual will become angry and soon act aggressively
o Frustration facilitates the performance of aggressive behaviour
o An important component in the revised version = the concept of anticipated goals or expectations

o The REVISED VERSION SUGGESTS THE FOLLOWING STEPS

▪ 1- the person is blocked from obtaining an expected goal
▪ 2- Frustration results, generating anger
▪ 3- Anger predisposes or readies the person to behave aggressively
 o Whether the person actually engage in aggressive behaviour will depend on the learning history,
interpretation of events and the individuals way of responding to frustration , also on the presence of
aggression- eliciting stimuli in the environment

BLOCKED FORM
OBTAINING
EXPECTED GOAL
AGGRESSION

FRUSTRATION

ANGER

o Deprivation of goods will not necessarily lead to frustration

▪ People living under deprived conditions may not be frustrated unless the
actually expect something better

o The behaviour may be

▪ OVERT – PHYSICAL OR VERBAL
▪ IMPLICIT – WISHING SOMEONE DEAD

o Anger is not the only emotion that potentially leads to aggression

o Aversive conditions may also lead to frustration, these conditions include
▪ Pain
▪ Pleasure
▪ Sexual arousal
o Aggression is one possible response to frustration, but the individual may learn others such as
▪ Withdrawal
▪ doing nothing
▪ trying to alter situation by getting out of the situation
▪ compromising

WEAPONS EFFECT

o The presence of aggression stimuli in the external environment increases the probability of aggressive
responses
▪ Such stimuli = a weapon

o A firearm is seen as a conditions stimuli – the weapon invokes aggressive associations

▪ Facilitating overt aggression and violence

o A gun, even when not used, is more likely to elicit aggression than a neutral object

o The mere sight of a weapon may elicit ideas, images, and expressive reactions that have been linked with
aggression in the past

o A visible weapon may facilitate rather than inhibit a violent response

o People act more aggressively in the presence of a weapon

o Weapons effect = suggestion that the mere presence of a weapon leads a witness or victim to
concentrate on the weapon itself rather than other features of the crime
 COGNITIVE- NEOASSOCIATION THEORY

❖ A revised theory of the frustration-aggressive hypothesis proposed by Leonard Berkowitz

❖ This theory operates in the following way

o During the early stages an adverse event produces a negative affect
▪ DISCOMFORT

o This NEGATIVE AFFECT may be due to

▪ Physical pain
▪ Psychological discomfort

o Physical pain as an aversive circumstance is clear but psychological needs elaboration

o If there is no physical pain, unpleasant feelings or negative affects are assumed to

give rise almost automatically

o A variety of Thought , Feelings, Memories are then associated with FLIGHT (fear) OR
FIGHT (anger) tendencies

During the early stage mediating cognitive processes have little influence beyond the immediate appraisal that the
situation is aversive.

Some people may act quick on the basis of these initial emotions without further deliberation or forethought,
sometimes engage in violence.

Ant unpleasant feelings or arousal can evoke aggressive even violent responses

{a depressed person can murder a family member or walk into café and shoot people drinking coffee}.

❖ MOST PEOPLE GET PAST THE INITIAL STAGE OF FRUSTRATION

 LATER STAGES

❖ However, during later stages cognitive appraisal may go into operation and substantially influence the
subsequent emotional reactions and experiences after the initial automatic response
❖ These cognitions mediate and evaluate a proper course of action
❖ DURING LATER STAGES ROUSED PEOPLE
o make casual attributions about unpleasant feelings and experiences
o thinks about the nature of their feelings
o maybe even try to control their feelings and actions

therefore = what began as an angry reaction to someone’s critical comments develops into
a careful consideration of their merits or a conclusion that they are not worth being
concerned about

EXCITATION TRANSFER THEORY

❖ THEROY EXPLAINING HOW PHYSIOLOGICAL AROUSAL CAN GENERALIZE FROM ONE SITUATION TO
ANOTHER BASED ON THE ASSUMPTION THAT PHYSIOLOGICAL AROUSAL PRODUCED DISSIPATES SLOWLY
OVER TIME

❖ The combination of preexisting arousal + anger generated by an irritation at home = may increase the chances
of aggression.

❖ The transfer of arousal from one situation to another is mote likely to happen if the people are unaware that
they are still carrying some arousal form a previous situation to a new unrelated situation
 DISPLACED AGGRESSION THEORY

❖ THE THEORY THAT SOME AGGRESSION IS DIRECTED AT THE TARGET AS A REPLACEMENT FOR THE
INDIVIDUAL WHO IS THE REAL SOURCE OF THE PROVOCATION

❖ Aggression is displaced when the target innocent of any wrong doing but is simple in the wrong place at
the wrong time

❖ Displaced aggression can happen when an individual cannot aggress against a source of provocation but
feels less constrained about being aggressive towards an
o Innocent individual
o Nonprovoking individual
o Mildly provoking individual (pet)

❖ The displaced aggression is probably more likely to be directed at person/pet who emits a mildly
annoying act

following an initial
provocation

the target commits a minor

provocation

the triggering event prompts

an aggressive response
 RUMINATION
❖ THE FOCUSED ATTENTION ON ONE’S OWN THOUGHTS AND FEELINGS AND IF EXCESSIVE IT CAN LEAD
TO AGGRESSION AGAINST OTHERS

❖ Rumination refers to SELF-FOCUSED ATTENTION TOWARDS OWN THOUGHTS AND FEELINGS

❖ Ruminative though can harbor and maintain angry feelings over a period of time far removed from the
initial provocation

❖ The ruminative thoughts that can promote subsequent aggression against someone who is mildly
annoying but highly not deserving if an aggressive attack

4. SOCIAL LEARNING FACTORS IN

AGGRESSION AND VIOLENCE

LEARNING PROCESS

❖ Why do people behave aggressively??

o A major factor is PAST LEARNING EXPERIENCES

❖ Humans are very adept at learning and maintaining behavior patterns that have worked in the past –
even if these patterns only work occasionally
❖ THE LEARNING PROCESS:

the learning process starts in early childhood

children develop many behaviors by just watching their parents and significant
others in their enviroments

this process is called modeling or observational learning

therefore a childs behavior pattern is often obtained through the modeling or

imitation of other people, real and imagined in the childs enviroment

❖ The PROCESSES MOST BENEFICIAL TO THE LEARNING OF AGGRESSION ARE THOSE IN WHICH THE
CHILD:
o 1- has many opportunities to observe aggression
o 2- is reinforced for the child’s own aggression
o 3- is often the object of aggression

MODELING

❖ Albert Bandura conducted the classical study

❖ Media violence may have strong influences on real life situations
▪ Tv
▪ Movies
▪ Video games
❖ When a child's imitative behaviour is reinforced or rewarded by praise and encouragement from
significant models, the probability that the behaviour will happen in the future is increased
❖ American parents encourage and reinforce aggressive behaviours in their children
▪ Specifically, their sons
❖ The child who aggresses successfully against others is often rewarded by
▪ Status
▪ Best toys
▪ Material goods
 TYPES OF MODELS

❖ BANDURA IDENTIFIES 3 MAIN TYPES OF MODELS

SYMBOLIC MODELS PROVIDED BY

FAMILY MEMBERS MEMBERS OF ONES'S SUBCULTURE
MASS MEDIA

•specifically parents •highest incidence of aggression is •tv, electronic video games, movies,
found in communities and groups magazines, newspapers,books,
•parents can be very powerful where aggressive models thrive and social media
models until early adolescents fighting skills is regarded as a valued
characteristc •mass media provide many symbolic
•physical punishment by parents
links to aggressiveness in children models
• Values that are accepted and
adopted
•Modelling that occurs is what the
child learns is acceptable

OBSERVATIONAL MODELING

❖ Exposure to aggressive models does not guarantee that the observer will try to engage is the same
aggressive action at a later stage

❖ Variety of conditions may keep observational learning from taking place

o These Restrictions of observable learning are:
 An important element in
observational learning
may be the motivation to
rehearse what has been
observed

Variety of conditions •Individuals differ in their ability to learn from observation

may keep •Some people fail to notice the important features of the models behaviour
or they may have a poor symbolic/visual memory
observational learning
•they may wish not to iitate the model
from taking place

•if they are punished it would

what happens to the probalbly inhibit the observer's
observed model behavior

If aggressive behavior •the social learning theory states that aggression is maintained by
is to be maintained instrumnetal learning
there must be some •intrumnetal learning happens during the first stage of learning and
periodic this is where obseravtion is important
reinforcement •in later stages reinforcment is essential

Aggressive children anticipate more positive

outcomes and less negative outcomes after their
aggressive acts

Aggressive children are more likely to believe

that aggression will produce

• tangible rewards
• reduce aversive treatment by others
• make themselves and peers feel good
• increase self-esteem
• help to avoid negative image
 5. COGNITIVE MODELS OF
AGGRESSION
• 2 MAIN COGNITIVE MODELS
o 1- cognitive scripts model – Rowell Huesmann
o 2- Hostile attribution model – Kenneth Dodge

COGNITIVE SCRIPTS MODEL

• Huesmann’s theory that social behavior in general and aggressive behavior are specifically controlled
mostly by cognitive scripts learned through daily experiences

• A SCRIPT IS DEFINED AS EXPECTATIONS THAT DETERMINE HOW A PERSON SHOULD RESPOND TO

PARTICULAR EVENTS AND WHAT THE LIKELY OUTCOME.

• SCRIPT – mental model of the world.

• Scripts may vary according to time, place or circumstance, depending on what a person believes to be
appropriate. If you believe it is not okay to use violence, your script would not involve violence
• A SCRIPT SUGGESTS
o what events are to happen in the environment
o how the person should behave in response to these events
o what the likely outcome of those behaviours would be
• Scripts may be learned by direct experience or by observing significant others
o Once learned the script is usually followed
• Each script is different and unique to each person
o But once established it becomes resistant to change and may persist into adulthood
• FOR A SCRIPT TO BECOME ESTABLISHED
o It must be rehearsed from time to time
• With practise the script will
o Become encoded and maintained in memory
o It will also be more easily retrieved and used when the person faces trouble

• Scripts can be viewed as cognitive programs that have been acquired over time and are stored in a
person's memory and are used as guides for behaviour and social problem solving

• Emotions play a role too as they influence the script selection and the evaluation of scripts
o Bv, script selection is likely to be different when a person is angry VS when the
person is happy

• Parents play an NB role

o In the short run – when children see their parents behave aggressively
▪ Scripts and normative believes are then liked to aggression in the child’s
mind
o Parents are suitable models thus
▪ Children are likely to mimic their parents’ aggressive behaviour almost
instantly
▪ Children do not just instantly mimic the behaviour they tend to encode it
into their own repertoire of scripts of their parents + their parents views and
beliefs about the world

• AS CHILDREN GROW OLDER THEIR EVALUATION PROCESS INCLUDES

o The confidence they have in predicting the outcomes of their scripts
o The extent to which they judge themselves capable of executing the scripts
o The extent to which the scripts are congruent with their own self-regulating internal
standards

• Scripts that are inconsistent or violate one’s internalized standards are unlikely to be stored or used

• A person with poor integrated internal standards against aggression or who is certain that aggressive
behaviour is the way of life
o Is more likely to use aggressive scripts for behaviour
 HOSTILE ATTRIBUTION MODEL

• A cognitive model of aggression developed by Dodge and colleagues

• The tendency to see hostile intent in others even when it is lacking

• Highly aggressive and violent youth often have a hostile attribution bias
o Youths and adults prone toward violence are more likely to interpret ambiguous
actions as hostile and threatening than are their less aggressive counterparts

• People described as having hostile attribution bias = tend to view the world through blood-red tinted
glasses

• Children with a hostile attribution bias are twice as likely as average children to see aggressive actions
from others where there are non-committed with hostile intent

• CHILDREN WHO CONSTANTLY MAKE HOSTILE ATTRIBUTIONS ABOUT OTHERS SHOW

o Escalated aggression in response to provocation
o Become chronically anxious
o Increase in aggressive behavioural problems over time
o Grow into violent adults

• Hostile attributions are present in boys and girls

o But appear stronger in boys

• Hostile attributions are stronger for children with a low status in their peer group
• VIOLENT YOUTH "TYPICALLY DEFINE SOCIAL PROBLEMS IN
o hostile ways
o adopt hostile goals
o seek few additional facts
o generate few alternative solutions
o anticipate few consequences for aggression
o give higher priority to their aggressive solutions

• AGGRESSIVE JUVENILE OFFENDERS

o have been found to be deficient in
▪ social problem-solving skills
▪ espouse many beliefs supporting aggression"

o They tend to define problems in

▪ hostile ways
▪ adopt hostile goals
▪ seek less confirmatory information
▪ generate fewer alternative solutions
▪ anticipate fewer consequences for aggressive solutions
▪ choose less effective solutions

• Hostile attribution bias tends to develop during the preschool years and seems to be a stable attribute that
is still present into adulthood
o Most children grow out of it
o Pre-schoolers with more advanced social cognitive skills quickly outgrow hostile
attributions during early childhood
▪ Good language skills
▪ The ability to understand different emotions and intentions
o Pre-schoolers who made less hostile attributions later in life are those who were
better able to
▪ Explain others behaviours in terms of underling false beliefs
▪ Identifying others emotional status that where inconsistent with their own
▪ Those with greater verbal aptitude
• Peer rejected children with hostile attribution bias are more likely to be targets of physical assault by
others
o prompting them to be more suspicious of the motives of others
o quicker to develop hostile attribution bias to a large range of peers

• children develop basic trust through interaction with caring adults

o violation of that trust through extreme maltreatment is suspected to lead to
schemas script knowledge structures

• children who are exposed to maltreatment early in their live become

o hypervigilant toward hostile social signs
o perceptually ready to previewed hostility in others intentions
o quike to generate aggressive retaliatory responses to even mild provocations

AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOR – SIMPLE AND EASY TO USE

• Aggression is a simple and direct way of solving immediate conflicts

o Theoretically: the more cognitively "simple" individual would be more inclined to
pursue simplistic and direct solutions to problems

• Prosocial solutions require effective social skills

• Aggressive behaviour receives immediate reinforcement for the aggressor and therefore is more likely to
be retained in one’s arsenal of strategies for immediate solutions of conflicting situations

• Diminished intellectual competence and poor social skills have an early effect in increasing the likelihood
that a child will adopt characteristically more aggressive styles of behaviour to conflict resolution
o Documented that juvenile who are serious sexual offenders have significant deficits
in social competence, such as inadequate social skills, poor peer relationships and
social isolation from peers
AROUSAL AND ITS CONTROL
 6. THE GENERAL AGGRESSION MODEL

• GAM = THIS MODEL COMBINED SOCIAL LEARNING AND COGNITIONS TO EXPLAIN AGGRESSIVE
BEHAVIOR

• The GAM – provides the ONLY theoretical framework of aggression and violence that clearly incorporates
o Biological processes
o Personality development
o Social processes
o Basic cognitive processes
o Short-term and long-term processes
o Decision processes

• This model tries to include most if not all the factors that can influence aggression and violence but it
draws heavily on
o SOCIAL-COGNITIVE THEORIES
o SOCIAL-LEARNING THEORIES

• This model states that Aggression and violence depend on how an

o individual perceives and interprets the social environment
o expectations about the likelihood of various outcomes
o knowledge and beliefs about how people usually respond in certain situations
o the degree to which a person believes he or he has the ability to respond effectively

• Although the cognitive process is initially complicated --> judgments and choices in the process become
automatized through Require little
mental effort
o cultural teachings
or conscious
o repeated experiences awareness

• Not just cognitive, informed by our temperament and personality

• GAM stats that violence often occurs because of an escalation cycle which begins with an initial triggering
event that may be serious or relatively benign
o The triggering even can influence any kind of
▪ Dyad
▪ including two people
▪ two groups
▪ two religions
▪ two nations

o in these situations, one group considers retaliation to the incident to be justified or

mild whereas the other group believes the retaliation to be unjustified and severe
▪ Those who believe to be unjustified retaliate back
▪ Cycle persists through several irritations of violent actions

o One explanation for persistence of retaliation cycle : fundamental attribution error

▪ In fundamental attribution error People ascribe
• the negative behaviours of others to dispositional factors [he is
mean]
• their own negative behaviour is due to situational factors [it was the
right thing to do]

• Aggression and violence spring from a wide range of factors:

o Physical
o Emotional
o Social
o psychological
 Extension of
general
aggression
I3 THEORY model
“I-cubed theory”

• I3 THOERY
o A new theory of aggression, it organizes and summarizes risk factors for aggression
and considers
▪ instigating triggers
▪ impelling forces
▪ inhibiting forces
o self-regulation is a core focus of the theory

• The I3 theory is designed to provide an organized structure for understanding

o The process by which a given factor promotes aggression
o How multiple risk factors interrelate to create or reduce aggression

• I3 THEORY ORGANISES ALL OF THE AGGRESSION RISK FACTORS INTO 3 CATEGORIES

3 categories for risk factors

descrete incidents that arouse

1. instigating triggers tendencies or predispositions
that are conductive to aggression

forces that increase the

2. impelling forces likelihood of an aggressive action
following the instigating trigger

factors that increase the

3. inhibiting forces likelihood that aggression will be
mitigated or contained

• I3 VS GAM
o The I3 incorporates recent research on self-regulation as a core focus of the theory
o It specifies different novel ways in which aggression risk factors produce aggression and violence

• The I3 provides a strategies for dealing with intimate partner aggression and violence
o Specifically the emotion regulating aspects of the theory
 7. OVERT AND CONVERT ACTS OF
AGGRESSION

INTRO

• Rolf Loeber & Magda Stouthamer-Loeber

o They state that research on aggression and violence should be aware of TWO TYPES OF
AGGRESSIVE ACTIONS
▪ OVERT
▪ COVERT

• KEY FOCUS IS THE WORD ACTION

o Hostile/reactive-impulsive aggression Both are defined by their goals &

rewards NOT THEIR ACTIONS
o Instrumental/ controlled-instrumental aggression

• The two forms of aggression are different in

o 1- behavior patterns
o 2- emotions
o 3- cognitions
o 4- development

AGGRESSION BEHAVIOR PATTERNS EMOTIONS COGNITIONS DEVELPOMENT

OVERT Direct confrontation Anger Lacks social Aggression begins

with victims High level of arousal cognitions for coming early especially in
Generally, decreases and violence up with boys
with age nonaggressive
solutions
 COVERT Concealment Less emotion Relies on cognitive Can evolve as well
Dishonesty Crimes such as capabilities such as learned strategy to
Sneaky behavior • Fraud • Planfulness escape punishment
Increases with age • Larceny • deceitfulness
• Theft

OVERT AGGRESSION

• BEHAVIORALLY
o Involves direct confrontation with victims
o Involves applying physical harm or threats of physical harm
o Normally decreases with age
o Children who show serious form of overt aggression [violence] tend to increase their violence as
they get older
▪ They often commit violent and property crimes as adults

• EMOTIONALLY
o Anger is an NB element in overt acts of aggression
o Violent actions are usually accompanied by high levels of arousal brought on by anger

Covert and Overt aggression can be distinguished on the basis of the cognitions that accompany
them

• COGNATIVELY
o Violent person [overt aggression] tend to have cognitive deficiencies that make it difficult for them
to come up with nonaggressive solutions to interpersonal conflicts and disputes
o Overt aggressors have hostile attributional biases that contributes to violence-prone cognitive
processing
 • DEVELOPMENTALLY
o Overt aggression generally begins early (especially in boys)
▪ Not all overt aggressors who engage in violence start early

o Development of overt aggressive behaviour does not necessarily parallel the development of
covert actions
▪ Some children have never been socialized by their parents to be honest and
respect the property of others

• Common among neglectful parents or parents who hold an indistinct/ weak moral stance
▪ Honesty and respect for the property of others are instilled by parents or
caregivers teaching and prosocial models

• Some cover actions (especially lying) can also evolve as well learned strategy that serves to minimize the
chances of detection and punishment by adults

COVERT AGGRESSION

Similar to the passive-

• BEHAVIORALLY
aggressive behavior
o Does NOT involve direct confrontation
o Relies on
▪ concealment
▪ dishonesty
▪ sneaky behavior
o increases with age
• EMOTIONALLY
o neutral emotions are characteristic of covert actions
o Covert actions tend to be less emotional in nature, actions such as
▪ Fraud
▪ Theft
▪ Embezzlement
▪ Burglary
▪ White collar offences
▪ Property offences

Covert and Overt aggression can be distinguished on the basis of the cognitions that accompany
them

• COGNATIVELY
o People who use convert aggression as a preferred strategy do not demonstrate the degree of
cognitive deficiencies in solving their interpersonal problems nor do they manifest hostile
attributional bias

o Most covert acts are Facilitated by specific cognitive capabilities such as

▪ Planfulness
• Casing situations prior to theft
▪ Preoccupation with consumables and property
▪ Lying to escape detection

o Occupationally related crimes are committed with planning and forethought

▪ Theft of company property
▪ Misuse of information
▪ Software privacy
o Crimes committed through the use of computers
▪ Cybercrime
▪ Hacking
▪ Cyberstalking
▪ Cyberbullying
 REACTIVE AND PROACTIVE FORMS OF AGGRESSION

A way of classifying aggression in children and adults by making a distinction between reactive and
proactive aggression

REACTIVE AGGRESSION PROACTIVE AGGRESSION

Violence perpetrated in response to

provoation, preceived provocation or
an unanticipated event Similar to controlled-intrumental aggression,
actions undertaken to obtain a specific goal

includes
- anger expressions
includes
- temper tantrums
- bullying
- vengeful hostility
- domination
- hot-blooded aggressive acts
- teasing

a reaction to frustration and is - name calling

associated with a lack of control due -coercive acts
to high states of arousal - cold blooded aggressive acts

a hostile act displayed in response to a

perceived threat pr provocation less emotional and more driven
by expectations of rewards

theoretical roots in the frustration-

aggression model
unprovoked, deliberate, goal
directed behavior used to influence
or coerce a peer

theoretical roots are found in social learning

theory - which states that aggression is
acquierd behavior that is controlled and
maintained by reinforcemnets

• OBSERVATION OF THESE 2 FORMS HAVE FOUND IN CHILDREN AS YOUNG AS 3-6 YEARS THROUGH
o Teaching ratings
o Peer ratings
o Clinical psychiatry records
o Direct observation of peer interactions
 GENDER DIFFERENCES IN AGGRESSION

• Boys engage in more overt aggression & direct confrontation as they grow up
o Unclear whether boys are more aggressive than girls

• physical aggression is more prevalent in males

• Socialized differences in the way girls and boys construct their worlds
o Social learning theories state that girls are socialized different than boys/ taught not
to be overly aggressive

• Boys are not more aggressive than girls

o They are aggressive in different ways
o Boys and girls are born with potential to be equally aggressive
▪ girls are socialized not to be overtly aggressive
▪ boys are encouraged to be overtly aggressive to defend themselves
o Boys and girls are equally physically aggressive towards peers as toddlers but this
pattern soon changes as they get older and enter elementary school years

• Gender differences in aggression as expressed by frustration and rage are NOT SEEN IN INFANCY
• The preschool period 3-5 years
o Gender differences start to show
▪ With boys showing more overt aggression than girls
o Overt aggression becomes notable in boys from elementary school ages onwards

• Boys are taught

o To Be tough
o Not to cry
o To take on bullies
o Physically defend themselves

• Girls are likely to engage in

o Relationship forms of aggression Rather than physical forms of
punishing and hitting
o Interpersonal forms of aggression
• Girls and woman tend to use more
o Convert forms of aggression
o Indirect forms of aggression
o Verbal forms of aggression
▪ Character defamation
▪ Ostracism

• Girls are likely to use relational aggression such as

o Abandoning one friend in favor of another
o Spreading malicious gossip
o Ridiculing another’s physical traits
▪ Facial features
▪ Weight
▪ General demeanor

• Gender differences and antisocial behavior develop because of a higher exposure of boys to cumulative risk
factors
o Boys are more vulnerable because they are expected to be more
▪ Aggressive
▪ Masculine

• Gender differences in aggression are not just due to biology

o Mainly due to cultural & socialization processes that promote different kinds of
aggression
o Environmental signs are also important in cognitive scripts and in the aggressive
strategies individuals use for different situations
8. EFFECTS OF MEDIA VIOLENCE