Dynamics Lecture Notes

CJC H1 PHYSICS LECTURE NOTES JC1 2023
3 Dynamics
Main concept(s)
1. Newton’s laws of motion
2. Linear momentum and its conservation
Learning Outcome(s)
Candidates should be able to:
(a) state and apply each of Newton's laws of motion.
(b) show an understanding that mass is the property of a body which resists change in
motion (inertia).
(c) describe and use the concept of weight as the force experienced by a mass in a
gravitational field
(d) define and use linear momentum as the product of mass and velocity
(e) define and use impulse as the product of force and time of impact
(f) relate resultant force to the rate of change of momentum
(g) recall and solve problems using the relationship F = ma, appreciating that the
resultant force and acceleration are always in the same direction
(h) state the principle of conservation of momentum
(i) apply the principle of conservation of momentum to solve simple problems
including inelastic and (perfectly) elastic interactions between two bodies in one
dimension (knowledge of the concept of coefficient of restitution is not required)
(j) show an understanding that, for a (perfectly) elastic collision between two bodies,
the relative speed of approach is equal to the relative speed of separation
(k) show an understanding that, whilst the momentum of a close system is always
conserved in interactions between bodies, some change in kinetic energy usually
takes place.
Introduction
In this chapter, you will learn the underlying causes of motion. The study of how forces affect the
motion of bodies is known as Dynamics, and is encapsulated by Newton’s three laws of motion:
• First Law – law of inertial
• Second Law – Quantifying force
• Third Law – Paired forces / Origin of force
Essential Questions
• How do forces affect the motion of an object?
• What is the relationship between force and momentum?
• Why can and how do we use conservation of momentum to analyse interactions between
two bodies?
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1. 3.1 Newton’s 3rd Law of Motion
Newton’s 3rd Law of Motion
Whenever a force acts on a body, an equal but oppositely directed force of the same kind
acts on another body.
Implications of Newton’s 3rd law of motion:

• Forces always occur in pairs. A force results from interaction between 2 bodies. To every
action force, there is a reaction force.
• The action-reaction pair forces

(1) act on two different bodies and so do not cancel out
(2) are of equal magnitude
(3) act along the same line but opposite directions
(4) are of the same nature
Example 1
Identify the action and reaction forces in the following scenario:
Scenario Action Force Reaction Force

1 Walking on ground
2 Blowing a balloon
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3 Book resting on a table Downward ___________ Upward _____________

__________ force on __________ force on
table by book book by table
Normal
contact force
on book by Downward ___________ Upward _____________
table (N) force on book by Earth force on Earth by book
Normal
contact force “Weight” is in fact the
on table by gravitational force exerted by
book (N’’) Earth on a body
Downward ___________ Upward _____________

__________ force on __________ force on
ground by table table by ground
(W
)
b
(W
’’)
b Downward ___________ Upward _____________
force on table by Earth. force on Earth by table
• Gravitational
force pair
• Non-contact
force pair
4 Rocket propelled upwards Upward force on rocket Downward force on gas

by gas (from combustion by rocket
chamber)
Downward gravitational Upward gravitational

force on rocket by Earth. force on Earth by rocket
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Example 2
Are the forces labeled below action-reaction pairs?
(a)
Characteristics of action-reaction Yes ? No ?

force pair
1. They act on two different
bodies.
2. They are always equal in
magnitude.
3. They are always opposite in
direction.
4. They are of the same nature.
Answer: _______
(b)
Free-body diagram of the
bear:
Characteristics of action-reaction Yes? No? Why aren’t Fleft and Fright

force pair equal?
1. They act on two different
bodies.
2. They are always equal in
magnitude.
3. They are always opposite in
direction.
4. They are of the same nature.
Answer: _______
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MINI-TEST 1
A horse is pulling on a cart, and the cart pulls back with the same amount of force. If both forces
are equal (according to Newton’s 3rd law), how can the horse and cart move?
i. Draw the free-body diagram of the horse.

ii. Draw the free-body diagram of the cart.
iii. Hence explain why the horse and cart can move.
My solution:
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1. 3.2 Newton’s 1st Law of Motion
3.2.1 Newton’s 1st Law of Motion
Newton’s 1st law of motion (Law of Inertia)
A body at rest will remain at rest and a body in motion will continue in motion at
constant velocity unless a net force acts on it.
Newton’s 1st law deals with a body’s state of motion when there is no net force acting on it.
It is often referred to as the law of inertia. The reluctance of a body to change its state of rest
or uniform velocity is called inertia.
Mass is a measure of a body’s resistance to change in velocity; i.e. the greater the mass of
the body, the greater its inertia.
Example 3
A person pushes an object across a frictionless surface. What will happen when he stops
pushing?
Solution:
During the push, the object’s speed increases from zero.
Let the velocity just before the pushing stops be vo.
Once a body has been set in motion, no force is needed to keep it moving if no other forces
act to slow it down. Since the surface is frictionless, no forces act to slow down the object.
Hence when the person stops pushing, the object continues moving a constant velocity
equal to vo.
Example 4
Why do passengers in a bus move forward when the bus stops suddenly?
Solution:
This is due to Newton's law of inertia of motion.
When the bus is in motion, the passengers are also in motion. On sudden stoppage, the
passengers tend to continue its forward motion and thus a jerk is experienced.
Quiz
“A force is required to sustain motion.” True or False?
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1. 3.3 Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion
3.3.1 Force and Momentum

The Newton’s second law of motion relates the net force acting on an object to the rate of
change of momentum of the object.
Newton’s second law of motion
The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the net force acting on it,
and, the direction of momentum change is in the direction of the net force.
The momentum is a property of a body,

Linear momentum (p ) is the product of the mass of a body and its velocity.
The momentum of a body is given by the equation:
p = mv 3.1
p is the momentum of the body

where: m is the mass of the body
v is the velocity of the body
Therefore, a moving object possesses momentum. Comparing two objects of the same mass,
the faster moving object has higher momentum. Similarly, comparing two objects moving at
the same velocity, the object of bigger mass has higher momentum.
Notes
• Momentum is a measure of the inertia of a moving object.
• It is a vector quantity and has the same direction as the velocity.
• SI unit: N s
• SI base unit: kg m s-1
From the Newton’s second law of motion, the net force F is

dp
F∝ 3.2
dt
dp d(mv)
F=k =k 3.3
dt dt
where k is a proportionality constant.
If the mass of the body, m, is constant,
dv
F = km 3.4
dt
dv
Since is the acceleration a. Therefore,
dt
F = kma 3.5
F is the net force acting on the body
m is the mass of the body
where:
a is the acceleration of the body
k is a constant of proportionality
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The “k” represents the original idea of a proportional relationship. Further study on the matter
of resultant force shows that there is no other physical factors affecting the net force this “k”.
Therefore, this “k” is dimensionless and the definition of the SI unit of force makes the value of
k equals to 1.
The newton (N) is the SI unit of force.
Definition:
The newton
It is the SI unit of force. One newton is that force required to give a mass of 1 kilogram an
acceleration of 1 metre per second squared in the direction of the force.
Hence, from the definition of the newton, k = 1.
F = ma 3.6
This result shows that the O-Level description of F = ma is a subset of the A-level definition of
the Newton’s second law.
Notes:
• In summary:
In general, If mass is constant,
 dp  
dv 
F= F =m = ma
dt dt
• Direction of force
= Direction of change in momentum produced by the force
= Direction of change in velocity produced by the force
= Direction of acceleration produced by the force
• The equation F = ma is valid only when the mass of the object in consideration is a
constant, not when we are thinking about burning rocket fuel or sand falling on a conveyor
belt. So, do not quote the inadequate “F = ma” as the full Newton's second Law.
The following subsection 3.3.2 we discuss the applications of F = ma, how to determine the
resultant force on a body through the free-body diagram, and solve problems
3.3.2 Problem-solving using F = ma
By Newton’s second law of motion, when a body experiences a net force, it will experience
acceleration (i.e. its velocity changes with time). For a body of constant mass, the acceleration
is directly proportional to the net force, and, directed in the direction of the net force.
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Example 5
In the figure below, two persons are pushing a stalled car. The mass of the car is 1450 kg. One
person applies a force of 275 N to the car, while the other applies a force of 395 N. Both men
push in the same direction. A third force of 560 N also acts on the car, but in a direction opposite
to that of the men. This force arises because of friction in the wheel axle. Determine the
acceleration of the car.
Solution:
Fnet = ma
Take vectors to the right as positive.
Fnet = ∑ F = 275 + 395 + (-560) = 110 N
Fnet 110
a= = = 0.076 m s-2 , to the right (since both Fnet and a work out to be positive)
m 1450
When it comes to analysing forces on a body, all three of Newton’s laws of motion need to be
considered. The 3rd law will be used to determine if there are any reaction forces that are
“unseen”. Then one needs to determine if there is a net force. If there is, you will use Newton’s
2nd law. If there isn’t, then Newton’s 1st law will be more applicable. In general, for almost any
physics question in which forces are present, the following procedure will apply:
1 Draw a diagram of the system,

comprising all bodies to
identify all the forces
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2 Draw a Free Body Diagram of

the object to be analysed.
Draw all the external forces

acting on it.
T = Tensional force exerted on the trailer by the tow bar

R 2 = Frictional force exerted on trailer by the ground
N2 = Normal contact force exerted on the trailer by the ground
m2g = Gravitational force exerted on the trailer by the earth
( or Weight of the trailer)
3 Define convenient coordinate

axes for these objects, and find
the component of forces along
these axes.
y
Define which is your positive
direction for each axis.
x
Case 1
Case 2
4 Apply Newton’s 2nd Law for Using Case 1 as an example:
each axis.
Resolve forces horizontally (x-axis)
Solve the independent (take right as positive direction)
equations to get the
unknowns.

Fx = ma
T – R2 = m(2)--------(1)
Remember that you must have
as many independent
Resolve forces vertically (y-axis)
equations as you have
(take upwards as positive direction)
unknowns to obtain a
complete solution. 
Fy = 0
N2 – m2g = 0 --------------(2)
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Quiz
In a free-body diagram for an object, do you draw:
a) the forces acting on the object and the forces the object exerts on other objects? or
b) only the forces acting on the object?
The subsequent subsections discuss more on Free-Body Diagram
3.3.2.1 Functions of a Free-Body Diagram
• A free-body diagram is a simplified representation of a body showing all the forces acting
on it.
• Very useful for visualising forces as vectors. E.g. when solving for unknown forces
3.3.2.2 Features of a Free-Body Diagram
• Shows ALL forces acting ON the body

• Forces are drawn as VECTORS
– Direction matters
– Relative magnitudes of different vectors matters
• Draw the forces where they act
– For “weight”, draw it at its centre of gravity (C.G.). For a symmetrical body, the C.G.
is at its geometric centre. C.G. is the point at which the whole weight of a body may
be thought to act.
• All forces are clearly labeled & named.
– You may use a legend.
3.3.2.3 Steps in drawing a Free-Body Diagram

The steps involved can be termed as the 3Is:
(1) Isolate
(2) Identify
(3) Illustrate
Consider the question “Draw a free-body diagram for a book resting on a table”:
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Description Diagram
Isolate the object that you are
required to draw the free-body
diagram for and represent it
Step 1 - simplistically without drawing in
Isolate unnecessary details.
In this case, it suffices to represent
it using a box.
Identify the forces acting on the

book. Write down the labels used
and a brief description of the
forces. (i.e. provide a legend)
Step 2 –
Identify Note that we only draw EXTERNAL
forces acting on the object (i.e.
forces exerted on this object by
other objects).
Illustrate with labelled vectors

representing the forces, taking into
consideration:
(a) where the force is acting on
(b) the direction of the force
Step 3 - (c) the relative magnitude of the

Illustrate force
In this example, the weight acts

through the C.G. and the normal
contact force acts through the
surface in contact.
Both vectors should be equal in
length since the book is at rest (i.e.
no net force).
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Example 6
Description Free-body Diagram
A boy sitting on a stationary swing.

(a)
Draw a free-body diagram for the boy.
A skydiver is descending with a

(b) constant velocity. Draw a free-body
diagram for the skydiver.
Upthrust is assumed negligible compared

the other forces, hence not represented.
A rightward force is applied to a book

in order to move it across a desk with
(c)
a rightward acceleration. Draw a free-
body diagram for the book.
Note that F is greater than f because it is

accelerating rightwards.
Air resistance is assumed negligible.
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3.3.2.4 Determining the Net Force from a Free-body Diagram
Once you have determined the free-body diagram, the net/resultant force can then be
determined by either:
(a) resolving the vectors to two perpendicular axes and then adding them up
independently for the individual components of the resultant vector (calculation
method).
(b) using scale diagram to draw out the vectors head-to-toe (or using the parallelogram
method) and measuring the length of the resultant vector (graphical method).
Determining the net/resultant force will allow you to find the acceleration of the object
through Newton’s Second Law.
Free-body Diagram Solution
Method 1: Vector Resolution
In the x-direction:
y
3 N will be resolved to 3 sin 30° N
30°
3N In the y-direction:
x
3 N will be resolved to 3 cos 30° N
3 cos 30º N
3N
5N
30º
3 sin 30º N
Resultant force in the y-direction

= 5 – (3 cos 30°)
= 2.40 N
Resultant force, FR 3 sin 30º N


= 2.40 2 + (3 sin 30 ) 2 = 2.83 N θ
2.40
tan  = →  = 58.0 FR
3 sin 30
2.40 N
Hence, the resultant force, FR is of magnitude 2.83 N and bearing of

1480.
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Method 2: Head-to-tail method
3N
30°
α
5N
FR
5N
Either measure the length of FR directly (for which diagram must be

drawn to scale) or use cosine rule to find the magnitude of FR.
Using cosine rule,

FR2 = 32 + 52 – 2(3)(5) cos 30°
FR = 2.83 N
3 2 + 2.83 2 − 5 2
cos  = = −0.471
2(3)( 2.83)
 = 118
Hence, FR is of magnitude 2.83 N and at bearing of 1480

(= 30º + 1180).
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Example 7 : Connected Bodies problem

Two masses of 2 kg and 3 kg are stationary on a smooth table and connected by a string. A
force of 20 N is applied to the 3 kg mass and the system moves to the right as shown.
Calculate
a) the acceleration, a, of the system,

b) the tension, T, in the string.
Solution:
Free-body diagram Apply “F = ma”

Consider FBD of 2 kg mass alone:
Vertically,
Acceleration = 0 → net force = 0.
(take upwards as positive direction)
Σ𝐹𝑦 = 0➔ N2 – m2 g = 0
Horizontally,
There is acceleration → there is a net force.
(take right as positive direction)
Σ𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎➔T = 2 a------------------(1)
Consider FBD of 3 kg mass alone:

Horizontally,
Σ𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎
20 – T = 3 a ----------------------- (2)
Note: The tension T on both masses are of

the same value (action-reaction pair of
forces)
Consider the combined system of both Horizontally,

masses: Σ𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎
20 = (2 +3 ) a ----------------------- (3)
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Tension, T, is an action-reaction pair internal

to the system. Hence it should not be drawn
here.
Solving equations (1) to (3) gives: (a) a = 4 m s-2 ; (b) T = 8 N
Quiz
A pendulum is attached to the ceiling of a vehicle. The vehicle is moving with velocity V and
the pendulum hangs at an angle to the vertical. The pendulum appears stationary relative to
an observer inside the vehicle. With reference to the diagram shown below, what can you
deduce about the acceleration of the vehicle?
Side view:
Example 8 : Lift problem

A mass of 2 kg is hung from a spring balance in
a lift. What does the spring balance read when
the lift is
a) stationary.
b) ascending with an acceleration of 0.2 m s-2
c) ascending with a uniform velocity of
0.15 m s-1
d) ascending with a deceleration of 0.2 m s-2
e) descending with an acceleration of
0.1 m s-2
f) if the lift cable broke.
(Assume g = 10 m s-2 )
Figure. (a) FBD of the 2 kg mass
Figure. (b) T = Scale reading on spring balance
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Solution:
Take upwards as positive direction.
Scenario Free-body diagram Apply “F = ma”

a) Lift is stationary T Vertically, a = 0 →net force = 0.
∑ Fy =0
T – mg = 0
a = 0 m s-2 T = mg = 2 x 10 = 20 N
mg
b) Lift is ascending with Acceleration is upwards → net force is
an acceleration of T upwards.
0.2 m s-2 ∑ Fy = ma
a = +0.2 m s-2 T – mg = ma
T = m (g + a) = 2 (10 +0.2) = 20.4 N
mg
c) Lift is ascending with T a = 0 → net force = 0.
a uniform velocity of ∑ Fy = 0
0.15 m s-1
a = 0 m s-2 T – mg = 0
T = mg = 20 N
mg
d) Lift is ascending with T Acceleration is downwards
a deceleration of 0.2 → net force is downwards.
m s-2 Σ𝐹𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎
a = -0.2 m s-2 T – mg = m (-0.2)
T = m (g - 0.2) = 2 (10 - 0.2) = 19.6 N
mg
e) Lift is descending T Acceleration is downwards
with an acceleration → net force is downwards.
of 0.1 m s-2 Σ𝐹𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎
a = -0.1 m s-2 T - mg = ma
T = m (g + a) = 2[10 + (-0.1)] = 19.8 N
mg
f) If lift cable breaks T The lift, the 2 kg mass and the spring
balance will undergo free fall,
i.e. accelerate downwards at the
-2
aa ==-0.1
-10 m ss-2 same rate of g (10 m s-2).
mg
The spring balance is not extended 
T=0N
The 2 kg mass is said to be
“weightless”.
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1. 3.3.3 Weight, Apparent Weight & Weightlessness
Weight is one of the forces that is usually identified in a free-body diagram. Nonetheless, there
is a difference between true weight and apparent weight. This subsection illustrates the
concepts of weight and apparent weight.
3.3.3.1 Weight
Weight is one of the forces that is usually identified in a free-body diagram
Mass is a scalar quantity. Mass is a measure of a body’s resistance to change in velocity and
thus affects inertia. [Tip: do not confuse mass with amount of substance; the latter quantity is
measured in moles.
Mass is an inherent property of the object. It is independent of the object’s location or
surroundings. Mass is measured by comparison with a standard mass.
SI unit: kilogram, kg.
Weight is a vector quantity. Weight is not a constant; it depends on the gravitational field
strength at the point where the mass is located.
SI unit: newton, N.
W = mg 3.7
where : W is the weight of the body

m is the mass of the body
g is the gravitational field strength (or acceleration due to gravity)
Quiz
Which force is the weighing machine measuring?
A. Frictional force
B. Weight of man
C. Normal contact force on weighing machine by man
Answer: C
Consider the forces acting on the man and on the weighing machine separately.
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“Weight” of man is the gravitational force acting

between the earth and man, not between the
weighing machine and man.
• True weight (or weight) is defined as the force acting on a mass due to a gravitational
field. It is given by mg.
• However, being an action-at-a-distance force, gravitational force cannot be felt and
therefore would not provide a body any sensation of its weight. It is the contact force
exerted on the body that provides the sensation of weight.
• Apparent weight refers to a body’s sensation of its weight. It is the contact force exerted
on the body by another body.
It can be measured using a weighing scale or spring balance; its value is equal to:
- the normal contact force (N) exerted by the body on a weighing scale, or,
- the spring force (T ) exerted by the body on a spring balance.
• True weight is constant at a given location (=mg) and independent of the body’s motion.
Apparent weight depends on the motion of a body.
• Apparent weight differs from true weight when there is an unbalanced force on the body.
A body in free fall experiences weightlessness because it does not experience any contact
force that balances the gravitational force acting on it; ignoring air resistance (free fall),
there is no supporting force at all and hence no sensation of weight. In general, an object's
apparent weight is its mass multiplied by the vector difference between the acceleration
due to gravity and the acceleration of the object. This definition means that apparent
weight is a vector that can act in any direction, not just vertically. For example, in a racing
car accelerating horizontally at 1g, apparent weight acts at an angle of 45⁰ downwards.
[“1g” refers acceleration of magnitude equal to “1 times the acceleration due to gravity.]
3.3.3.2 Apparent Weight
To see the discrepancies that can arise between true weight (W) and apparent weight (N’),
consider the weighing scale in the elevator as shown in the Figure below. A person, whose true
weight is 700 N, steps on the scale.
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If the elevator is at rest or moving with a constant velocity (either upwards or downwards), the
scale shows the true weight (700 N). [see Figure: Scenario 1].
If the elevator is accelerating, the apparent weight and the true weight are not equal.
When the elevator accelerates upwards, the apparent weight is greater than the true weight.
[see Figure: Scenario 2]. Conversely, if the elevator accelerates downwards, the apparent
weight is less than the true weight. [see Figure: Scenario 3].
And if the elevator falls freely, its acceleration is equal to the acceleration due to gravity. With
the elevator, weighing scale and the person all having the same acceleration downwards, no
contact forces exist between them, hence the apparent weight equals zero. The person is said
to experience “weightlessness”. [see Figure: Scenario 4].
Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Scenario 3 Scenario 4

(a) No acceleration (b) Upwards (c) Downwards (d) Free-fall
acceleration acceleration
= 400 N
= 700 N
= 1000 N
3.3.4 Application of Newton’s second law of motion to fluid flow problems
We expand our understanding of Newton’s second law to not just F = ma, but to look
fundamentally at the concept that resultant force changes the momentum of a body, including
fluids (e.g. thrust on a rocket; force on sand on a conveyer belt).
Fluid refers to gas and liquid. When force is applied on it, it causes a change in momentum of
the fluid.
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Example 9: Hosepipe
A hose ejects water at a speed of 20 cm s-1 through a hole of area 100 cm2. If the water strikes
a wall normally, calculate the force on the wall, assuming the velocity of the water normal to
the wall is
(a) zero after collision;

(b) water molecules rebounded from the wall with a speed of 14 cm s-1 in the opposite
direction as their initial speed.
Solution:
(a)
Velocity change of water on striking the wall

∆v = vf – vi = 0 – 0.2 = - 0.2 m s-l
Momentum change per unit time for the water

= (mass per unit time) x ∆v
= (density x volume per unit time) x ∆v
= (density x cross-sectional area x speed) x ∆v
Illustration:
Mass flowing out per unit time = density x volume flowing out per unit time
= density x A x speed
Thus,
= (1000 x 0.01 x 0.2) x (-0.2)
= -0.4 kg m s-2 , i.e. to the left Note: p is a vector!
Force on water
= rate of change of momentum of water
= change of momentum of water per unit time
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= -0.4 kg m s-2
= -0.4 N , i.e. to the left Note: F is a vector!
By Newton’s 3rd law,

Force on the wall is equal and opposite to the force on water.
 Magnitude of force on wall = 0.4 N
(b)
Velocity change of water on striking the wall

∆v = vf – vi = (-14) – 20 = - 34 cm s-l

= (density x cross-sectional area x speed) x ∆v
= (1000 x 0.01 x 0.20) x (-0.34)
= -0.68 kg m s-2
Force on water
= -0.68 kg m s-2
= -0.68 N , i.e. to the left (2 s.f.)
By Newton’s 3rd law,

Force on the wall is equal and opposite to the force on water.
 Magnitude of force on wall = 0.68 N
MINI-TEST 2
1. A box of mass 8.0 kg rests on a horizontal, rough surface. A string attached to the box
passes over a smooth pulley and supports a 2.0 kg mass at its other end.
When the box is released, a frictional force of 6.0 N acts on it. What is the acceleration
of the box?
2. A man is riding in an elevator that is moving upwards and accelerates uniformly for the
first 3 seconds, maintains constant velocity for the next 10 seconds, and then
decelerates uniformly for the next 4 seconds. Draw a graph to show the variation of the
man’s apparent weight with time.
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My solution:
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1. 3.4 IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM
3.4.1 What is Impulse?
Expanding the concept from Newton’s second law of motion,

dp
F=
dt
Suppose during a time interval from t1 to t2 where the force F causes the object to change from
initial momentum, pi, to final momentum, pf, integrating both sides of Equation 6.6:
t2 pf
∫ F dt = ∫ dp = pf − pi = ∆p
t1 pi
t2
The quantity ∫t F dt is known as the impulse of the force on the object.
1
t2
If F is varying with time, Impulse =  F dt
t1
If F is constant, Impulse = F t
If average force <F> is used, Impulse =  F  t
where Δt denotes the time duration in which the force acts on the object.
Definition of impulse:
Impulse is the product of the average force acting on an object and the duration of time
for which the force acts.
∆𝑝
<F> = ∆𝑡
<F> ∆𝑡 = ∆𝑝
<F> ∆𝑡 = Impulse = ∆𝑝
Impulse applied to a body = change in momentum of the body
Impulse will bring about the change in momentum of an object. This implies that
➢ a force must be applied over a period of time to increase/decrease/change direction of
the momentum of an object (e.g. applying the car brakes over a period of time to
reduce the car’s momentum)
➢ a larger force, and/or, applying the force over a longer duration will produce a greater
change in the object’s momentum (be it magnitude or direction.)
• Units of momentum (p) are the same as those of Ft.
• SI unit: N s
• SI base units : kg m s-1
• Impulse is a vector quantity
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Example 10
Determine the impulse that must be supplied by a tennis racquet to give a tennis ball of mass
0.10 kg a velocity of 15 m s-1.
Solution:
Thinking questions:
1) How does impulse related to mass and velocity of a tennis ball?
2) What is the initial velocity of the tennis ball?
Impulse = Change in momentum

= mv - 0
= (0.10)(15) – 0 = 1.5 N s
Example 11
A baseball of mass 0.1 kg approaches the batter horizontally with a speed of 50 m s -1 and
deflected 60° above the horizontal with the same speed after it is hit. The time of impact is
0.1 s. Find the average force acting on the ball by the bat.
Solution:
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3.4.2 Graphs : “force vs time” (F - t) graph and “momentum vs time” (p – t) graph
F – t graph p – t graph
t2
Impulse =  F dt Force, F = dp
t1 dt
= area under the F-t graph = gradient of p-t graph
between times t1 and t2.

By calculating this area you will be able to The gradient of the p-t graph at a point
determine what is the change in momentum of gives the instantaneous net force on the
the body within ∆t = t2 - t1. body at time t.

IF THE FORCE IS CONSTANT
F/ N p/ N s
gradient
Area F∆t = ∆p
B
F ∆p
0 t/ s 0 t/ s
∆t ∆t
This graph shows a constant force acting over a This p - t graph shows a straight line
time t. between A and B, indicating that a
constant force acts over a time ∆t.
Change in Momentum: Net force applied during ∆t :

p = area under graph = Ft F = gradient of line AB =
∆p
∆t
IF THE FORCE IS VARYING WITH TIME

F/ N p/ N s
gradient of tangent
t2
Area F dt = ∆p B
t1
0 t1 t2 t/ s
0 t1 t2 t/ s
This graph has gradient that varies
This graph shows a varying force over time.
between A and B (non-linear), indicating
that the force varies between t1 and t2.
Change in Momentum:
t Instantaneous net F at time t
p = area under graph = ∫t 2 F dt = gradient of tangent at time t
1
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3.4.3 Applications of knowledge of Impulse
When the racquet hits a ball, the F-t graph for the ball is probably:
The area under the F-t graph represents the impulse ( = the change in momentum)
experienced by the ball.
The same change in momentum can either result from a large force acting for a very short
time (Fig.a), or, a much smaller force acting for a much longer time (Fig.b).
Applications:
1) A good tennis player 'follows through' with the racquet when striking the ball. The force
applied then acts for a longer time, the impulse is greater and so also is the change of
momentum (and velocity) of the racquet.
2) When a cricket ball is caught by a player its momentum is reduced to zero. This is
achieved by an impulse in the form of an opposing force acting for a certain time. The
'sting' can be removed from the catch by drawing back the hands as the ball is caught.
This reduces the momentum of the ball to zero over a longer time interval. A smaller
force is thus exerted on the hand, reducing the ‘sting’.
3) For a given momentum change, a short impact time could cause a large enough force to
break a bone. When jumping down from a height, bend your knees immediately on
impact with the ground so that you are brought to rest gradually rather than abruptly.
Since the impact time is increased, the impulsive force on you is much reduced.
4) High jumpers land on thick foam pads to increase the collision time and thus reduce the
force.
5) In driving a nail into a board: A firm board causes the momentum of the nail to be
destroyed quickly (i.e. small t). The force exerted on the board is thus very large and
the nail enters the board.
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3.4.4 Concept of Average Force
In practice, the force varies with time. Consider a baseball being hit. The figure below illustrates
approximately how the force is applied to the ball by the bat. The magnitude of the force is zero
at the instant 𝑡1 just before the bat touches the ball. During the contact, the force rises to a
maximum and then returns to zero at the time 𝑡2 when the ball leaves the bat. The time interval
∆𝑡 = 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 during which the bat and the ball are in contact is quite short, only a few-
thousandths of a second.
Since the force is not constant in such instances, we can instead determine an average force.
F/N
The average force <F> is a constant force
which when acting over the same time interval
∆𝑡 as the actual time-varying force, produces
the same change in momentum. Graphically,
this means that the area under the average
<F>-t graph is the same as the area under the
<F >
varying F - t graph.
t
< F > ∆t = ∫t 2 F dt
1
0 t1 t2 t/s
∆t
Example 12
A body of mass 3 kg is moving at a speed of 2 m s-1 when it is acted on by a force, in the direction
of its velocity, which varies with time t as shown in the figure below.
Force / N
(a) Determine
10 i) the momentum of the body at time = 8 s.

ii) the average force on the mass from 0 s to 8 s.
Time / s (b) Determine the momentum of the body at
0 2 4 6 8
time = 8 s if the force acted is
i) opposite to the direction of velocity.

ii) perpendicular to the direction of velocity.
Solution:
(a) (i) Change in momentum

p = area under F – t graph
= ½ (6 + 4) x 10
= 50 N s
pf = pi + p
= mvi + 50
= (3)(2) + 50 = 56 N s
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(ii) <F> t = p
<F> x 8 = 50
<F> = 6.3 N
(b) (i) Take vectors in the direction of initial velocity as positive.

When the net force vector is in the negative direction, the momentum change vector is
also in the negative direction. Thus, p = - 50 N s
pf = pi + p
pf = mvi + (-50) = (3)(2) + (-50) = - 44 N s
“-“ sign implies body now moves opposite to its initial direction.
(b)(ii) |pi| = mvi = (3)(2) = 6 kg m s-1

|p| = 50 N s
pf = pi + p (VECTOR eqn!)
Magnitude: By Pythagoras’ Theorem,

|pf| = 50.4 kg m s-1
Direction: θ = tan-1(50/6) = 83.2°

The body moves off with a final momentum of magnitude 50.4 kg m s-1, at
an angle of 83.2°, measured anti-clockwise from vi
The vector diagram below shows a summary of the three scenarios:
Initial Change in Final

Force
momentum momentum momentum
(a)
(b)(i)
(b)(ii)
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MINI-TEST 3
A 0.2 kg plastic cart and a 20 kg lead cart can both roll without friction on a horizontal
surface. Equal forces are used to push both carts forward, starting from rest. After the
force is removed at t = 1 s, is the momentum of the plastic cart greater than, less than, or
equal to the momentum of the lead cart? Explain.
My solution:
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1. 3.5 PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM
Principle of Conservation of Linear Momentum
The total linear momentum of a system will remain constant if no net external force
acts on it.
A force is considered external if it is exerted by a body outside the system.

Forces exerted on each other by bodies within the system are internal forces.
The momenta of the individual objects in the system may change, but the vector sum of all the
momenta will not change with time (i.e. it is the total momentum that remains constant).
Example 13: Man and Skateboard

A man is standing on a skateboard which is on a frictionless ground as shown below.
If the man walks forward with a momentum of 50 N s, what will happen to the skateboard?
Explain this in terms of conservation of momentum.
Solution:
• We consider this system as comprising the man and the skateboard.
• Is there net external force on this system? No.
In the vertical direction, although there are external forces on the system (gravitational and
contact forces), they are in balance, and there is no net force in this direction.
In the horizontal direction, there are no external forces since the ground is frictionless.
Total initial momentum = 0.

Total final momentum must also be zero from the Principle of Conservation of Momentum.
So if the man walks forward with a momentum of 50 N s, the skateboard will move backwards
with a momentum of 50 N s, so that total momentum is constantly at zero.
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3.5.1 Deducing the Principle of Conservation of Linear Momentum from Newton’s Laws
(i) The Principle of Conservation of Linear Momentum can be derived from Newton’s 2nd
Law of Motion:
From Newton’s 2nd law of motion, the rate of F=

dp
change of momentum of a system is equal to the dt
net force acting on it.
If the system experiences no net external force, If F = 0 then dp = 0

the rate of change of momentum of the system dt
must also be zero.
i.e. there is no change in momentum of the  p = 0

system
i.e. Total momentum of a system experiencing no net external force remains

constant.
(ii) The Principle of Conservation of Linear Momentum can also be derived from Newton’s
3rd Law of Motion:
Consider a system of 2 bodies (A and B) which interact with each other, and the
system experiences no net external force.
By Newton’s 3rd law of motion,

FAB = -FBA
Force acting on A by B = - Force acting on B by A
Since the forces act for a common duration t,

Impulse of A = - Impulse of B FABΔt = -FBA Δt
Change in mom of A = - Change in mom of B pA = - pB
Total change in momentum of A and B = 0 pA + pB = 0
i.e. There is no change in the total momentum of A and B.
i.e. Total momentum of a system experiencing no net external force remains

constant.
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MINI-TEST 4
A toy car with a rocket engine at the back moves along a horizontal track. The rocket engine
produces a constant forward force. The car loses mass continuously as exhaust gases are
produced by the rocket.
(a) Use momentum considerations to explain why the rocket produces a forward force on
the car.
(b) Use Newton’s law of motion to explain why the rocket produces a forward force on the
car.
My solution:
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3.6 Application of Principle of Conservation of Momentum in

1.
COLLISIONS
A collision is a process in which two or more bodies interact with large impulsive forces
between them for a relatively short time. Hence we can ignore the small change in the total
momentum of the bodies caused by any external forces during the collision. So we can assume
the total momentum of the bodies to remain constant.
Consider the head-on collision of 2 bodies of masses m1 and m2 moving with velocities u1 and
u2 before collision, and velocities v1 and v2 after collision. Head-on collisions are collisions in
which the line of impact passes through the centres of gravity (C.G.) of both bodies.
Consequently, the velocities of the colliding bodies are collinear both before and after impact.
By the principle of conservation of linear momentum,

Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after collision
m1 u1 + m2 u2 = m1 v1 + m2 v2 3.8
Rearranging the equation,

-m1 (v1 - u1 ) = m2 (v2 - u2 )
Loss in momentum of body 1 = Gain in momentum of body 2
Example 14
Two trolleys X and Y as shown are about to collide. After collision, they travel in opposite
directions and the momentum of X is 2 kg m s-1. What is the magnitude of the momentum of
trolley Y? (N88/1/4)
Before collision: After collision:
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Solution:
Take right as positive.
Since there is no net external forces on this system (trolleys X and Y), linear momentum is
conserved.
By conservation of linear momentum,

Since X is moving to the right and Y is moving to the left, momentum follows the direction of
the velocity of the trolleys, momentum of X is positive (as we have defined right as positive)
and momentum of Y is negative.
Total momentum refers to the total momentum of the system (hence the sum of
momentum of X and Y).
20 + (-12) = (-2) + p
 p = 10 kg m s-1
3.6.1 Types of Collisions
In collisions, the total momentum of the colliding objects is always conserved. However, their
total kinetic energy may not always be conserved. Thus, collisions fall into three general types,
depending on what happens to the total kinetic energy of the entire system.
1) (Perfectly) Elastic Collision
A collision in which the total kinetic energy of the colliding bodies is conserved before and
after the collision. (Note: during the collision, kinetic energy may convert to other forms, thus
it is wrong to state that the total kinetic energy is conserved throughout the motion.)
2) Inelastic Collision
Total kinetic energy of the colliding bodies is not conserved before and after the collision.
Inelastic collision is the most practical types of collision in real life as some changes in kinetic
energy usually take place. The kinetic energy may be converted to :
(i) internal energy of the bodies (which is dissipated as heat),
(ii) potential energy of deformation and
(iii) other form of energies such as heat or sound energy.
3) Perfectly or completely inelastic collision
Total kinetic energy of the colliding bodies is not conserved before and after the collision,
and, the colliding bodies stick together after the collision so they have a common final
velocity. Loss of kinetic energy is large, but not necessarily complete loss.
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In ALL collisions,
✓ Total momentum is conserved.
✓ Total energy (kinetic energy plus other forms of energies) is conserved.
Quiz
In the following collisions, what are conserved?
Elastic Inelastic Completely inelastic

total momentum
total kinetic energy
total energy
3.6.2 Analyze Collision Problems
Consider a head-on elastic collision between an object of mass, m1, with initial velocity of u1
and another object of mass, m2, with initial velocity of u2 and their velocities after collision are
v1 and v2 respectively:
For any collision, apply the principle of conservation of momentum:

m1 u1 + m2 u2 = m1 v1 + m2 v2 ……. (1)
For any elastic collision ➔total Kinetic Energy is conserved:

½ m1u12 + ½ m2 u22 = ½ m1 v12 + ½ m2 v22 ...….. (2)
Rearrange (2) :
m1(u12 - v12) = m2(v22 - u22)
m1(u1 + v1)(u1 - v1) = m2(v2 + u2)(v2 - u2) ….... (3)
Rearrange (1) :
m1(u1 - v1) = m2(v2 - u2) ..…… (4)
(3)  (4) : (u1 + v1) = (v2 + u2) ..…... (5)
Rearranging (5) :
u1 -u2 = v2 -v1 3.9
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Thus, we conclude that for a head-on, elastic collision :
Relative velocity of approach = Relative velocity of separation
Notes:
For any perfectly Inelastic collision ➔ two colliding bodies stick together after the collision.
v1 = v2 = v ...….. (6)
Rearrange (1) with (6):
m1 u1 + m2 u2 = (m1 + m2) v ..…… (7)
In summary when solving collision problems:
For all collision problems, apply conservation of linear momentum Equation 6.8 :
m1 u1 + m2 u2 = m1 v1 + m2 v2
For elastic collision problems, we apply both equations 6.8 & 6.9 :
m1 u1 + m2 u2 = m1 v1 + m2 v2
u1 - u2 = v2 - v1
For perfectly inelastic collision problems, we apply both equations 6.8 & 6.9 :
m1 u1 + m2 u2 = m1 v1 + m2 v2
v1 = v2
Note:
All equations here are vector equations. Hence, choose a direction as positive and
account for negative velocity where necessary.
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Example 15
(b) A bowling ball of mass 6.0 kg moving with velocity 3.0 m s-1 has a head-on elastic
collision with a pin of mass 0.50 kg. The pin moves off with a velocity of 5.5 m s-1.
Calculate the velocity of the bowling ball after the collision.
Solution:

Collision is elastic
➔ relative speed of approach = relative speed of separation
3 – 0 = 5.5 - v
v = 2.5 m s-1
➔ bowling ball moves to the right at 2.5 m s-1
(c) Calculate the velocity of ball B, shown below, after the collision.
Solution:
Relative speed of approach (relative to B)
= 3 – (-2) = 5 m s-1
Relative speed of separation (relative to A)
= 1 – (-v) = 1 + v
For head-on, elastic collision,
Relative speed of approach = Relative speed of separation
5=1+v
v = 4 m s-1 to the left.
1. 3.7 Special Cases for elastic, head-on collisions
** Do NOT memorise the following equations! Understand the methodology.
Recalling equation 6.8 and 6.9 for an elastic collision:

Conservation of momentum  m1 u1 + m2 u2 = m1 v1 + m2 v2
Conservation of KE  u1 - u2 = v2 - v1
Solving these two equations for v1 and v2:

m1 -m2 2m2 2m1 m2 -m1
v1 = u1 + u and v2 = u1 + u
m1 +m2 m1 +m2 2 m1 +m2 m1 +m2 2
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Now, using the above expressions of v1 and v2, consider the following 3 special cases :
Case A Case B Case C

The 2 objects have equal mass. The mass of the stationary The mass of the moving
object is much bigger than object is much bigger than
the mass of the moving the mass of the stationary
object. object.
If m1 = m2 If m2>> m1 and u2 = 0 If m1>> m2 and u2 = 0
v1 = u2 v1− u1 v1 u1
v2 = u1 v 2 0 v2 2u1
The two bodies exchange Smaller mass (m1) Larger mass (m1) moves with
velocities during collision. rebounds with almost the almost the same speed.
same speed. Smaller mass (m2) moves
Larger mass (m2) remains with a velocity about twice
almost at rest. that of m1.
Before collision: Before collision: Before collision
After collision After collision: After collision
Example. When a moving billiard Example. When a steel ball Example. Motion of a
ball hits a stationary billiard ball is dropped on the floor, it bowling ball is hardly
of the same mass, the first ball will bounce with almost the affected by collision with a
will come to rest, while the same speed. bowling pin but the bowling
second will move off with a pin will bounce away quickly.
velocity equal to the initial
velocity of the first ball.
Example 16
A particle of mass m moving with speed v makes a head-on collision with an identical particle
which is initially at rest. How would you tell from the subsequent motion of the particles
whether the collision is (i) elastic or (ii) completely inelastic?
In each case, describe qualitatively how (if at all) the kinetic energy of the first particle, and
the kinetic energy of the system as a whole, is affected by the collision.
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Solution:
(i) If collision is elastic, and two colliding particles are of the same mass,
➔ velocity is exchanged
First particle stops & second particle moves off with a velocity v
➔ Total KE is conserved in the elastic collision.
After the collision,
KE of the first particle = zero
But, KE of the system is unchanged
(i) If collision is completely inelastic,

➔ Both particles stick & move together
➔ Total KE is not conserved
Total KE of the system decreases after the collision
3.7 Application of Principle of Conservation of Momentum in

1.
EXPLOSIONS
We can use the Principle of Conservation of Linear Momentum to solve problems produce by
explosive forces. Typical examples of explosion scenarios: firing a gun, releasing two trolleys
which are tied together by a compressed spring or a nuclear reaction where a particle breaks
away and moves with a certain velocity from a nucleus which moves in the opposite direction
to the particle.
Example 17
A bullet of mass m is fired from a rifle of mass M as shown below.
Initially, both the rifle and the bullet are at rest just before the trigger is pulled. The trigger is
pulled and explosion occurs. If v and V are the velocities of the bullet and rifle respectively
after the explosion, and, W is the total kinetic energy of the rifle and bullet, find an expression
for the kinetic energy of the bullet and rifle, in terms of m, M and W.
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Solution:
By conservation of momentum,
0 = mv + M(-V)
mv = MV
Forward momentum of bullet is equal and opposite to the backward momentum of the rifle.
m
V = v
M
kinetic energy of the bullet = ½ m v2 = M

kinetic energy of the rifle ½ M V2 m
If W is the sum of the k.e. of the bullet and rifle,
Then k.e. of bullet = M W

M+m
And K.E. of rifle = m W

M+m
Example 18
In a nuclear reactor, high speed neutrons are slowed down by letting them hit the carbon
atoms of the moderator. The moderator is so called because it moderates the speed of the
neutrons. In atomic mass units the mass of a neutron is 1 and the mass of a carbon atom is
12.
What fraction of its kinetic energy does it retain if a neutron collides elastically and head-on
with a stationary carbon atom?
How many such collisions does the neutron need to undergo to reduce its energy to a millionth
of its initial value?
Solution:
Let m and M be the mass of the neutron and carbon atom respectively.
By the law of conservation of momentum,
m u + M(0) = m v + M V --- [1]
Elastic collision, so kinetic energy is conserved.
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Relative speed of approach = Relative speed of separation

u–0=V–v
V = u+v --- [2]
Substitute [2] into [1], m u = m v + M (u + v)
 v = (m - M) u
m+M
K.E. of neutron after collision = ½ m v2

K.E. of neutron before collision ½ m u2
= m-M 2
m+M
=  1 - 12  2
 1 + 12 
= 0.716
Thus the K.E. remaining is 0.716 x Eo, where Eo is initial k.e.

After 2 head-on collisions, the K.E. remaining will be (0.716)2 Eo
After n head-on collisions, the K.E. remaining will be (0.716)n Eo
Hence for the K.E. to fall to a millionth of Eo .
(0.716)n = 10-6
n lg 0.716 = - 6
 n = 41.4
Thus 42 such collisions will be necessary to get the K.E. of the neutron down to less than a
millionth of its original value.
Note :
In practice, the neutrons do not always hit the carbon atoms head-on, so many more than 42
collisions will be needed.
Much of the output energy of a nuclear reactor is obtained by this mechanism. In time, the
temperature of the carbon atoms would rise as a result of the collisions with the neutrons.
This is prevented in a Magnox reactor by blowing a stream of carbon dioxide through the
moderator. The hot carbon dioxide supplies the thermal energy output of the reactor.
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MINI-TEST 5
(a) Two ice skaters, Paula and Ricardo, push off from each other. Ricardo weighs more than
Paula.
1. Which skater, if either, has a greater momentum after the push-off? Explain.
2. Which skater, if either, has the greater speed after the push-off, if they were both
initially stationary? Explain.
(b) Three ice skaters, Paula, Ricardo and Shaun, push off from each other. The following figure
shows the momentum vectors of Paula and Ricardo. Draw the momentum vector of Shaun
and explain your answer.
PPaula
PRicardo
My solution:
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CHAPTER SUMMARY / SELF-CHECK
1. What does Newton’s Third Law of Motion state?

2. Do all forces exist in pairs?
3. What are the characteristics of an action-reaction pair forces?
4. Can I identify the action-reaction force pairs in objects I see around me?
5. What does Newton’s First Law of Motion state?
6. What do the terms in “F = ma” represent? What is the relationship between the
magnitudes and directions for “F” and “a” for the same body?
7. What are the general steps in problem-solving using “F = ma”?
8. Distinguish between weight and mass.
9. Distinguish between weight and apparent weight.
10. What is the meaning of weightlessness?
11. What does Newton’s second Law of Motion state?
12. What is momentum and impulse? How are they related?
13. How to draw and analyse F-t and p-t graph?
14. What is the difference between “average” force and “instantaneous” force?
15. What is the Principle of Conservation of Linear Momentum? How is it derived from
Newton’s Laws of Motion?
16. What is the condition for momentum to be conserved?
17. How is the Principle of Conservation of Linear Momentum applied?
18. What is the difference between “elastic” and “non-elastic” collision? What is a
“perfectly inelastic collision”?
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Dynamics Tutorial
Newton’s 3rd Law
Q1 Identify three action-reaction force pairs in the scenario where a man is swimming:
[3]
Q2 N2000/P1/3 (modified)
A ball falls vertically and bounces on the ground.
The following statements are about the forces acting while the ball is in contact with the
ground.
i. The force that the ball exerts on the ground is always equal to the weight of the ball.
ii. The force that the ball exerts on the ground is always equal in magnitude and opposite
in direction to the force the ground exerts on the ball.
iii. The force that the ball exerts on the ground is always greater than the weight of the
ball.
iv. The weight of the ball is always equal and opposite to the force that the ground exerts
on the ball.
Which statement(s) is(are) correct?
A. (ii) only
B. (ii) and (iii) only
C. (ii) and (iv) only
D. (i), (ii) and (iv) only
Newton’s 2nd Law
Q3 A block slides up a smooth ramp inclined at 60° to the horizontal.
(a) State the direction of the net force on the block. [1]
(b) Calculate the acceleration of the block as it moves up the ramp. [2]
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Q4 2003/Special Paper/1 [Connected bodies problem]

A painter of mass 70 kg is working from a metal frame of mass 20 kg. The frame is
suspended by a rope PQ passing over a light frictionless pulley by a rope R from a fixed
beam on a building as shown in the figure.
The painter needs to move upwards, and pulls down on rope Q with such a force that
he presses against the frame with a force of only 300 N. When this is the case, the
tension in the rope PQ is T and the upwards acceleration of the painter and frame is
a.
(i) Write down equations representing the application of Newton’s second law to
1. the painter,
2. the metal frame.
(ii) Hence calculate T and a. [T = 540 N, a = 2.19 ms-2]
(iii) Determine the tension in rope R.
Q5 [Apparent weight in an elevator]

You are standing on a scale in an elevator of a building. The elevator is ascending. As
the elevator is about to reach the 15th floor, which is your destination, it slows down
at a uniform rate, and you notice that the scale reads only 85% of your weight.
Determine the acceleration of the elevator during that period of time. [5]
-2
[1.5 m s , downwards]
Newton’s 2nd law, Force and Impulse
Q6 2011/3/1a [modified]
A toy car with a rocket engine moves along a horizontal track, as shown in the
figure below.
Use momentum considerations to explain why the rocket produces a forward force [3]
on the car.
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Q7 The vector diagrams below show the initial momentum and the final momentum of a
soccer ball that is being kicked. For each of the scenario below :
(a) Sketch a vector to represent the change in momentum (use vector subtraction).
(b) Hence deduce what is the direction of the net force being inflicted on the ball
(where the soccer ball is being kicked).
Direction
Initial Change in momentum of net
Final momentum
momentum (a) force
(b)
(1) [2]
(2) [2]
(3) [2]
Q8 A tennis ball of mass m, hits a racquet at speed v, and rebounds at two-thirds the
speed. The time of impact is ½ second. Assuming that the racquet exerts a constant
force over the time of impact, what is the magnitude of this force?
A 10 B 5 C 2 D 1
mv mv mv mv
3 3 3 3
Momentum-time graph and Force-time graph
Q9 A force F acts on a body which is initially stationary. The graph shows how F varies
with time t.
(a) Explain what the area enclosed by the F-t graph represents. [1]
(b) Calculate the momentum of the body at the end of the 750 s period. [2]
[0.02 kg m s-1]
(c) Sketch a velocity-time graph for the 750 s period and explain its shape. [6]
3(48)
Q10 2004/1/5
Which graph best shows the variation with time of the momentum of a body
accelerated by a constant force?
A. B.
C. D.
Newton’s 2nd law applied to Fluid-flow problems

Q11 The mass of gas emitted from the rear of a toy rocket is initially 0.1 kg s-1. The speed
of the gas relative to the rocket is 50 m s-1 and the mass of the rocket is 2 kg.
(a) What is the initial thrust of the rocket? [ 5N ] [3]
(b) If the rocket was positioned for a vertical launch, will the thrust be sufficient
to launch the rocket upwards? [2]
Conservation of Momentum
Q12 2013/1/5
Two spheres of the same size but different mass make head-on collisions. The black
sphere is half the mass of the white sphere. In each collision, one of the masses is
initially at rest and both masses move after the collision. In which situation is the
collision perfectly elastic?
Q13 2003/1/4
3(49)
The diagram shows two trolleys X and Y held stationary and connected by an extended
elastic cord. The mass of X is twice that of Y.
The trolleys are released at the same instant. They move towards each other and stick
together upon impact. Just before the collision, the speed of X is 20 cm s-1.
What is the speed of Y after the collision?
A zero B 5 cm s-1 C 7 cm s-1 D 10 cm s-1
Q14 (a) Estimate the momentum of a soccer ball moving at 20 m s-1. [1]
(b) The graph below shows how the momentum of two colliding railway trucks
varies with time. Truck A has mass 20 000 kg and truck B has a mass of
30 000 kg. [1]
(i) Calculate the initial velocities and final velocities of the two trucks. [4]
[A: 3 m s-1, 1.5 m s-1; B: 0.5 m s-1, 1.5 m s-1]
(ii) What is the change in momentum of (1) truck A, and (2) truck B? [2]
[-3.0 x 104 kg m s-1, 3.0 x 104 kg m s-1]
(iii) Calculate the total momentum of the two trucks at t/s = 0.4, 0.8, 1.2
and comment on your answers. [7.5 x 10 4 kg m s-1] [4]
Q15 Two trolleys P and Q of masses 0.50 kg and 0.30 kg respectively are held together
on a horizontal track against a spring which is in a state of compression. When the
3(50)
spring is released the trolleys separate freely and P moves to the left with an initial
velocity of 6.0 m s-1.
(a) Calculate
(i) the initial velocity of Q [10 m s-1] [2]
(ii) the initial total kinetic energy of the system [24 J] [1]
(b) In a second experiment, both trolleys are again held together by a spring in a
state of compression. This time trolley P is pegged to the floor so that it
remains stationary. The spring is then released. Calculate
(i) the initial velocity of Q [vQ = 13 m s-1] [2]
(ii) the total momentum before and after the release of spring. [2]
[before: 0, after: 3.8 kg m s-1]
(iii) Is the momentum conserved in this case? Explain the reason. [1]
Q16 2012/3/6a&b
[1]
[1]
[2]
[3]
Q17 CJC Prelim/2020/3/1

Fig. 1.1 shows block A of mass 1.5 kg held against a spring with a force F. The spring
is compressed by 2.0 cm.
3(51)
wall spring
wall
F
A
B
Fig. 1.1
The force F is then removed and the block A accelerates to the right before losing
contact with the spring with a speed of 0.50 m s–1 as shown in Fig. 1.2. Block A collides
elastically head-on with block B. The mass of block B is 0.50 kg.
wall spring 0.50 m s–1 wall
A
B
Fig. 1.2
Air resistance and frictional forces are negligible.

(a) Determine the speed of block B after the collision with block A. [3]
(b) Fig 1.3 shows the variation with time of the force acting on block A during the
collision with block B.
force
time
- Fmax
Fig. 1.3
(i) Sketch on Fig. 1.3, the corresponding graph to show how the force on block
B varies with time during the collision between block A and block B. [1]
(ii) Explain how your graph shows that the total momentum of the blocks
remains unchanged during the collision. [2]
3(52)
(c) Block B hits the wall elastically, rebounds and collides with block A. Block A then
moves and compresses the spring. State, with a reason, whether the maximum
compression of the spring will be greater than, less than or equal to 2.0 cm. [2]
Q18 A puck sliding on a frictionless surface collides with a stationary puck. The
pucks move as shown in the diagram.
If the mass of the puck moving before the collision is 0.30 kg, what is the mass of
the second puck? [ 0.28 kg ] [2]
Assignment Questions
A1 A barge is being pulled along a canal by tow-boat by means of a rope.
(i) Sketch a free-body diagram of the barge. [1]

(ii) Identify and describe all the forces acting on the barge. [4]
(iii) Name the reaction-pair of forces corresponding to each of the forces
identified in (ii). [4]
(iv) By Newton’s third law of motion, the tow-boat pulls the barge via the rope
and the barge pulls back with an equal force on the tow-boat
simultaneously. By considering the forces on the tow-boat and barge
before and after the rope becomes taut, explain why the tow-boat and
the barge can move. [Hint: The tow-boat consists of a propeller rotated by [6]
a motor.]
A2 Before the invention of the steam engine, barges in Western Europe were towed
along canals using horses on the embankment. The figure below shows the plan view
of the barge of mass 1.0 × 104 𝑘𝑔, initially at rest, being pulled along a canal by
horses (not shown). Two horizontal cables attached to horses are inclined at 30° to
the bank.
3(53)
(a) If the tension in each cable is 1000 N, calculate

(i) The initial force on the barge in the direction X, and [1]
(ii) The initial acceleration of the barge in direction X. [1]
(b) Explain why the acceleration of the barge is unlikely to remain constant
even if the motion of the horses was able to sustain the forces in the
cables. [2]
A3 In order to stop a car of mass 1 500 kg travelling at 30 m s-1, the driver applies his
brakes so that F, the total stopping force, increases steadily to a maximum and then
decreases to zero as shown in figure below.
Calculate
(a) the momentum of the car when it is travelling at 30 m s-1, [2]
(b) the change in momentum between t = 0 s and t = 20 s, [3]
(c) the maximum force Fmax [-45000 kg m s-1, 45000 kg m s-1, 4500 N] [2]
A4 A jet of water issues horizontally from a nozzle of cross-sectional area 5.0 x 10-3 m2 at
a rate of 25 kg s-1. The density of water is 1 000 kg m-3. Calculate:
(a) the velocity of the water jet [5.0 m s -1] [2]
(b) the rate of change of momentum of the water [130 kg m s-2] [2]
(c) the force exerted by the water on the nozzle [130 N] [2]
3(54)
A5 A ball of mass 2.0 kg, travelling at 1.5 m s-1, catches up and collides head-on with
another ball of mass 3.0 kg travelling at 0.8 m s-1 in the same direction as the first
ball. The collision is perfectly elastic.
(a) Calculate for each ball:
(i) the velocity after each collision; [v1 = 0.66 m s-1; v2 = 1.4 m s-1] [4]
(ii) the change in momentum. [-1.7 kg m s-1; 1.7 kg m s-1] [2]
(b) Using Newton’s Laws of Motion, explain why the change in momentum for
the two balls are the same in magnitude but opposite in direction. [3]
Supplementary Questions
S1 2011/1/5
A sky-diver jumps from an aircraft. The Earth exerts a downward force FE on the sky-
diver who also exerts an upward force Fs on the Earth.
Which statement is correct?
A the magnitude of FE > the magnitude of Fs

B the magnitude of FE < the magnitude of Fs
C the magnitude of FE = the magnitude of Fs and they cancel each other out
D the magnitude of FE = the magnitude of Fs and they do not cancel each other out
S2 2010/1/7 [Connected bodies problem]

A force of 54 N pushes two touching blocks of mass 6.0 kg and 2.0 kg along a flat
surface. The frictional force between the blocks and the surface is 6.0 N.
What is the magnitude of the resultant force on the 6.0 kg mass?
3(55)
A 12 N B 36 N C 45 N D 48 N
S3 2010/2/1
[1]
[1]
[2]
[2]
[1]
[2]
S4 A car travelling along a flat road may be considered to have three forces acting on it.
These are presented in the figure below.
(a) (i) Explain why it is necessary to regard forces A and C as resultant forces. [3]
(ii) Force A has a magnitude of 8200 N and is at an angle of 28o to the vertical.
Force B is horizontal and has magnitude 1500 N.
Calculate
1. the weight and the mass of the car, [7200 N, 740 kg] [2]
2. the resultant force on the car, [2350 N] [2]
3. the acceleration of the car. [3.2 m s-2] [1]
(iii) For the car, motion is impossible without friction. Discuss what is meant
by friction and the direction in which it acts on the car. In your answer,
suggest another example where friction is useful. [5]
(b) Describe situation in which motion is produced without friction being required. [2]
S5 A body is falling freely under gravity.
3(56)
What is the rate of change of momentum equal to?
A Impulse on the body due to the force of gravity

B Kinetic energy of the falling body
C Power gained by the body while falling down
D Gravitational force on the body due to the earth
S6 2011/1/7
A ball of mass 80 g collides with a vertical wall. The ball has a velocity of 23 m s-1 in a
horizontal direction. After hitting the wall the ball moves with a velocity of 18 m s-1 in
the opposite direction. What is the impulse provided by the wall?
A 0.40 N s in a direction away from the wall

B 3.3 N s in a direction away from the wall
C 33 N s in a direction towards the wall
D 3300 N s in a direction towards the wall
S7 A golf ball strikes a hard, smooth floor at an angle of 30.0° and, as the drawing
shows, rebounds at the same angle. The mass of the ball is 0.047 kg, and its speed
is 45 m s-1 just before and after striking the floor.
Determine the change in momentum of the golf ball using

(i) a vector diagram; [3]
(ii) vector resolution. [3.66 kg m s-1, upwards] [3]
S8 A car and a truck are both travelling at the same high speed but in opposite
directions as shown in the figure below. The truck has twice the mass of the car.
The vehicles collide head-on and become entangled together.
3(57)
(a) Which of the driver is likely to suffer more injury in the collision? Explain. [4]
(b) Explain how the use of a seat belt would help in the safety of the driver
during the collision. [2]
(c) The total kinetic energy of the system decreases as a result of the collision.
Is the principle of conservation of energy violated? Explain. [2]
Momentum-time graph and Force-time graph
S9 CJC Prelim/2020/1/5
A tennis ball of mass 0.060 kg is moving normally towards a racket with an initial
velocity of 5.0 m s-1 and rebounds in the opposite direction. The force of the racket
exerted on the tennis ball varies with time as shown.
force / N
150
0 40 time / ms
What is the final velocity of the ball when it leaves the racket?
A 45 m s-1 B 50 m s-1 C 55 m s-1 D 95 m s-1
Newton’s 2nd law applied to Fluid-flow problems
3(58)
S10 A helicopter hovers when its rotating blades gives an average speed of 11 m s -1
to the air. The blades swept through an area of 30 m2. The density of the air =
1.3 kg m-3. Calculate the weight of the helicopter. [4700 N] [3]
Conservation of Momentum
S11 2015/1/5 [modified]

Two spheres each have the same mass. They approach one another with speeds u1,
and u2 and collide head-on as shown.
The speeds after impact are v1 and v2.

Which equation(s) is/are correct if the collision is elastic?
S12 2008/1/6
3(59)
S13 2007/1/6
An object of mass M travelling to the right with velocity 2v collides with another
object of mass 2M travelling to the left with velocity v. After the collision, the objects
stick together.
Which line in the table shows the total momentum and the total kinetic energy of the
two objects after the collision?
momentum kinetic energy

A 0 0
B 4Mv 0
C 0 3Mv2
D 4Mv 3Mv2
S14 2002/1/5
2 steel balls X and Y are suspended on strings. Ball X is pulled to one side as shown.
After ball X is released, the balls collide.
What quantities must be conserved in the collision?
A Kinetic energy, total energy and momentum

B Kinetic energy and momentum only
C Kinetic energy and total energy only
D Total energy and momentum only
S15 Two particles are both moving to the right. Particle 1 travelling with speed v1 catches
up with particle 2, which is travelling with speed v2 and collides with it. The particles
stick together and continue on with the velocity vf.
Which of these statements is true?
A vf > v1
B vf = v1
C v1 > vf > v2
D vf = v2
E vf < v2
3(60)
S16 A ball falls after it is released from a height above ground. While falling, the ball
increases in momentum. Explain how you can reconcile this with the principle
of conservation of momentum. [2]
S17 2009/2/2
[2]
[5.9 m s-1]
State also the direction of the force on the ball. [24 N, left] [3]
[1]
[2]
S18 (a) State the principle of conservation of momentum. [2]
(b) The shows object A and object B before and after a head-on collision. Object A
of mass 80.0 kg travelling with a velocity 25.0 m s-1 collides with the stationary
object B of mass 240 kg. After the collision, B moves with velocity 12.0 m s-1 in
the opposite direction as A.
-1
25.0 m s-1 Stationary 12.0 m s
A B A B
Before Collision After Collision
(i) Calculate the magnitude of the velocity of A after the collision. [11.0 m s-1] [3]
(ii) Explain, with a suitable calculation, whether the collision between A and B
is a perfectly elastic collision. [3]
(iii) 1. State the Newton’s second law of motion. [1]
3(61)
2. Use Newton’s second law of motion to show that the magnitude of

the average net force on B is 144 kN. The time duration for the collision
is 20 ms. [2]
Free-Body Diagram Exercises
Type A: Drawing Free-Body Diagrams based on a Description.
Description Free-body Diagram
[Continuation of Example 1]
A boy is sitting on a stationary swing.
Draw a free-body diagram for the swing.
A1
Draw another free-body diagram for the
system comprising the boy and swing.
An object is moving at constant velocity

A2 to the right on a rough flat surface. Draw
a free body diagram for the object.
A force is applied to the right to drag a

sled across loosely-packed snow with a
A3
rightward acceleration. Draw a free-body
diagram for the sled.
A soccer ball is moving upwards towards

its peak after having been kicked by the
A4
player. Draw a free-body diagram for the
soccer ball.
3(62)
A balloon is descending through still air.

A5 Draw a free-body diagram for the
balloon.
Type B: Drawing Free-Body Diagrams based on a given Diagram.
In the following situations, there may be an applied force acting on the object. You may
denote the applied force to be F.
Diagram Free-body Diagram of the Object
An object is at rest on a rough inclined plane.
B1
An object is moving down a smooth inclined

plane with increasing speed.
B2
3(63)
An object is moving up a smooth inclined

plane with decreasing speed.
B3
An object is moving down a rough inclined

plane with constant speed.
B4
An object is moving up a rough inclined plane

with constant speed.
B5
3(64)
An object is moving up a rough inclined plane

with increasing speed.
B6
Determining the net/resultant force.
In the followings, find the resultant force by the forces acting onto the object as shown in
the free-body diagrams.
Free-body Diagram Solving for Resultant Force
5N
C1
7N
50°
4N
6N
C2
6N
3(65)
15 N
C3
60°
30 N
3(66)

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CJC H1 PHYSICS LECTURE NOTES JC1 2023

1. 3.1 Newton’s 3rd Law of Motion

Newton’s 3rd Law of Motion

Implications of Newton’s 3rd law of motion:

• The action-reaction pair forces

Scenario Action Force Reaction Force

3 Book resting on a table Downward ___________ Upward _____________

Downward ___________ Upward _____________

4 Rocket propelled upwards Upward force on rocket Downward force on gas

Downward gravitational Upward gravitational

Characteristics of action-reaction Yes ? No ?

Characteristics of action-reaction Yes? No? Why aren’t Fleft and Fright

i. Draw the free-body diagram of the horse.

1. 3.2 Newton’s 1st Law of Motion

3.2.1 Newton’s 1st Law of Motion

Newton’s 1st law of motion (Law of Inertia)

1. 3.3 Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion

3.3.1 Force and Momentum

Newton’s second law of motion

The momentum is a property of a body,

p is the momentum of the body

From the Newton’s second law of motion, the net force F is

The newton (N) is the SI unit of force.

Hence, from the definition of the newton, k = 1.

3.3.2 Problem-solving using F = ma

Take vectors to the right as positive.

Fnet = ∑ F = 275 + 395 + (-560) = 110 N

1 Draw a diagram of the system,

2 Draw a Free Body Diagram of

Draw all the external forces

T = Tensional force exerted on the trailer by the tow bar

3 Define convenient coordinate

The subsequent subsections discuss more on Free-Body Diagram

3.3.2.1 Functions of a Free-Body Diagram

3.3.2.2 Features of a Free-Body Diagram

• Shows ALL forces acting ON the body

3.3.2.3 Steps in drawing a Free-Body Diagram

Identify the forces acting on the

Illustrate with labelled vectors

(a) where the force is acting on

(b) the direction of the force

Step 3 - (c) the relative magnitude of the

In this example, the weight acts

Description Free-body Diagram

A boy sitting on a stationary swing.

A skydiver is descending with a

Upthrust is assumed negligible compared

A rightward force is applied to a book

Note that F is greater than f because it is

3.3.2.4 Determining the Net Force from a Free-body Diagram

Free-body Diagram Solution

Method 1: Vector Resolution

Resultant force in the y-direction

Resultant force, FR 3 sin 30º N

Hence, the resultant force, FR is of magnitude 2.83 N and bearing of

Method 2: Head-to-tail method

Either measure the length of FR directly (for which diagram must be

Using cosine rule,

Hence, FR is of magnitude 2.83 N and at bearing of 1480

Example 7 : Connected Bodies problem

a) the acceleration, a, of the system,

Free-body diagram Apply “F = ma”

Consider FBD of 3 kg mass alone:

Note: The tension T on both masses are of

3 Book resting on a table Downward _ Upward ___

Downward _ Upward ___