Practical Task 2

The Starfish Development

Phylum Echinodermata- sea star

INTRODUCTION
Before the Cambrian explosion (600 MYA) the Earth was populated with unicellular organisms only. Within
the space of a few million years, unicellular organism evolved into many diverse animal groups displaying
the major body plans (‘Bauplanne’) we see today. These body plans go hand in hand with complementary
levels or grades of organismal organisation. Just as organisms can be arranged from simple to complex,
the levels of organisation and the body plans show a corresponding hierarchical organisation of
complexity.

If evolution is a reality i.e. multicellular organisms evolved from unicellular organisms, then all organisms
living on Earth today (and in the past) must be genetically related i.e. share some basic genes among them.
Thus far, 13 genes constituting the Zootype have been determined.

What is the common link between embryology, gene organisation levels, and body plans? Once again, if
evolution is a reality and all organisms are genetically related, it follows that during embryonic
development all organisms (depending on their level of organismal complexity) must pass through the
levels of organisation and body plans of their ancestors before reaching their own characteristic level or
body plan.

Therefore, the aim of the practical on Ontogeny of animals, is to study the embryonic development of
an advanced invertebrate (the starfish – Phylum: Echinodermata, Class: Asteroidea) and compare each
developmental stage with the organisational level and body plan of its ancestor.

At completion of the practical, students should be able to:

• Identify (and illustrate) an ovum, a zygote, morula, blastula and gastrula with detailed labels.
• Write explanatory notes on each one of the developmental stages of the sea star.
• Discuss the ontogeny and developmental stages of the sea star.
• Discuss the formation of the coelom/coelomic cavity in various animals.
• Illustrate and discuss the four resultant body cavities found in animal groups.
• Differentiate the Bauplanne/ body plans of various animals as well as the levels or grades of
organisation found in them.

• Use the diagram on: body plans and levels of organisation uploaded with reading material slides
to answer questions on the two concepts.

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Unit 2: Homework Questions
Practical Task 2: Starfish development {35}

1. Define the following terms: {6}

1.1 Stereoblastula (1)

1.2 Cleavage (1)
1.3 Spiral cleavage (1)
1.4 Blastomere (1)
1.5 Ontogeny (1)
1.6 Complexity of hierarchical organisation (1)

2. Answer (in detail) the following questions. {7}

2.1 Why is the nucleus sometimes called the germinal vesicle? (1)
2.2 Are the genes of the unfertilised egg maternal, paternal, or parental? (1)
2.3 What type of nucleic acid would you expect to find in the -
(i) nuclear plasm and in the (1)
(ii) cytoplasm (1)
2.4 Which organisation level and body plan is displayed by the unfertilised ovum?
(1 x 2 =2)
2.5 What triggers the shift from quiescent to active stage during oogenesis? (1)

3. The Zygote (fertilised egg) {5}

3.1 What is the function of the fertilisation membrane? (1)

3.2 What is the scientific name given to the process of the egg development? (1)
3.3 What is the number of chromosomes present in a fertilised human egg? (1)
3.4 What happens to the mitochondrion of the sperm after fertilisation? (1)
3.5 What is the significance of this event? (1)

4. Early cleavage {2}

The entire zygote of the starfish cleaves into equal halves i.e. equal holoblastic cleavage. The first cleavage
plane passes through the polar axis and, therefore, is said to be meridional. In order to cleave
meridionally the spindle (mitotic figure) must be horizontally orientated. The next cleavage again is
meridional and four equal sized blastomeres are formed. The third cleavage is equatorial forming two
tiers of four blastomeres. Note that cleavage differs from normal cell division in that no growth takes place
during cleavage, as is the case in normal cell division.

4.1 Explain why cleavage in the sea star is called radial cleavage. (1)
4.2 Explain why growth in size of the blastomeres cannot take place during cleavage. (1)

5. The coeloblastula {2}

The coeloblastula is a hollow ball of cells, with a wall usually one layer thick. The transformation of a
stereoblastula into a coeloblastula entails a number of morphogenetic processes such as cell sorting, cell
detachment, cell migration and cell affinity. The inner blastomeres of the animal and vegetal halves of
the morula detach from neighbouring cells and migrate to the periphery of the animal and vegetal halves
respectively. Thus, blastomeres detach and migrate to join the cells they have an affinity with. The reason

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for this association is that some cells of the coeloblastula will give origin to ectoderm (animal halve) others
to endoderm (vegetal halve) and still others to mesoderm (cells of the coeloblastula lying between
ectoderm and endoderm). The result of this cell sorting is the formation of a hollow ball of cells – the
coeoblastula – which contains areas of prospective ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm and a central
cavity called the blastocoel.

5.1 Explain the role of cell affinity in the formation of the coeloblastula. (1)
5.2 Which grade of organisation can be observed in the coeloblastula? (1)

6. The gastrula {13}

The loosely attached, spherical blastomeres that form off the wall of the coeloblastula continue to cleave
into smaller and smaller blastomeres until they reach the size (6 to 10µm) of normal body cells. These
closely packed cells eventually form an epithelium. The epithelial cells of the prospective endodermal
part of the blastula wall next become palisade-like and start invaginating into the blastocoel.

The opening formed by the invaginating endoderm is called the blastopore, and, as the invaginating
deepens, the blastopore forms the external opening of a cavity, the gastrocoel/archenteron. As the
gastrocoel becomes larger and larger, a stage is reached where the walls of the blastopore no longer are
formed by endoderm but by ectoderm. Therefore, part of the archenteron becomes lined by ectoderm.
This part of the archenteron is called either the stomodaeum or the proctodaeum depending on whether
the blastopore becomes the mouth or the anus. In protostomes (most invertebrate phyla) the blastopore
becomes the first (‘proto’) opening, i.e. the mouth but in deuterostomes the blastopore becomes the
second (‘deutero’) opening i.e. the anus.

In deuterostomes, excluding the vertebrates, the mesoderm develops from evaginations (outpocketings)
of the archenteron into the blastocoel that become cut off to form the coelomic vesicles/coeloms. Most
mesodermal structures (see below) develop from the walls of the coelomic vesicles. This is then referred
to as enterocoelous formation of the coelomic cavity. In protostomes, including vertebrates, on the other
hand, the mesoderm originates from cells that migrate into the blastocoel during gastrulation. These cells
then start proliferating, forming solid masses of cells in which cavities or coeloms later develop. As a result
of this ‘splitting’ of the mesoderm, the coeloms are said to form schizocoelously. Note that the creation
of these cavities inside solid balls of cells is reminiscent of the formation of the blastocoel in the morula.

Concerning the derivatives of the three primary germ layers, the ectoderm gives origin to the epidermis
and its derivatives like hair, scales and feathers (in birds), the brain, ganglia, nerves, the trachea of insects,
nephridia, and the stomodaeum (buccal cavity, oesophagus and stomach in invertebrates) and
proctodaeum (rectum and Malpighian tubule). The derivatives of the endoderm are the lining of the
midgut (intestine of invertebrates between stomach and rectum) and the pharynx, oesophagus, stomach,
intestine, rectum, and the ducts of the liver, pancreas, lungs and the most endocrine glands of vertebrates.
The derivatives of the mesoderm are the notochord, skeletal muscles, bone cartilage, connective tissue,
blood vessels, kidneys (of vertebrates), gonads, and the tissue surrounding the ducts of the liver, pancreas,
and lungs.
6.1 Name three derivatives of each of the primary germ layers (ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm).
(3 x 3 = 9)
6.2 Name the grade of organisation and the ‘Bauplan’ displayed by the gastrula. (2)
6.3 Discuss the difference between the schizocoelous and enterocoelous formation of the coelomic
cavity. (1 x 2 =2)

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Practical Task 2
The starfish development

Practical Activity (to be completed during the practical: July 27, 2022)
{30}
• Identify the following structures in the slides.
• Draw and label each structure listed below.
• Discuss in detail the physiological activities that have occurred at each respective stage.

1. The Zygote (fertilised egg)

• Draw the zygote (1)
• Label all structures in the zygote (2)
• What physiological activities have occurred at this stage? (1 x 2 =2)

2. The morula
• Draw the morula stage (1)
• Label all structures in the morula (2)
• Discuss two physiological activities that have occurred at this stage (1 x 2=2)

3. The stereoblastula
• Draw the stereoblastula stage (1)
• Label all structures in the stereoblastula stage (2)
• List and discuss in detail all physiological activities that have occurred at this stage
(1x 4 = 4)
4. The coeloblastula stage
Draw the coeloblastula stage (1)
Label the two structures in the coeloblastula stage (1x 2=2)
What is the significance of each structure present at this stage?
(1 x 2 -2)
5. The gastrula
• Draw the gastrula stage (1)
• Label all structures at this stage (1 x 5 =5)
• Discuss the function and significance of the two cavities present at this stage.
(1 x 2 =2)

TOTAL 65 POINTS

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