Learner Guide 2023 (Zoology)

FACULTY OF SCIENCE
LEARNING GUIDE
ZOOLOGY
ZOO 11B1
ANIMAL DIVERSITY
ZOOLOGY DEPARTMENT
COMPILED BY PROF H. SWANEPOEL
UPDATED BY DR L. MOKAE
DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY
FACULTY OF SCIENCE
COPYRIGHTS RESERVED
2023
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CONTENT:
1. FOREWORD
Welcome to Zoology 11B1. In this course, the learner will get to know the basics of general
Zoology and key terms that will help him/her to understand the basis of life and its
components. Zoology is a term that can be described as a science that deals with living
organisms and during this course, the learner will get to know the function of living organisms
ranging from its smallest components namely molecules, to their interaction with the
environment and other organisms. Learners will also get to understand the principles of
anatomy and physiology of animals. In broader terms, this course focuses on the main
principles of Zoology that will equip the learner with the basic knowledge to deal with certain
terms of the main components of Zoology.
1.1. HOW TO USE THIS LEARNING GUIDE?
The purpose of this Learning Guide is to help the learner through the concepts and the main
focus of each Unit or Chapter that will be covered in this course. The Learning Guide is just as
the term states, a GUIDE and not the only source of information. This guide will help the
learner to ensure that he/she has dealt with all the concepts and terms that are essential to
complete semester tests and exams successfully. Each section has a short overview of the
chapter and learning outcomes that need to be achieved. The various sections also include the
terms that are important and some tests or quizzes that will help you to understand the
Chapter as a whole. Hard copies for the Learning Guide have been discontinued due to
financial constraints; thus, students will have Blackboard as the source of all relevant
information in this course. EBooks may be purchased if available in the Van Schaick Bookstore
on campus.
1.2. DEPARTMENTAL INFORMATION
1.2.1 DEPARTMENT SECRETARY
Ms Nomcebo Dunge
Office Hours: 08.00 – 16.00
Zoology Department Office #: D3 Lab 229
Email address: zoologysecretary@uj.ac.za
Tel: (011) 559 2441
1.2.2 THE LECTURER
Dr Lolo Mokae
MSc Zoology, Eastern Illinois University, USA
MSc Aquatic Health, UJ, APK Campus
PhD Aquatic Health, UJ, APK Campus
PGDip in Higher Education, UJ, APK Campus
Office #: D3 Lab 130, Histology Laboratory, Zoology Department

Tel: (011) 559 3722
E-mail: lolom@uj.ac.za
Consulting hours: Thursday 11:00 – 12:00 or strictly by appointment via email.
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2. LECTURE TIMES AND VENUES
Lectures:
Tuesdays: 11.20 – 12.55 (C Les 402)
Thursdays: 08.00 – 09.35 (D 1 Lab K10)
Practical session:
Wednesdays: 10.30 – 13.45 (D2 Lab 115 and D3 Lab 120)
Tutorials:
Group 1: Mondays: 14.40 - 16.15 (D Les 105)
Group 2: Fridays: 13.50 - 15.25 (D 1 Lab K10)
3. GENERAL INFORMATION
3.1. NQF LEVEL: 5
3.2. NQF CREDITS: 15
3.3. TYPE OF MODULE: Semester Course
3.4. DURATION OF MODULE IN WEEKS: 14 weeks
3.5. LANGUAGE OF DELIVERY:
English only for lectures and practicals
English tutorial sessions to be made available.
4. PURPOSE OF THE MODULE
In this semester module, the learner is introduced to the principles of Animal Classification and
Diversity. The description of fundamental characteristics of Animal Phyla and the morphology,
general biology, and special adaptations of the Protozoans, Cnidaria, Platyhelminthes, Nematoda,
Annelida, Mollusca, Arthropoda, Echinodermata and Chordata are also included.
5. ASSESSMENT
An integrated approach is followed.
5. ASSESSMENT
An integrated approach is followed:

Formative assessment: Learners are assessed continuously throughout the semester in the form
of class tests and assignments; semester tests; practical reports and practical tests.
Class tests:
The class tests shall be written every week, unless stated otherwise by the Lecturer. These tests
could either be multiple choice questions or fill-in questions. They form part of the continuous
assessment to keep the learner motivated and involved in the concepts of the module. Class tests
will count 5% towards the semester mark.
Theory Assessments:
Two theory semester assessments will be written on two occasions during the semester. Each
theory test shall have a weighting of 25% that contributes to your semester mark.
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Practical Books:
The written report of answers to questions emanating from the work done by the students during
a practical period on Wednesday, will be submitted to the assigned Demmies on the same day or
latest Thursday morning before the lecture which begins at 08.00am. The practical book reports
will count 10% towards the practical mark of the semester.
Practical Tests:
Two practical tests shall be written during the semester and the first will count 15% and the second
will count 15%, both totaling 30% towards the semester mark.
Tutorials:
Weekly tutorials (except for when students are writing the Theory and Practical Assessments) shall
be written either online or physically by the students during the tutorial classes. Tutorials will cover
sections that include work assessed and self-study material. These will count 5% towards semester
mark.
Discussion Board/ Forum
Contemporary and relevant topics ie. Climate change, global warming, environmental pollution
and the origin of life and Artificial Intelligence will be among topics that students will discuss
among each other in this forum. Minimal marks will be allocated for this exercise.
Summative assessment:
A three-hour examination that is a representative of all the work covered during the semester shall
be written at the end of the semester. For remote learning, an assignment will replace the exam.
Test dates:
Theory test 1: August 23, 2023

Practical test 1: August 30, 2023
Theory test 2: October 11, 2023

Practical test 2: October 18, 2023
5.1. PASS REQUIREMENTS
Pass requirement 50% as a final mark.
Final mark weigthing:
= Semester mark : Exam mark

= 50 : 50
Practical
Class tests 5%
Total: 50% Tutorials 5%
Practical Book/Report 10%
Practical Test 1 15%
Practical Test 2 15%
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Theory
Semester Test 1 25%
Total: 50% Semester Test 2 25%
Semester Mark (SM) 50%
Examination Mark (EM) 50%
Final Mark (FM) 100%
Subminimum of 40% pass mark for the practical is required for exam entry.
Practical mark breakdown will be made available during the semester.
PLEASE NOTE THAT THE SEMESTER MARK COUNTS 50% AND YOUR NOVEMBER
EXAM WILL MAKE UP THE OTHER 50% OF YOUR FINAL MARK
5.2 ENTRANCE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE EXAM
Admittance to the examination requires a module mark (semester mark) of at least 40%. Apart
from the semester mark, a learner MUST obtain a final Practical Mark of at least 40% to obtain
entrance to the Exam. Zoology is as much a practical subject as it is theoretical and thus
practicals form an integral part of this module.
5.3 FINAL EXAM:
ZOO11B1 EXAM: NOVEMBER 1, 2023 TIME: 08:30-11:30 SESSION 1 VENUE: TBA
6. SUPPORT RESOURCES
A blended learning approach that makes use of the following teaching/learning methodology,
opportunities and experiences is used:
6.1. TEXTBOOK (TB) (Theoretical work)
Title: Integrated Principles of Zoology

Authors: Hickman, Roberts, Keen, Eisenhour, Larson, I’Ansonn
Publishers: McGraw Hill International Edition
Edition: Sixteenth Edition (2011)
ISBN nr: 978-1-25908078-4
LABORATORY TEXTBOOK (LS) (Practical work)
Title: Laboratory Studies in Integrated Principles of Zoology

Authors: Hickman, Kats and Keen
Publishers: McGraw- Hill
Edition: Sixteenth Edition (2011)
ISBN nr: 978-0-1-259-08078-4
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6.2. UJ ULINK
You will have access to ULink/Blackboard if you are registered for ZOO 11B1.
The use of ULink is highly recommended as:
• Important dates will be placed on the calendar or discussed in class or online.

• Class notes and lecture presentations will be made available at the lecturers’
discretion.
• Additional tasks (videos, on-line pre-practical questions, on-line interactive discussion
fora) will be applied in order to accentuate learning.
• Important notices or announcements will be posted regularly as needed and Marks
will be placed under “My Grades” as soon as they are available or discussed on-line
during feedback and review sessions.
• ULink/Blackboard can also be used to communicate with your Lecturer via e-mail.
Please be advised that this domain is not for personal communication with other students or
for the place of non-subject related material. The Lecturer has access to login details of each
student as well as tracking of communication. You are, however, encouraged to use this facility
if you have any information or interesting aspects related to the module that you want to
share with fellow students.
6.3. TUTORS AND DEMMIES
Tutors will be available to help with subject-related questions. Tutors and the times that they
will be available will be announced on ULink, during class or on-line at the beginning of the
semester. Mondays and Friday’s tutorial periods are presented with the rest of the lecture and
practical times and venues.
Demmies will be your first line of contact for any information regarding practicals and work
that needs to be submitted for marking. They usually set up communication platforms ie
WhatsApp Groups for continuous flow of instructions on practical reports and submission
requirements.
7. PRACTICAL WORK
7.1 Practical sessions
Practical Times and Venues: Wednesdays: 10.30 – 13.45 at D2 Lab 115, 116
The practical sessions are compulsory, and you are not allowed to miss more than 2 sessions,
even if you do have a doctor’s note!! The Practical Guide will have all pertinent information on
all contents that will be learnt at each particular week.
7.2 SAFETY
Laboratories’ safety regulations shall be discussed in detail during your first practical session.
If lectures are online, virtual practicals shall be uploaded for learners to view as well as to
answer practical questions. If physical practicals are presented, learners will have to sign and
hand in the indemnity form that will be provided at the appropriate time.
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7.3 LAB ESSENTIALS (in physical laboratory sections)
• Lab coat (white only)

• Dissecting Kit
• Nature study book / A4 HARD COPY
• Exam pad for class/ practical tests or A4 Hard File
• Black and blue pens
• Coloured pencils (red, blue and green), these are compulsory for practical sessions.
• Stapler
• Pencil, Eraser, Calculator and Ruler
8. HOUSEKEEPING RULES (IN PERSON LEARNING)

• No late coming in lectures and or practicals will be tolerated.
• No talking while lectures are ongoing (discussions will be held in an orderly manner).
• Preparations for lectures and practicals are obligatory.
• Proper submission of assignments/ lab reports is encouraged.
• Absenteeism (Doctors note for missing practicals essential OR deregistration if two or
more pracs are missed, student will be sent to Faculty to arrange for a sick test).
• Class registers to be signed daily.
• Tutorials compulsory for all (if student gets < than 40% in first semester test tutorials are
obligatory). Class tests will be written during the tutorial sessions.
9. PROJECTS
If and when assignments are required, your Lecturer will announce this in advance and make
proper arrangements for the completion of the assignment.
9.1 REFERENCING TECHNIQUES
(How to write)/ You will be referred to the Library for assistance in this regard.
9.2 PLAGIARISM
(Code of conduct). This is very important especially when submitting assignments. Students
will be directed to attend seminars on plagiarism throughout the semester.
10. APPLICATION FOR SUPPLEMENTARY (SICK NOTE)
Application for a supplementary exam due to sickness or other circumstance will have to be
made by the student by filling in the application form obtainable from the Faculty. All
supplementary sick tests are handled by the Faculty.
11. GRIEVANCE PROCEDURE
If you have a grievance towards any Lecturer, demonstrator, tutor or any other person that is
involved in the teaching of this course, you may follow a grievance procedure by filling in the
grievance form available from the Faculty of Science offices. If the person that you have a
grievance against is your lecturer, please sort it out with the lecturer first and if you do not feel
comfortable with that, contact the Head of the Department. If you have a grievance towards
any other person, see your Lecturer first before any harsh steps are taken.
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12. SPECIFIC LEARNING OUTCOMES AND ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
THESE WILL BE MODERATED TO ACCOMMODATE ON-LINE TEACHING AND LEARNING
LEARNING OUTCOMES ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
After completion of this module, the learner will The students will be competent if:
be able to:
• Define and explain fundamental Evolutionary processes and patterns

principles of Zoology. are described and fully elaborated
• Explain the Scientific Method. upon.
• Explain the fundamentals of evolutionary
biology.
• Explain some hypotheses regarding the The diversification of life is discussed,
early evolution of life and the diversity and its components are distinguished
with reference to appropriate life
among unicellular organisms.
forms.
• Explain some hypotheses regarding the
origin of multicellularity and the diversity
among radiate animals. Scientific equipment (for example
• Explain animal classification and the microscope) is correctly used/or set
origin of the fundamental characteristics up to perform practical work.
of the major animal phyla (Protozoa,
Cnidaria, Platyhelminthes, Nematoda,
Annelida, Mollusca, Arthropoda, Instructions shall be effectively
Echinodermata and Chordata followed in performing practicals to
• Describe the morphology and the general achieve desired results.
biology of the major animal phyla
(Protozoa, Cnidaria, Platyhelminthes,
Nematoda, Annelida, Mollusca, Different forms of scientific and
Arthropoda, Echinodermata and Chordata mathematical discourse are used to
represent information.
• Describe the morphology, general biology
and special adaptations of the animals.
• Explain diversity among acoelomate and
All used sources are acknowledged,
pseudocoelomate bilaterians. and an appropriate referencing
• Discuss the possible origin of structures system is used in citing and
characteristic of coelomate invertebrates. referencing them.
• Discuss the diversity among coelomate
invertebrates
• Collect, mount and classify insects The prescribed limits of the practicals
up to Family level. as determined by the scope of
instructions are strictly adhered to.
• Demonstrate the ability to identify the
anatomical features of the major animal
phyla during practical sessions.
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UNIT 2
ARCHITECTURAL PATTERNS OF ANIMALS

TEXTBOOK: CHAPTER 8 AND 9
LAB STUDY GUIDE: EXERCISE 3B
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After completing Unit 2, you should be able to:
1. Understand that each animal group has had a single evolutionary origin that has
provided each group with a basic body plan and that the phylogeny of animals
indicates that evolution progressed from simple to complex forms.
2. Distinguish between the five major grades of organisation exhibited by unicellular
and metazoan groups.
3. Describe the four types of body plans (‘Bauplanne’) observed in organisms.
4. Explain the term coelom and how the absence or presence of a coelom is used to
determine the evolutionary advancement of the Bilateria.
5. Define animal symmetry and distinguish between the five types of symmetry.
6. Define the concept metamerism.
7. Define the concept cephalisation.
8. Define the concepts homology and analogy and explain the importance of these
concepts in constructing ancestral relationships.
9. Explain the relation between body size and grade of organisation.
10. Discuss the characteristic developmental patterns of metazoans, after completing
Practical 2.
11. Distinguish between the four basic tissue types, after completing Practical 3.
1. THE HIERARCHICAL ORGANISATION OF ANIMAL COMPLEXITY – LEVELS OF

ORGANISATION
Increasing complexity of organisation (from unicellular protozoans to mammals) is the most

evident feature of animal phylogeny. We can recognise five grades of organisation. Each grade
is more complex than the one before, and as a rule, it is a more advanced and more recent
evolutionary product.
1.1 Protoplasmic grade of organisation

1.2 Cellular grade
1.3 Cell-tissue grade
1.4 Tissue-organ grade
1.5 Organ-system grade
2. COMPLEXITY AND BODY SIZE
3. DEVELOPMENTAL PATTERNS IN ANIMALS
3.1 Introduction
All metazoans (multicellular organisms) develop from a single cell, the zygote, formed after
fusion (fertilisation) of a male gamete (sperm) and a female gamete (ovum). Eggs (ova) are
classified according to the amount and distribution of yolk, into four types: isolecithal,
centrolecithal, telolecithal and mesolecithal.
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3.2 Morphogenesis
The process by which the architectural structure of an organism develops, is referred to as

morphogenesis. By the process of cleavage, the zygote divides into cells called blastomeres.
Cleavage may be holoblastic (the entire zygote cleaves into blastomeres) or meroblastic (only
a part of the zygote cleaves into blastomeres). Two cleavage patterns are distinguished: radial
cleavage and spiral cleavage.
Cleavage results in the formation of an embryo called a coeloblastula and morphogenetic

movements of cells of the coeloblastula causing a rearrangement of the blastomeres, in a
process known as gastrulation.
The gastrula, formed by invagination or epiboly, contains a blastopore and an archenteron

(gastrocoel) and may consist of two germ layers, i.e. ectoderm and endoderm (the diploblastic
condition) or in higher invertebrates of three germ layers, i.e. ectoderm, mesoderm and
endoderm (the triploblastic conditions)
3.3 Formation of the coelom
The coelom, a cavity found between the ectoderm and endoderm and is lined by a
mesodermal epithelium, may be formed by one of two methods: schizocoelous (splitting of
the mesoderm) or enterocoelous (evagination/outpocketing of the archenteron). In
Protostome animals, the coelom develops by the schizocoelous method whereas in
Deuterostome animals (excluding vertebrates) the coelom develops by the enterocoelous
method.
4. ORGANISATION OF THE BODY
Extracellular components of the body and various types of tissues.
5. ANIMAL BODY PLANS
5.1 Animal symmetry

5.2 Body cavities
5.3 Metamerism (segmentation)
5.4 Cephalisation
6. HOMOLOGY AND ANALOGY
DEVELOPMENT (ONTOGENY) AND DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES IN MULTICELLULAR ANIMALS

(METAZOA) - (See Diagram on “Ontogeny of animals” uploaded)
All multicellular animals (metazoans) develop from a fertilised egg (zygote) (B). A haploid
spermatozoon (n) fuses during the process of fertilisation with a haploid ovum (n) to produce
a diploid zygote (2n). The ovum is characterised by an unusually large nucleus known as the
germinal vesicle (A). During oocyte maturation, the nucleus of the egg grows rapidly in size,
becoming bloated with RNA and thus, changes in appearance and is given a special name, the
germinal vesicle. Following fertilisation, the zygote undergoes repeated divisions (first into 2,
then 4, 8, 16, 32, etc.). Because the zygote divides into cells that gradually become smaller and
smaller (no growth takes place after each division) this type of division is called cleavage and
the products of cleavage are known as blastomeres (Gr. blastos = bud; meros = part).
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After five to six cleavages (25 = 32; 26 = 64) the blastomeres form a ball of cells called a morula
(L. morum = mulberry) (C). Cleavage continues and stops when the blastomeres attain the size
of normal body cells (6 to 10 µm). The embryo (D) now consists of a solid ball of thousands of
cells known as a stereoblastula (L. stereo = solid; blastula = small bud).
Next a morphogenetic (Gr. morphe = form/shape; genesis = origin) process, known as cell
sorting, takes place and blastomeres in the centre of the stereoblastula detach themselves
from neighbouring cells, sorting themselves and migrate to the periphery of the coeloblastula
to align with cells that have the same affinity with them. Consequently, a central cavity, the
blastocoel, develops and the blastula is now known as a coeloblastula (E) (Gr. koilos = cavity).
The next step during development is that the blastula develops an indentation on one side i.e.
begins to invaginate (in = (L) vagina = sheath) (F). When invagination is completed the
coeloblastula, which consists of a single (epithelial) layer, is transformed into an embryo with
two cell layers or germ layers i.e. an outer ectoderm (Gr. ektos = outer; derma = skin) and an
inner endoderm (Gr. endos = inner) (G). This stage in development is known as the gastrula
(Gr. gaster = stomach) because it contains a gastrocoel or archenteron. The external opening
leading into the gastrocoel, is known as the blastopore i.e. the site where invagination was
initiated.
During further development in Metazoans the gastrula undergoes one of four changes, chiefly
involving the blastocoel (H, K, N, and Q). In this way, the four main animal groups viz. the
Radiata, Acoelomata, Pseudocoelomata, and Eucoelomata are established.
(See Diagram titled “The fate of the blastocoel”)
1. The blastocoel disappears because the endodermal layer comes to lie right up against the
ectodermal layer, resulting in a diploblastic (two layered) organism. The Bauplan of these
organisms is a blind sac (I) with one opening (the blastopore) that serves both as mouth
and anal opening. These animals are radially symmetrical and constitute the so-called
Radiata e.g. the Phylum Cnidaria (Hydra, Obelia etc.) A cross section (J) indicates one
cavity that functions as both body and coelomic cavity.
2. The blastocoel (K) does not disappear but becomes filled with proliferating mesodermal
cells (increasing rapidly in numbers) so that a solid layer (without cavities) of mesoderm
is formed between the ectodermal and endodermal layers i.e. triploblastic (3 layers) and
acoelomate (without cavities) (L,M). The Bauplan is also a blind sac (one opening, the
mouth that also serves as an anal opening) and the animals are bilaterally symmetrical
(M), i.e. belong to the Grade Bilateria. Bilateria, in which the blastopore region becomes
the mouth are referred to as Protostomia/protostome animals (Gr. protos = first, stoma
= mouth). The Phylum Platyhelminthes belongs to the protostome, acoelomate Bilateria.
They belong to group Acoelomata.
3. The blastocoel (N) does not disappear but persists in adults as a cavity/space around the
gastrointestinal tract (GIT). A mesodermal layer develops but only forms a layer of cells
directly beneath the ectoderm so that these animals also are triploblastic (P). Because this
body cavity is not a true coelom (a coelom is a body cavity that is completely lined by a
mesodermal epithelium), it is a false coelom or pseudocoel and animals with a pseudocoel
are referred to as Pseudocoelomata. The Pseudocoelomata are also bilaterally symmetrical
(P) and the Bauplan is a tube-within-a-tube (O, P). The anterior opening of the GIT, the
mouth, develops from the blastopore i.e. Protostomia and the posterior one (the anus)
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appears later during development. The Phylum Nematoda belongs to the
Pseudocoelomata and it is defined as protostomous, triploblastic, pseudocoelomate
bilaterian.
4. The blastocoel becomes replaced by proliferating mesodermal cells in which cavities later
appear (schizocoel) that are lined by mesodermal epithelia, i.e. a true coelom (Q)
characteristic of the coelomates or more correctly the Eucoelomata. The Bauplan of the
eucoelomates is also a-tube-within-a-tube (R) and the blastopore becomes the mouth i.e.
Protostomia, and the anus later develops into the posterior part of the archenteron. These
animals are also bilaterians (S). The protostomous, eucoelomate Bilateria that will be
discussed during the lectures include Annelida, Mollusca, and Arthropoda. They belong
to Group Eucoelomata.
NB:
In all the diagrams in the fate of the blastocoel explanation, the Primordial Germ layers ie,
are the:
MESODERM = designated in RED
ENDODERM designated in GREEN
ECTODERM designated in BLUE
NB: You will have to always adhere to these colours. Any diagram without the colours
will have marks subtracted from them.
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UNIT 3
TAXONOMY AND PHYLOGENY OF ANIMALS

CHAPTER 10
LAB STUDY GUIDE: EXERCISE 4
LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. List, in order, the major taxa of animals according to Linnaeus’ scheme.
2. Explain what the binomial system entails.
3. Distinguish between evolutionary taxonomy and phylogenetic systematics
(cladistics)
4. Explain what a species is by using the five species concepts.
5. Distinguish between the five Kingdoms of life.
6. Know the major subdivisions of the Animal Kingdom.
1. LINNAEUS SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION
In the 10th Edition (1752) of his ‘Systemae Naturae’ Linnaeus proposed his Binomial
Nomenclature (binomial system) in which each animal is given two names, a Species and
Genus, to classify and arrange organisms into an ascending series of groups or ever-increasing
inclusiveness. This typological approach of Linnaeus was criticised by Lamarck (1744-1829)
because (i) it was not a natural classification (not a true reflection of that found in nature) and
(ii) it was unscientific because the categories (taxa) were based on convention and subjectivity.
2. TAXONOMIC CHARACTERS AND PHYLOGENY RECONSTRUCTION
Since Darwin’s (1809-1882) ‘Origin of Species’ (1859) biologists have been trying to establish
relationships among organisms by constructing evolutionary trees of phylogenies. Common
characters (homologous) are used to reflect common ancestry. According to Darwin and most
biologists, the direction of evolution is from the species to the phylum while logical reasoning
shows that evolution must proceed from the ‘phylum’ to the ‘species’. This misconception
culminated in several taxonomy theories.
3. THEORIES OF TAXONOMY
3.1 Evolutionary taxonomy
3.2 Phylogenetic systematics
4. THE SPECIES CONCEPTS
What is a species? According to Darwin (1859) “No one definition of the term species has
satisfied all naturalists; yet every naturalist knows vaguely what he means when he speaks of
a species”. Today more than 130 years later, Darwin’s notion regarding a species is still valid
because there are still at least five species concepts.
4.1 Typological species concept (Linnaeus)
According to this concept, every new organism in nature should be described as a species, the
so-called type specimen, and then hierarchically classified. Mostly morphological characters
are used to describe the species. Species are historical entities whose properties are subject
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to change. A type specimen serves only as a guide to the general morphological features that
might be found in particular species we observe today.
4.2 Biological species concept (Mayr)
“A species is a reproductive community of populations (reproductively, isolated from others)

that occupies a specific niche in nature.” This species concept ignores organisms that
reproduce asexually. A species is identified according to the reproductive properties of a
population. A species is an interbreeding population of individuals that have common
descent.
4.3 Evolutionary and Cohesion species concept (Simpson)
A species is a single lineage of ancestor-descendent population with its own identity from
other such lineages and has its own evolutionary tendencies and historical fate. The criterion
of common descent is retained so that a lineage has its own historical identity. The concept
applies to both sexually and asexually reproducing organisms. This concept provides for fossils.
If continuity of diagnostic features is maintained by the evolving lineage, it is recognised as a
species.
4.4 Phylogenetic species concept
A species is a single group of organisms, diagnosably distinct from other such groupings and
with a monophyletic origin or a parental pattern of common ancestry. Concept emphasises
most strongly the criterion of common descent. Both sexual and asexual groups are covered.
A species is a “tip” on a phylogeny, that is, the smallest set of organisms that share an ancestor
and can be distinguished from other such sets. Under this definition, a ring species is a single
species that encompasses a lot of phenotypic variation.
4.5 Natural ‘species’ concept: The ‘species’ we find in nature are not species but only the
terminal taxa of the phylogenetic tree.
5. MAJOR DIVISIONS OF LIFE
Kingdom Monera
Kingdom Protista
Kingdom Fungi
Kingdom Plantae
Kingdom Animalia
6. MAJOR SUBDIVISIONS OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM

Phylum Porifera
Phylum Cnidaria and Ctenophora
Phylum Platyhelminthes
Phylum Nematoda
Phylum Annelida
Phylum Arthropoda
Phylum Mollusca
Phylum Echinodermata
Phylum Chordata
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7. SYNOPTIC CLASSIFICATION OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM
The Animal Kingdom is subdivided as follows [Note that there are categories (taxa) that are
not recognised in the Linnaean classification, i.e. the ‘System Naturae’ is not a natural
(phylogenetic) classification];
Kingdom: Animalia
Branch 1: Mesozoa
Branch 2: Parazoa [sponges (poriferans)]
Branch 3: Eumetazoa
Grade 1: Radiata
Phylum 1: Cnidaria (hydras, corals, sea-anemones)
Grade 2: Bilateria
Division 1: Protostomia
Group 1: Acoelomata
Phylum 1: Platyhelminthes (flatworms)
Group 2: Pseudocoelomata
Phylum 1: Nematoda (roundworms)
Group 3: Eucoelomata
Phylum 1: Annelida (earthworms, leeches)
Phylum 2: Arthropoda (crabs, insects)
Phylum 3: Mollusca (slugs, snails)
Division 2: Deuterostomia
Phylum 1: Echinodermata (sea stars, sea urchins)
Phylum 2: Chordata (vertebrates)
INTRODUCTION PRACTICAL TASK 3: HISTOLOGY

COMPONENTS OF THE ANIMAL BODY
TB p 188 -192; LS Exercise 4: Tissue structure and function, pg 47 -54
(Please omit the section on the Nervous Tissue)
INTRODUCTION
The body consists of three elements: cells, body fluids and extracellular structural elements.
Body fluids permeate all tissues and spaces in the body but are naturally separated into certain
fluid ‘compartments’ viz. intracellular fluid (within the body’s cells and extracellular (or
intercellular) fluid (outside the cells). The extracellular fluid can be further subdivided into the
blood plasma (the fluid portion of the blood outside the blood cells) and interstitial or tissue
fluid (fluid surrounding body cells). The extracellular structural elements are the supportive
material of the organism such as loose connective tissue, cartilage, bone, and cuticle (e.g. in
arthropods).
TISSUES
When a group of similar cells have the same embryonic origin that is specialised to perform a
common function, it is called a tissue. The study of tissues is called histology (Gr. histos =
tissue). During embryonic development, the Primordial Germ Layers (ectoderm, endoderm,
and mesoderm) become differentiated into four kinds of tissues. These are epithelial,
15
connective, muscular, and nervous tissues. This is a surprisingly short list of basic tissue types
that are able to meet the diverse requirements of animal life.
NB: SEE THE PRACTICAL FILE UPLOADED ON BLACKBOARD FOR QUESTIONS AND
PRACTICAL ACTIVITY.
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UNIT 4
KINGDOM PROTISTA
SUBKINGDOM PROTOZOA
CHAPTER 11: UNICELLULAR EUKARYOTES
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON LEARNING GUIDE MATERIAL ONLY
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Discuss the early evolution of life, from monerans to protistans, including the
Endosymbiotic Hypothesis and the concept that Protista are a polyphyletic group.
2. List the characteristics of the Protozoa.
3. Outline Protozoan Classification and list the major morphological characteristics of
each Protozoan Phylum and give examples of important genera in their appropriate
groups.
4. Contrast the habitat(s) and feeding habits (predacious, parasitic, etc.) of each group
of protozoans.
5. Explain four kinds of reproduction in Protozoans (binary fission, budding, multiple
fission/schizogony, conjugation).
6. Describe the life cycle of the malaria parasite (Plasmodium).
1. EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE
2. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PROTOZOA
➢ Unicellular, eukaryotic cells with no cell wall

➢ Mostly microscopic and with protoplasmic level of organisation
➢ No primordial germ layers (ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm)
➢ No organs (only have specialised organelles)
➢ Locomotion (flagella, cilia, pseudopods and spores)
➢ Presence of motile stage in some genera at some point of their development.
➢ Nutrition: Autotrophs, Heterotrophs, Saprotrophs
➢ Reproduction: Asexual binary fission (longitudinal/ cross sectional) or multiple
fission
➢ Sexual (conjugation, syngamy)
➢ Habitat (free living and or parasitic)
3. CLASSIFICATION
Kingdom: Protista
Subkingdom: Protozoa
Phylum 1: Sarcomastigophora
Subphylum: Mastigophora
Class 1: Phytomastigophorea (e.g. Euglena, Volvox)
Class 2: Zoomastigophorea (e.g. Trypanosoma)
Subphylum: Sarcodina (e.g. Amoeba, Chaos, Entamoeba)
Phylum 2: Apicomplexa
Class 1: Sporozoea (e.g. Monocystis, Plasmodium)
Phylum 3: Ciliophora (e.g. Paramecium, Vorticella)
17
4. FORM AND FUNCTION
4.1 Nucleus and cytoplasm
4.2 Locomotion
4.3 Excretion and osmoregulation
4.4 Nutrition
4.5 Reproduction (see notes)
5. EXAMPLES OF PROTOZOANS
Representative examples of Protozoans will be examined during Practical Task 4.
6. REPRODUCTION IN PROTOZOA
Both sexual and asexual reproductions occur among the Protozoa.
Asexual reproduction:
6.1 Binary fission

Karyokinesis (nuclear division, mitosis) is followed by cytokinesis (division of cytoplasm),
which may be either transverse or longitudinal.
6.2 Budding
When the progeny/offspring cell is considerably smaller than the parent and then grows to
adult size, the process is called budding.
6.3 Multiple Fission

6.3.1 Schizogony e.g. in Plasmodium
Inside the human erythrocyte or liver cell, the trophozoite (feeding stage) feeds on
haemoglobin and develops into a signet ring stage where the nuclear material is pushed onto
one side, in readiness for further division. The signet ring then undergoes repeated nuclear
divisions (karyokinesis) and forms a stage called a schizont stage. The haploid nuclear material
then gathers cytoplasm around it, thus producing a multitude of merozoites. The merozoites
are then released when the red blood cell burst open releasing both merozoites and waste
products (which cause the chills and fever characteristic of a human having malaria
symptoms). The merozoites reinfect erythrocytes and /or liver cells, forming trophozoites
(feeding stage) and repeat the cycle mentioned above.
The cycle in the diagram provided in your lecture notes represents a single erythrocyte that
is infected. In real life, thousands of red blood cells are infected at one time.
6.3.2 Sporogony in e.g. Plasmodium
Sporogony differs from schizogony in that it is not the nucleus of the trophozoite that divides
repeatedly, but that of the oocyst (encysted zygote). Oocyst (2n) divides meiotically into two
daughter cells (n) which in turn divide mitotically into 2,4,8,16 etc., to form hundreds of
haploid sporozoites. When the sporocyst which houses the haploid sporozoites is completely
full, the wall of the sporocyst ruptures, releasing numerous haploid sporozoites, which
migrate to the salivary glands of the mosquito. The haploid sporozoites are then introduced
into the human blood when a mosquito feeds on the human being. Haploid sporozoites in the
blood of humans are carried to the liver where they incubate for about two weeks (6-15 days)
before they undergo schizogony (asexual multiple fission) to produce numerous merozoites
that will reinfect the liver and/ or red blood cells and repeat the cycle.
18
Sexual reproduction
Although all Protozoa reproduce asexually, many produce structures akin to gametes (sex cells:
sperm and egg equivalent) that fuse during fertilisation to form zygotes. When the gametes all
look alike, they are called isogametes, but most species have two dissimilar types called
anisogametes.
In metazoans meiosis occurs during or just before gamete formation (gametic meiosis). This is
indeed the case in Ciliophora. However, in the Sporozoea, the first division after fertilisation is
meiotic (zygotic meiosis), and all the individuals produced asexually (mitotically) in the life
cycle up to the next zygote are haploid (meaning they have half the number of
chromososmes).
6.3.3 Syngamy
The trophozoites in the erythrocytes instead of undergoing schizogony to form merozoites,

they are transformed into gametocytes. When a female mosquito (Anopheles) bites an
infected human, it ingests the gametocytes that upon reaching the stomach of the mosquito,
are transformed, through a process known as gametogenesis into microgametes (male
counterpart) and macrogametes (female counterpart). Thus, the Plasmodium produces
anisogametes, viz. microgametes (male structure) and macrogametes (female structure). After
fertilisation (in which the two haploid structures fuse) to form a diploid structure, the zygote,
becomes a motile ookinete that penetrates the stomach wall, and forms a cyst (oocyst). The
oocyst then divides meiotically and produces haploid sporozoites inside the sporocysts.
Haploid spororozoites are released when the sporocyst burst and migrate to salivary gland of
the mosquito. The haploid sporozoites are again introduced into the human being when the
infected mosquito bites a human being during feeding, and the cycle is repeated.
6.3.4 Autogamy
In some Protozoans, gametic nuclei arise by meiosis and fuse to form a zygote within the same
organism that produced them. This type of reproduction is however very rare and is known as
autogamy.
6.3.5 Conjugation
Conjugation is the temporary union of two individuals to exchange chromosomal material, i.e.
an exchange of gametic nuclei between paired organisms (conjugants) to produce individuals
with a new genetic makeup unlike that of the parents.
7. ENDOSYMBIONT HYPOTHESIS (1969) By LYNN MARGUILIS
Symbiosis: is an intimate relationship between two organisms of different species.

Endosymbiosis occurred when an:
➢ Anaerobic (living without oxygen).

➢ Amoeboid (use pseudopods for locomotion) and heterotrophic (ingest whole food
particles).
➢ Prokaryote (nucleus not membrane bound).
➢ Ingested a small aerobic bacteria.
➢ Instead of being digested by the host, the bacteria stabilised within the host.
➢ Bacteria then developed into a mitochondrion, which are sites of aerobic respiration
and are associated with energy production in cells.
19
➢ The presence of mitochondria–like endosymbionts, conferred the advantage of
aerobic respiration on its host.
➢ Meanwhile a membrane came to surround the chromosome in the prokaryote.
➢ Prokaryotic organism now had a true nucleus with eukaryotic characteristics.
➢ Flagella: whip-like structures arisen when:
➢ Aerobic, heterotrophic, eukaryotic animal ingested a prokaryote which is similar to
the spiral shaped bacteria called a Spirochete.
➢ Instead of being digested the spirochete stabilised, giving rise to a Zooflagellate from
Class Zoomastigophorea e.g. Trypanosoma.
➢ When the Zooflagellate ingested blue-green algae (Cyanobacteria) it became a
Phytoflagellate.
➢ E.g. Phytoflagellate from Class Phytomastigophorea e.g. Euglena.
20
UNIT 5
GRADE RADIATA
PHYLUM CNIDARIA
CHAPTER 13: THE RADIATE ANIMALS
LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Contrast two hypotheses that describe the origin of multicellularity (colonial,
syncytial); comment on how these affect the phylogenetic tree of the Animal
Kingdom.
2. List the major morphological characteristics of Phylum Cnidaria.
3. Describe the basic structure of a polyp and medusa.
4. Describe the structure and life cycles of Obelia and Aurelia and list the differences
between the life cycles.
5. Explain the internal anatomy of an Anthozoan polyp.
PHYLUM CNIDARIA (COELENTERATA)
1. INTRODUCTION
Cnidarians are simple Eumetazoans (multicellular organisms) that have reached the tissue-
level of organisation and are diploblastic and radially symmetrical animals. The two
embryological primary germ layers ectoderm and endoderm respectively, form an outer
epithelial called the ectodermis and an inner epithelial called the endodermis (gastrodermis).
The two germ layers are separated by a non-cellular, non-epithelial layer known as the
mesoglea – therefore, they are diploblastic animals.
Polymorphism is common in Cnidarians and the two main types of body forms are the polyp
and the medusa. Many of the colonial hydrozoans e.g. Obelia display metagenesis [alternation
of sexual (medusa stage) and asexual (polyp stage) generations] whereas in Scyphozoans e.g.
Aurelia, the medusa stage is the dominant life form and the polyp stage is reduced. In
Anthozoans there is no medusa stage.
2. CLASSIFICATION OF THE CNIDARIA
Kingdom: Animalia
Branch: Eumetazoa
Grade: Radiata
Phylum: Cnidaria (Coelenterata)
Class 1: Hydrozoa (e.g. Hydra, Obelia)
Class 2: Scyphozoa (e.g. Aurelia)
Class 3: Anthozoa (e.g. Metridium)
READING ASSIGNMENT:
Study the classification of the Cnidarians on p 261 TB. Note that the Classes are distinguished
by the presence, absence, or dominance of either the polyp or medusa stages in the life cycles,
the presence or absence of a velum (the annular membrane projecting inwards from the
margin of the bell) in the medusa stage or whether or not the gastrovascular cavity is
subdivided by septa (mesenteries).
21
ADDITIONAL READING MATERIAL:
Phylum Cnidaria
https://opentextbc.ca/biology2eopenstax/chapter/phylum-cnidaria/#fig-ch28_02_06
A. CLASS HYDROZOA
The Hydrozoa is a subgroup of Cnidarians containing approximately 3700 species. It is a diverse
group with a variety of life cycles, growth forms, and specialised structures. Like many
Cnidarians, hydrozoans have both polyp and medusa stages in their life cycle. They are
distinguished from other groups by their complex life cycle, by the growth of medusae from
buds rather than strobilae or from metamorphosis, by the presence of a velum inside the bell
of the medusa, and by the production of gametes from ectodermal, rather than endodermal
tissue. Most hydrozoans are marine, and hydrozoan species are found in nearly every marine
habitat type, very few species live in freshwater. Most hydrozoans form colonies of asexual
polyps and free-swimming sexual medusae. Colonies are usually benthic (live at the bottom
of the seas and lakes), but some, notably the siphonophores, are pelagic (live in the open sea)
floaters. Colonial polyps often have some division of function, with certain polyps specialised
for defense, feeding or reproduction. Most hydrozoans are predators or filter feeders, though
a few have symbiotic algae (zooxanthellae), in the same way that other groups of Cnidarians
do. The freshwater Hydra and colonial Obelia belong to this Class.
B. CLASS SCYPHOZOA
Class Scyphozoa, an exclusively marine class of animals with about 200 known species,
includes all the jellyfish. The defining characteristic of this class is that the medusa is the
prominent stage in the life cycle, although there is a polyp stage present. In the jellyfish, a
mouth opening, surrounded by tentacles bearing nematocysts, is present on the underside of
the animal. Scyphozoans live most of their life cycle as free-swimming, solitary carnivores. The
mouth leads to the gastrovascular cavity, which may be sectioned into four interconnected
sacs, called diverticuli. In Scyphozoans, nerve cells are scattered over the entire body. Neurons
may even be present in clusters called rhopalia. These animals possess a ring of muscles lining
the dome of the body, which provides the contractile force required to swim through water.
Scyphozoans are dioecious animals, having separate sexes. The gonads are formed from the
gastrodermis with gametes expelled through the mouth. Planula larvae are formed by internal
fertilisation; they settle on a substratum in a polypoid form known as scyphistoma. These
forms may produce additional polyps by strobilation, a type of transverse fission and later
transform into the medusoid form called ephyrae. The life cycle of these animals is described
as polymorphic because they exhibit both a medusal and polypoid body plan at some point in
their lifecycle. The Aurelia is a typical example of this class.
C. ANTHOZOA
Soft and hard corals, sea anemones belong to Class Anthozoa. Stony or reef-building corals
form a skeleton made of calcium carbonate under the polyps to create the hard structure that
most people recognise as coral. These corals are responsible for forming the base structure of
coral reefs. Anthozoans can secrete a nonliving substance around the outside of the body to
support and protect their soft body tissues. Colouration of different individuals can vary from
red, pink and purple to yellow, blue and orange.
Coral reefs rival rainforests in diversity of life. Together, they hold the most diverse ecosystems
on the planet. Living reefs cover more than 360,000 square miles (936,000 square kilometers)
and harbor one of every four ocean species known to man, yet they cover less than 0.1 percent
of the entire ocean. They also provide more than a home for fish and other reef dwellers. Coral
reefs act as an important buffer between land and the daily erosion from waves or occasional
22
storm surges. They often protect a back-reef area of rich productive habitats creating a nursery
for the juvenile stages of ocean life.

Polymorphism – polyp and medusa stages.
4. CONTRAST THE TWO HYPOTHESES REGARDING THE ORIGIN OF MULTICELLULARITY
1.1 The Colonial Hypothesis of Haeckel (CHH)
The CHH postulates that a unicellular phytomastigophoran was the likely ancestor of
metazoans. This hypothetical organism is called the cytaea (fig 1). Following binary fission, the
two daughter cells, instead of separating, adhered to one another [a new gene was created,
the expression of which caused cell adhesion]. This process [akin or related to cleavage] was
then repeated (fig 2) until an organism consisting of an aggregate of cells (called the moraea)
was formed (fig 3). Cells in the interior of the moraea then moved to the periphery of the
spherical animal [expression of these newly created genes caused cell sorting, cell
detachment, cell migration and cell affinity] creating a hollow moraea known as the blastaea
(fig 4) which resemble the present day Volvox. The blastaea become polarised (developing
anterior and posterior ends) and during locomotion nutrients tended to accumulate at the
posterior end which became indented [as a result of the creation of new genes that cause
invagination], forming a ‘transitional stage’, the depaea (fig 5). Through further invagination
the depaea was transformed into a gastraea (fig 6), a triploblastic Bilateria when a third layer
of cells (mesoderm) developed between the inner (endoderm), and outer (ectoderm) layers
(fig 8).
23
1.2 The Syncytial Hypothesis of Hadzi
The SYNCYTIAL HYPOTHESIS, on the other hand, postulates that, a ciliate ancestor, more or
less like the present day Paramecium (fig a) is where multicellularity originated. Instead of
cytokinesis following karyokinesis, karyokinesis continued to form a multinucleated, i.e.
syncytial organism (Fig b). The outer (peripheral) nuclei then developed cell walls to become
an epithelium (ectoderm) (Fig c). The nuclei around the oral cavity also developed cell walls to
form an epithelium (endoderm). The nuclei between the ectoderm and endoderm became
cellular to establish the mesoderm (Fig d). The SHH infers that triploblastic Bilateria preceded
diploblastic Radiata and that the Radiata are derived from the Bilateria by losing the
mesodermal layer.
Syncytial Hypothesis diagram
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UNIT 6
PHYLUM PLATYHELMINTHES
CHAPTER 14: ACOELOMATA
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe the basic Bauplan of acoelomate Bilateria.

2. List and discuss the characteristics of the Phylum Platyhelminthes.
3. Describe the structure of Turbellarians.
1. INTRODUCTION
The Platyhelminthes, or flatworms, are acoelomate bilaterians i.e. bilaterally symmetrical animals with
the space between the body wall and the digestive tract filled with muscle fibres and loose
mesodermal tissue, called parenchyma OR mesenchyme. Therefore, they lack a coelom and thus are
acoelous or acoelomate animals that belong to Group Acoelomata. These triploblastic acoelomates
are said to have a tissue-organ level of organisation and a blind sac ‘Bauplan’, but most of them have
a well-developed set of reproductive organs that function as a system.
The Platyhelminthes, or flatworms, include the free-living Planarians and parasitic flukes and
tapeworms. Since the parasitic flatworms will be dealt with extensively in the Zoology 2A course, we
will only study a representative of the Planarians viz. Dugesia/ Planaria and have an introductory
session of the parasitic worms.
2. CLASSIFICATION OF PHYLA IN ACOELOMATA GROUP
Phylum Platyhelminthes
(Flatworms)
Phylum Nermertea
(Ribbon worms)
Phylum Gnathostomulida
(Jaw worms)
3. CLASSIFICATION OF PHYLUM PLATYHELMINTHES
Kingdom: Animalia
Branch: Eumetazoa
Grade: Bilateria
Division: Protostomia
Group: Acoelomata
Phylum: Platyhelminthes
Class 1: Turbellaria, e.g. Dugesia (Planaria)
Class 2: Trematoda, e.g. Schistosoma
Class 3: Cestoda, e.g. Taenia
Class 4: Monogenea eg Gyrodactylus
25
4. CHARACTERISTICS OF PLATYHELMINTHES
➢ Organ-system level of organisation (first in multicellular organisms where we see organs

forming – tissue–organ level of organisation)
➢ Blind-sac Bauplan
➢ Triploblastic with ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm primordial germ layers.
➢ Bilateral symmetry and to some extent cephalisation is present.
➢ Acoelomate Protostomians.
➢ Body dorsoventrally flattened.
➢ In turbellarians, rhabdites cells that contain rhabdite rods are present in the epidermis.
➢ Epidermis is a syncytial tegument in the three parasitic classes.
➢ Circular and longitudinal muscles present underneath epidermis.
➢ Nervous system with head ganglia and two longitudinal nerve cords, giving rise to a step-
ladder configuration.
➢ Excretory organs consist of protonephridia with flame bulbs.
➢ Usually monoecious (hermaphroditic) with internal fertilisation.
➢ Development direct or indirect in some parasites where more than one intermediate host is
involved.
5. CLASS TURBELLARIA
Mostly free-living worms ranging in length from 5mm or less to 500mm.
5.1 NUTRITION AND DIGESTION
The digestive system includes the mouth, a pharynx, and an intestine. The intestine may have
3 branches (Tricladida) or many branches (Polycladida). They are mainly carnivorous, feeding
largely on small crustaceans, nematodes, and insects. Digestion may be extracellular or
intracellular. Undigested food is egested through the pharynx.
5.2 EXCRETION AND OSMOREGULATION
The osmoregularity system of turbellarians consists of protonephridia (primitive kidneys)

with flame cells.
5.3 NERVOUS SYSTEM AND SENSE ORGANS
The brain is a bilobed mass of ganglion cells connected to two or more longitudinal nerve
cords with commissures/transverse nerves that give the nervous system a step-ladder
configuration. Ocelli, light-sensitive eyespots, are present.
5.4 REPRODUCTION
Turbellarians are monoecious (hermaphroditic) but practice cross-fertilisation. The male

reproductive organs consist of paired testes each with a vas deferens leading to a seminal
vesicle that opens in the penis (copulatory organ). The female reproductive organs consist of
paired ovaries, each with its own oviduct that also receives yolk from the vitellaria (yolk
glands). The two oviducts open into the vagina. The seminal receptacle (which stores sperm
received from another flatworm during copulation) also opens into the vagina. Fertilised eggs
are included in a little cocoon. Embryos emerge as juveniles that resemble mature worms.
Asexual reproduction by fission (the planarian merely constricts behind the pharynx and
separates into two animals, each of which regenerates the missing parts).
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UNIT 7
THE PSEUDOCOELOMATA
CHAPTER 18 PHYLUM NEMATODA
LAB STUDY GUIDE: EXERCISE 11 PP 167 - 174
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying Unit 7, you should be able to:
1. List and discuss the characteristics of the nematodes.

2. Describe the structure of a nematode from a cross section of Ascaris.
3. Discuss the lifecycle of Ascaris lumbricoides and the developmental stages in the different
human anatomical parts (heart, lungs, trachea etc)
1. INTRODUCTION
In the acoelomates (flatworms) we saw that the blastocoel of the gastrula becomes filled with
mesoderm to form an acoelous, triploblastic bilaterian. In the pseudocoelomates (nematodes or
roundworms) the blastocoel is partly retained, leaving a space between the body wall and the
digestive tract, known as the pseudocoel. Since the mesoderm in the gastrula comes to lie against the
ectoderm only, nematodes have body wall muscles, only longitudinal muscles, but no muscles around
the digestive tract (specifically that part that belongs to the midgut). The foregut (stomodaeum) and
hindgut (proctodaeum) are lined by ectoderm and mesoderm, therefore muscles are present in these
parts of the digestive tract. Nematodes have reached the organ-system level of organisation and have
a tube-within-a-tube “Bauplan”.
2. CLASSIFICATION
The pseudocoelomates are a heterogenous assemblage of animals. Some taxonomists regarded them
as 9 separate Phyla while some authorities regard 5 of these as classes of the Phylum Aschelminthes.
Only the Phylum Nematoda will be studied in the ZOOIB course.
Kingdom: Animalia
Branch: Eumetazoa
Grade: Bilateria
Group: Pseudocoelomata
Phylum: Nematoda
Genus: Ascaris
Species lumbricoides
3. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NEMATODA

➢ Organ-system level of organisation.
➢ Round and cylindrical body structure.
➢ Tube-within-a-tube Bauplan, the inner tube or digestive tract develops from two embryonic
layers, viz. the ectodermal foregut (stomodaeum), the endodermal midgut and the
ectodermal hindgut (proctodaeum). A mouth and anus are present.
➢ Bilateral symmetry, triploblastic, unsegmented protostomes.
➢ Pseudocoelomates – the false body cavity is a derivative of the blastocoel.
➢ The body wall is a syncytial or cellular epidermis with a thickened cuticle.
➢ Longitudinal muscle only, no circular muscles.
➢ Circulatory and respiratory organs lacking.
➢ Excretory system of canals without protonephridia (because cilia and flagella are absent).
27
➢ Cerebral ganglia with nerve cords.
➢ Sexes nearly always separate, with the male usually smaller than the female.
➢ Eutely (a constant number of cells or nuclei) is common in nematodes.
➢ Eggs (spiral cleavage) develop into small worms which usually have 4 molts before becoming
adult worms.
4. HABITAT AND ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE

Approximately 25000 nematode species have been named. It is estimated that if all species were
known, the number might be nearer to 500 000. Nematodes live in the sea, freshwater and soil from
polar regions to the tropics. It is estimated that 1,26 billion people are infected with Ascaris, 932
million with hookworms (Ancyclostoma, Necator) and 686 million with trichina (Trichinella) worms.
The effects of the nematode infestation on crops, domestic animals and humans make this phylum
one of the most important of all parasitic animal groups.

The structure of a nematode can be illustrated from a cross section of Ascaris. The body is cylindrical
and covered by a non-living cuticle secreted by the underlying hypodermis (epidermis). The hypodermis
is syncytial (multinucleated), and its nuclei are located in four hypodermal cords. The dorsal and ventral
hypodermal/epidermal cords bear the longitudinal dorsal and ventral nerves cords, and the lateral
cords bear excretory canals. The body wall muscles are very unusual. They lie beneath the hypodermis
and contract longitudinally only. There are no circular muscles. The muscles are arranged in four bands
marked off by the four hypodermal cords. Each muscle cell has a contractile spindle that abuts the
hypodermis and a non-contractile nucleated cell body with a process (muscle arm) that extends either
to the ventral or dorsal nerve. Between the digestive tract (intestine) and the muscle layer is a fluid-
filled pseudocoel, acting as a hydrostatic skeleton. The digestive tract consists of a mouth (usually
terminal and surrounded by six lips), a muscular pharynx (stomodaeum and Y-shaped in cross section),
a non-muscular intestine, a short rectum (proctodaeum) and an anus. The male reproductive system
consists of a single twisted, tubular testis, followed by a vas deferens, a vesicular seminalis and ductus
ejaculatorius (ejaculatory duct). The female reproductive organs are paired, i.e. two thin, twisted,
tubular ovaria, each with its own oviduct and uterus. The two uteri fuse to form single vagina.
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UNIT 8
THE EUCOELOMATA
INTRODUCTORY SECTION
LECTURE NOTES ONLY
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After completing Unit 8 you should be able to:
1. List and discuss the characteristics of the Eucoelomates.

2. Explain how the coelom, septa and metamerism could have originated.
3. Explain how the blood vascular system could have originated.
1. CHARACTERISTICS OF EUCOELOMATES
1. Eucoelomates possess a coelom that develops either as a schizocoel or an

enterocoel.
2. Eucoelomates exhibit true metamerism (segmentation).
3. Eucoelomates may possess either an open or closed blood vascular system.
4. Most eucoelomates exhibit cephalisation.
2. ORIGIN OF THE COELOM AND METAMERISM
The Gonocoel Hypothesis of Hatchek and Lang is one of many hypotheses attempting to explain the
origin of the coelom. When studying the gonad formation in some acoelomates (Turbellaria) they
observed that some mesoderm cells start proliferating, forming a series of clumps of cells alongside
the alimentary canal. Next, a cavity appears in each ball of cells (now called a gonocoel) and a tubular
outgrowth form that eventually pierces the ventrolateral body wall. Each cavity called a gonocoel
enlarges, and as reproductive cells are pinched off from a part of the gonocoel wall, the gonocoel
becomes filled with reproductive cells. When mature the reproductive cells are expelled from the
body by way of a tubular outgrowth, called the gonoduct. After the breeding season the gonads
atrophy and the space taken up parenchyma cells. Hatchek and Lang postulate that during phylogeny
(evolution) the gonocoels did not atrophy but remained and became enlarged to the extent that each
one of the series of gonocoels came to touch one another, replacing most of the surrounding
mesoderm. The coelomic spaces of coelomates, therefore, are enlarged gonocoels. As the gonocoels
became enlarged a double layer of coelomic epithelium formed above and below the alimentary canal,
called the dorsal and ventral mesenteries. The inner layer of the coelomic sac, close to the alimentary
canal is called the splanchnic layer and the external one, the somatic layer. The double layer of
mesodermal epithelium between successive coelomic sacs is called a septum. Thus, according to the
Gonocoel Hypothesis the origin of the coelom and metamerism went hand in hand.
3. ORIGIN OF THE BLOOD VASCULAR SYSTEM
When studying the development of blood cells and blood vessels in coelomates, it is observed that
initially cells become pinched off from the splanchnic layer of the mesoderm. These cells fill the space
(called the trophocoel by Lang) between the endoderm (alimentary canal) and splanchnic layer. Next
the cells start to migrate to the dorsal and ventral mesenteries and become arranged into tubular
structures (blood vessels). Some of the cells inside the tubular structures differentiate into blood cells
(mainly erythrocytes).
29
Since in acoelomates the space between the endoderm (alimentary canal) and the ectoderm (outer
body wall) is filled with mesodermal tissue (cells, muscles), nutrients must diffuse through all these
mesodermal cells to reach the epidermis in primitive acoelomates. In more advanced turbellarians,
the alimentary canal (gut) has become extensively branched eg Tricladida, have three main branches
of the intestine as well as diverticula (cecae) where extra food can be stored.
The development of a coelom in coelomates posed a problem regarding the distribution of nutrients
to the body parts. This problem was solved when blood developed in the trophocoel. Nutrients now
diffuse into blood plasm and are carried to every body organ by blood-vessels. The development of
hearts to propel the food laden blood will be dealt with in the 2B course.
THE ACCOMPANYING DIAGRAMS UPLOADED ON ULINK/BLACKBOARD WILL BE USED TO EXPLAIN

MOST PROCESSES; IN PARTICULAR, THE GONOCOEL HYPOTHESIS AND THE OPEN AND CLOSED
BLOOD VASCULAR SYSTEM.
LEARN THESE DIAGRAMS, BE ABLE TO DRAW AND INTEPRET CONCEPTS DEPICTED BY THESE
DIAGRAMS.
THE POWER-POINT LECTURE SLIDES ARE AN EXTENDED VERSION OF THIS SUMMARISED PART OF
UNIT 8.
THERE IS ALSO AN AUDIO RECORDING UPLOADED TO HELP YOU UNDERSTAND MORE ON THESE
CONCEPTS.
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UNIT 9
THE EUCOELOMATA
PHYLUM: ANNELIDA
CHAPTER 17 (TB)
EXERCISE 13: LAB STUDY GUIDE (PG 197-211)
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Distinguish between the subclasses of the Classes Polychaeta and Clitellata.

2. List and discuss the characteristics of the Phylum Annelida.
3. Discuss cephalisation in Polychaetes.
4. Describe the digestive, blood vascular and reproductive systems of Lumbricus.
5. Describe reproduction in earthworms.
6. Discuss the formation of the blood circulatory system (sinuses, lacunae) in the Hirudinea.
1. CLASSIFICATION
Kingdom: Animalia
Branch: Eumetazoa
Grade: Bilateria
Group: Eucoelomata
Phylum: Annelida
Class 1: Polychaeta
1. Subclass Errantia, e.g. Nereis
2. Subclass Sedentaria, e.g. Arenicola
Class 2: Clitellata
3. Subclass: Oligochaeta, e.g. Lumbricus terrestris
4. Subclass: Hirudinea, e.g. Hirudo medicinalis
1.1 CLASSIFICATION OF THE PHYLUM ANNELIDA
The annelids, or segmented worms are classified based on the presence or absence of a clitellum,
parapodia, setae, and annuli. We will use the following classification:
Phylum: Annelida (have annuli, small, segmented rings)

Class 1: Polychaeta (“many setae”, many hairs, bristles)
Subclass 1: Errantia (“wander”/ move around) e.g. Nereis
Subclass 2: Sedentaria (“sessile”/ rarely move) e.g. Arenicola
Class 2: Clitellata (animal possesses a clitellum)

Subclass 1: Oligochaeta (“few setae”) e.g. Lumbricus
Subclass 2: Hirudinea (“leech”, possess an anticoagulant called hirudin/ no setae, but
has suckers) e.g. Hirudo .
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2. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE ANNELIDA
➢ Organ-system level of organisation; Tube-within-a-tube Bauplan.

➢ Bilateral symmetry, triploblastic, segmented protostomes.
➢ Coelom subdivided by septa into compartments.
➢ Body wall consists of an epidermis secreting a soft cuticle. Outer layer of circular muscles, inner
layer of longitudinal muscles.
➢ Chitinous chaeta (also spelled setae) present but absent in Hirudineans.
➢ Blood system closed. (Open system of lacunae in leeches) Dorsal, ventral, and septal vessels
present.
➢ Complete digestive system of mouth to anus.
➢ Respiratory gas exchange through skin, gills or parapodia.
➢ A nervous system consists of a pair of dorsal cerebral ganglia (brain) and a double ventral nerve
cord and a pair of ganglia with lateral nerves in each metamere.
➢ Sensory system includes tactile organs, taste buds, statocysts, photoreceptor cells, and eyes with
lenses (in some).
➢ Excretory system typically of paired metanephridia that open via nephridiopore.
➢ Monoecious (hermaphroditic) or dioecious (sexes separate). Development direct or indirect with
a larval stage called the trochophore larva.
The annelid body typically has an anterior prostomium (first segment of body), followed by a peristomium,
a segmented body, and a terminal portion bearing the anus, the pygidium (last segment).
4. INTRODUCTION
In comparison to the Platyhelminthes (Acoelomata) and the Nematoda (Pseudocoelomata), Annelids are
true coelomates (Eucoelomata) animals, i.e. they have a cavity (or cavities) between the body wall and
the intestinal tract, which is completely lined by a mesodermal epithelium, called a peritoneum. Strictly
speaking, the gonadal cavities and gonoducts of the acoelomates and pseudocoelomates are coeloms
because they are cavities lined by mesodermal epithelia, but they do not constitute permanent cavities
between the body wall and the digestive tract. The annelids, furthermore, display metamerism (serially
arranged metameres, or segments) and they have well-developed blood vessels which form a closed
system (i.e., like in vertebrates, the blood never leaves the blood vessels). Annelids show cephalisation (a
distinct cephalic region, or head) but not yet tagmosis (the fusion of some segments to form distinct body
divisions, i.e. a head, thorax and abdomen as in arthropods).
The Class Clitellata is distinguished from the Class Polychaeta based on the presence of a clitellum, or
saddle-like structure located on the dorsal side of the animal and the absence of parapodia as in the
Oligochaeta and Hirudinea. Oligochaetes have few setae whereas Hirudineans have no setae but use their
oral and posterior suckers to aid locomotion.
4.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES: STUDENT SHOULD BE ABLE TO:
• Identify and classify examples of the four subclasses of the Phylum Annelida.
• Identify and discuss the structure of a parapodium of the polychaetes.
• List the characteristics of the Phylum Annelida as can be deducted from a cross section of a
polychaete; and explain the embryonic development of polychaetes.
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5. CLASS: P OLYCHAETA
5.1 SUBCLASS ERRANTIA
Genus: Nereis
There are about a 1000 species of tube dwelling (Sedentaria) or free-swimming (Errantia) segmented
worms with a well-differentiated head (cephalisation) especially in Nereis. In Nereis (Subclass: Errantia),
the prostomium bears 4 pairs of tentacles and two pairs of eyes, and the peristomium (second segment)
bears 4 pairs of tentacles. The pharynx, which bears a pair of jaws, is eversible. Each segment, save the
head segments, bears a pair of parapodia, consisting of a dorsal notopodium and a ventral neuropodium,
each supported by a chitinous rod, called the aciculum, bearing many setae (chaetae /hairs/bristles).
Sense organs are more highly developed in Polychaeta than in Clitellata and include eyes, nuchal organs
(chemosensory organs), and statocysts (for body orientation). The reproductive systems are simple. In
Nereis the gonads appear as temporary swellings of the peritoneum and shed their gametes into the
coelom. The gametes are carried outside through gonoducts or metanephridia (as is the case in Nereis).
5.2 SUBCLASS SEDENTARIA
Genus: Arenicola
Commonly known as the lugworm, the Arenicola are regarded as members of Phylum Annelida although
they have less pronounced cephalisation and metamerism. Additional information regarding this group is
discussed in the Lecture slides.
6. CLASS: CLITELLATA
LEARNING OUTCOMES: STUDENT SHOULD BE ABLE TO:
• Identify and discuss the stomodial derivatives of the digestive tract in oligochaetes.
• Explain the main blood vessels and the direction of blood flow in an oligochaete.
• List the characteristics of annelids observable in a cross section of an oligochaete.
• Identify and discuss the structure of a Hirudinean as can be observed in a cross section.
6.1 SUBCLASS: OLIGOCHAETA
Genus: Lumbricus terrrestris
The oligochaetes (about 3000 species) include terrestrial (earthworms) and freshwater forms. The external
and internal features as well as the cross section of the earthworm Lumbricus terrestris, will be used to
study the following structures and systems: the body wall, digestive, excretory, nervous, circulatory, and
reproductive system.
6.2 SUBCLASS: HIRUDINEA
Genus: Hirudo medicinalis

The leeches, Hirudo medicinalis, are predacious and mostly fluid feeders. The Hirudo is one of the
freshwater species. The Hirudo is referred to as the ‘medicinal leech’ because it was used in bloodletting
for several centuries and are still being used occasionally in plastic surgery. They have a smaller oral sucker
at the anterior part and a larger caudal sucker. The leeches have secondary annulation, meaning they have
more segmentation internally in the body compared to the outside. Each true segment bears a pair of
metanephridia, a row of sensillae that are mainly used to detect water movement, and anterior eyespots.
33
The oral sucker contains the mouth; and the anus is in the middorsal line. They have a clitellum that
secretes the capsule/cocoon in which eggs develop. Leeches are hermaphrodites.
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UNIT 10
PHYLUM ONYCHOPHORA
CHAPTER 18 (TB)
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. List and discuss the characteristics of the Onychophorans.

2. Describe the digestive, circulatory, respiratory, and reproductive systems of this group.
3. Compare the unique characteristics of Onychophorans and discuss the unique and shared
characteristics of the Annelida, Onychophora and Arthropoda.
1. CLASSIFICATION
The Phylum Onychophora includes 70 species belonging to 12 genera and divided into two families viz.
the Peripatidae (e.g. Peripatus) and the Peripatopsidae (e.g. Peripatopsis of South Africa.
2. CHARACTERISTICS OF ONYCHOPORANS
1. Organ-system level of organisation and tube-within-a-tube Bauplan.

2. Bilateral symmetry, triploblastic, segmented protostomes.
3. Eucoelomates.
4. The body wall consists of an epidermis secreting a soft cuticle (containing protein and
chitin as in arthropods) and outer circular and inner longitudinal muscles (as in annelids).
ONYCHOPHORANS HAVE AN:
5. Epidermis studded with turbecles/ protruberances.

6. Parapodia-like appendages, ending in claws, are present in each segment (parapodia
resemble those of annelids).
7. Open circulatory system, i.e. a haemocoel, in which a dorsal, tubular heart with a pair
of ostia in each segment (as in arthropods) is present.
8. Nephridia, one pair per segment, open at the bases of the appendages (as in annelids).
9. A pair of coxal glands are used for excretion.
10. The digestive system consists of a buccal cavity with jaws, muscular pharynx, and short
oesophagus (all part of the stomodaeum), intestine (midgut, endoderm) and short rectum
(proctodaeum).
11. Respiration is through a tracheal system ramifying to all parts of the body (as in insects).
12. The nervous system consists of a well-developed pair of cerebral ganglia (as in arthropods)
and a pair of widely separated nerve cords with connecting commissures.
13. Sexes are separate (dioecious); with paired reproductive organs and sexual dimorphism
(male smaller than female). Females either lay eggs (oviparous) or eggs develop inside
uterus (ovoviviparous) without attachment to the uterus, or a type of placenta develops
between mother and young (viviparous).
35
The body is cylindrical and shows no external segmentation except for the paired appendages (18 – 40
segments, the number of which is constant for a specific species). The head consists of 3 segments: first
segment bears two preantennae, second segment bears a pair of claw-like mandibles, and the third
segment bears a pair of oral papillae from which the secretion of the slime gland is expelled.
The structure of the digestive, excretory, respiratory, and reproductive systems will be discussed in the
lecture notes and during class time (see attached diagrams).
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UNIT 11
PHYLUM ARTHROPODA INTRODUCTORY LECTURE NOTES
LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Classify members of Phylum Arthropoda into Subphyla, Classes, and Orders (orders only
in the case of the arachnids).
2. List and discuss the characteristics of Phylum Arthropoda.
3. Discuss tagmosis in arthropods and name the appendages associated with the segments
(metameres) comprising each tagma.
1. CLASSIFICATION
Phylum: Arthropoda
Subphylum 1: Trilobita (extinct primitive arthropods)
Subphylum 2: Crustacea
Class 1: Branchiopoda e.g. Daphnia
Class 2: Maxillopoda e.g. Argulus (“Fish lice”)
Class 3: Malacostraca (crabs, shrimps, crayfish)
Subphylum 3: Chelicerata
Class 1: Merostomata e.g. Limulus
Class 2: Arachnida
Order 1: Araneae (spiders)
Order 2: Scorpionida (scorpions)
Order 3: Opiliones (“daddy longlegs”)
Subphylum 4: Uniramia
Class 1: Diplopoda (millipedes)
Class 2: Chilopoda (centipedes)
Class 3: Hexapoda or Insecta
Order: Include 26 orders
2. CHARACTERISTICS OF PHYLUM ARTHROPODA

• Organ-system level of organisation and tube-within-a-tube Bauplan.
• Bilateral symmetrically, triploblastic, segmented protostomic eucoelomates.
• Segments (metameres) usually fuse (or grouped) to form specific regions, called tagmata (sing.
tagma), of the body, e.g. head and trunk (Chilopoda and Diplopoda); head (cephalon), thorax
and abdomen (insects); cephalothorax and abdomen (crustaceans); prosoma, mesosoma and
metasoma (scorpions and merostomates); prosoma and opisthosoma (Araneae); cephalosoma
and idiosoma (Acari).
• Appendages jointed, usually one pair to each metamere or numbers reduced; appendages often
modified for specialised functions e.g. reproduction, feeding, locomotion.
• Exoskeleton, containing chitin, lipids, protein and often calcium carbonate, secreted by the
epidermis (hypodermis), usually shed (ecdysis, molting) during growth.
• Muscular system complex (striated muscles) attached to exoskeleton.
37
• Coelom reduced to a haemocoel.
• Open circulatory system with dorsally situated heart with ostia (openings).
• The digestive system consists of a long foregut (ectodermal, stomodaeum) often containing
specialised structures (e.g. gastric mill in crabs), a short midgut (endodermal) and a short hindgut
(ectodermal, proctodaeum).
• Respiration by diffusion through body wall, gills, book gills, book lungs or trachea (air tubes).
• Paired excretory glands e.g. Coxal glands (Arachnida) antennal or maxillary glands (Crustacea,
Uniramia) or Malpighian tubules (Arachnida, Insecta) and metanephridia.
• Nervous system of the annelid type e.g. dorsal brain, circumoesophageal commissures and two
ventral longitudinal nerve cords with segmentally arranged ganglia. Well-developed sensory
organs.
• Sexes usually separate (dioecious), paired gonads and reproductive ducts. Fertilisation usually
internal by copulation; oviparous or ovoviviparous offspring. Development direct or indirect with
larval forms and metamorphosis.
3. NAME DERIVATIVE
o Name ‘Arthropoda’
▪ arthron – joints
▪ podos – podia – legs
o Most extensive and diverse group
o Habitats - Marine, Freshwater, Terrestrial
o Size:
▪ Range from 2 – 60cm
▪ May exceed 3 meters
Feeding patterns can be:
o Carnivorous – predators
o Blood or fluid feeders
o Herbivorous
4. TAGMOSIS
The fusion or grouping of segments to form tagmata in a metamerically segmented animal is called
tagmosis. The specific names given to these tagmata, the various segments involved, and the appendages
associated with each tagma in various arthropods, are listed below.
KEY CHARACTERISTICS
o Metameric bodies
o Segments fused to form tagmata:
- head, trunk (millipedes)
- cephalothorax, abdomen (in grasshopper/cockroaches)
- prosoma, mesosoma, metasoma (in scorpions)
- prosoma, opisthosoma (in spiders, horseshoe crab)
o Jointed appendages one pair / somite (specialised functions)
o Exoskeleton (chitin, lipids, proteins and calcium carbonate) secreted by the epidermis and is shed
to permit growth (moulting).
o Complex muscular system striated muscles attached to the exoskeleton.
o Coelom reduced to hemocoel or haemocoel.
o Open circulatory system (dorsal heart with ostia).
38
o Complete digestive system with stomodaeum, midgut and proctodaeum (hindgut).
o Respiration and excretory systems vary between species.
o Nervous system of annelid type includes dorsal brain, connectives, ventral nerve cords with
segmental ganglia, sensory organs.
o Sexes are separate.
UNIQUE FEATURES OF ARTHROPODS

1. Exoskeleton / ecdysis / moulting (exoskeleton that is shed at certain intervals)
2. Open blood system / hemocoel
3. Dorsal tubular heart
4. Tracheal system
5. Elongated tubular gonoducts
6. Coxal glands and malpighian tubules for excretion
CLASSSIFICATION:
PHYLUM ARTHROPODA
1. SUBPHYLUM TRILOBITA
2. SUBPHYLUM CRUSTACEA
3. SUBPHYLUM CHELICERATA
4. SUBPHYLUM UNIRAMIA
SUBPHYLUM TRILOBITA
➢ Extinct, fossilised material
➢ Giant water scorpion
➢ Grow up to three meters.
THE ORIGIN OF THE HEMOCOEL IN PHYLUM ARTHROPODA (FIGURES A TO H)

In the gastrula of both Annelida (A to D) and Arthropoda (A, E to H) mesoderm cells occupying the
blastocoel (A4) begin to proliferate to form a mesenchyme condensation (A2). Next A2 splits (schizocoel)
into an inner layer (nearer the gut), called the splanchnic (visceral) mesoderm and an outer layer (nearer
the ectoderm), called the somatic (parietal) mesoderm. The resultant cavity formed between the two
layers is called the coelom (B5, E5). Cells then detach from the splanchnic in the region of the trophocoel
and migrate to positions dorsal and ventral to the gut where they differentiate into dorsal and ventral
longitudinal blood vessels (C6, 7; F6, 7). Furthermore, cells inside the walls of the vessels would detach
and differentiate to form the blood cells. Other cells detaching from the splanchnic layer migrate around
the gut to form the visceral muscles (innervated by the autonomic nervous system) (D11, G11). Cells
detaching from the somatic mesodermal layer differentiate, in the case of annelids, into an inner
longitudinal muscle layer and an outer circular muscle layer (D9, D8). In the case of arthropods cells only
detach from the dorsal and two ventral parts of the somatic mesoderm resulting into the formation of two
dorsal and two ventral longitudinal muscles only (H13, H14). Circular muscles, therefore, are absent in
arthropods.
In Annelida the blastocoel is completely replaced by muscles as well as the large coelom (D) and the only
way to supply organs with blood or drain them is by way of arteries and veins. Therefore, the blood never
leaves the vessels, and this type of blood system is referred to as a closed system. In arthropods, however,
a large part of the blastocoel is retained because of the relatively few muscles and the reduced coelom in
which the gonad and its ducts develop (H). The dorsal blood vessel (known as the aorta) develops a
number of hearts (up to 11 in scorpions) and each heart contains a pair of openings (ostia) allowing blood
39
in the pericardial cavity to enter the heart (H12). (The pericardial chamber is part of the blastocoel). When
the hearts contract the ostia close and blood is pumped rostrally and caudally in the dorsal and ventral
vessels (a septal vessel, called the sternal artery connects the dorsal and ventral blood vessels) to reach
the blastocoel. In arthropods there are no veins and blood is pumped into the blastocoel (haemocoel)
surrounding the organs. Blood eventually reaches the pericardial cavity and then enters the heart again.
Arthropods thus have an open blood system because blood leaving the arteries enters the haemocoel
instead of being carried to the heart by veins.
CLASSIFICATION WITH MEANINGS OF NAME DERIVATIVES BASED ON EXTERNAL MORPHOLOGY
Phylum: Arthropoda (arthron-joint; podos-foot, jointed appendages)
1. Subphylum: Trilobita (tri-three; lobos-lobe. Extinct group)
2. Subphylum: Crustacea (Organisms with a hardened shell or crust,

The only group with two pairs of antennae)
Class: Branchiopoda (branchia-gills; poda-foot, feet function exclusively as respiratory organs)
Class: Maxillopoda (thoracic appendage has been modified and is located in the maxillae region)
Class: Malacostraca (these animals have a soft shell for the exoskeleton)
3. Subphylum: Chelicerata (First pair of appendages is chelate, pincerlike, not sensory)

Class: Merostomata (Appendages surrounding the mouth)
Class: Arachnida (arachne = spider)
Order: Araneae (cobweb, spiderweb)
Order: Scorpionida (scorpions)
Order: Opiliones (daddy long-legs)
Order: Acari (body segmentation reduced)
4. Subphylum: Uniramia (Appendages are single branched)

Class: Diplopoda (diploo-double; podos-foot, fusion of adjacent segments)
Class: Chilopoda (centipede, body dorsoventrally flattened)
Class: Hexapoda (3 pairs of appendages, hexa = six; usually one or two pairs of wings)
THE INFORMATION HEREIN SERVES AS INTRODUCTION TO PHYLUM ARTHROPODA.

DIAGRAMS ON THE HEMOCOEL ARE PROVIDED IN A SEPARATE FOLDER.
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UNIT 12
PHYLUM ARTHROPODA
2. SUBPHYLUM CRUSTACEA
Class 1. Branchiopoda
Class 2. Maxillopoda
Class 3. Malacostraca
MAJOR CHARACTERISTICS
1. Name Crustacea
- Crusta (L) – shell
2. Only group with two pairs antennae
3. Two pairs of maxillae
4. Appendages are biramous (two branches)
5. Exoskeleton with calcium salts deposits
6. Dorsal plates of cuticle form a carapace (branchiostegite/gill roof)
7. Excretory system composed of antennal / antennary/green glands.
Phylum Arthropoda
Subphylum Crustacea
Class 1. Branchiopoda
Name : branchi – gills
: podos – legs
1. Order Anostraca
• E.g Fairy shrimp
• 11 pairs biramous appendages, feathery appendages used for respiration.
• No carapace
2. Order Cladocera
• E.g. Daphnia
• Freshwater species
• Second antennae are huge in size and used for locomotion.
• Reduced antennules and maxillae

• Maxilliped absent
• Reproduction:
1. Parthenogenesis – (asexual, usually female offspring only)
2. Sexual
41
Phylum Arthropoda
Subphylum Crustacea
Class 2. Maxillopoda
Subclass Copepoda
1. Name: Maxillopoda meaning a modified thoracic appendage is situated in the maxillae region.
2. Most lack a carapace and have no typical appendages in the abdomen.
3. They are mostly parasites of fish species and young invertebrates and or vectors of diseases.
4. They make up bulk of freshwater zooplankton.
5. They exhibit indirect development with numerous metamorphosis stages.
Phylum Arthropoda
Subphylum Crustacea
Class 3. Malacostraca
Order Decapoda
1. Name: Malacostraca
malakos (L) – soft
ostrakon – shell
2. Name: Decapoda
deca – ten
podos – legs / appendages
Classification characteristics
1. Arthropoda – jointed legs
2. Crustacea – exoskeleton / crust
3. Malacostraca – soft shell
4. Decapoda – ten legs/ 5 pairs of appendages
NB: STENOPODIUM / MAXILLIPED 3 REGION HAS THE TYPICAL BIRAMOUS APPENDAGES
DEFINITIONS
1. Protopodite
- Basal portion of appendage
- Has coxopodite and basipodite
2. Coxopodite
- Proximal joint of protopodite
3. Basipodite
- Distal joint of protopodite
4. Exopodite
- Lateral branch of appendage
5. Endopodite
- Proximal branch of appendage
6. Epipodite
- Lateral process on protopod modified as a gill
42
CUTICLE OR EXOSKELETON IS A:
1. Non-living, non-cellular structure
2. Secreted by the epidermis / hypodermis.
3. Arises due to Hormonal control and,
4. Environmental stimulation.
5. Lines the stomodaeum, proctodaeum, tracheal tubes and external surface.
6. Serves a protective function.
7. Limits growth (therefore moulting is essential to allow animals to grow).
EXOSKELETON / CUTICLE DIAGRAM (SEE PP NOTES)

Epicuticle: protein containing lipids
Exocuticle: calcium, salts, chitin
Endocuticle: principal layer
: membranous layer
Endocuticle + exocuticle = procuticle
Epidermis
MOULTING / ECDYSIS (Self Study pages 425 -427 Text Book)

1. Controlled by interaction or two hormones:
2. Moulting hormone / Ecdysone

- Is a Steroid
- Secreted by neurosecretory cells.
- Controlled by brain hormone / ecdysiotropin
- Brain hormone stimulates prothoracic gland to produce ecdysone.
3. Juvenile hormone / Neotenine

- Secreted by corpus allatum
- Favours retention of juvenile structures.
- Predominant in juvenile stage; each moult yields another larva.
- Decrease in neotenine allows final metamorphosis to adult.
FORM AND FUNCTION

1. External features
2. Integument
3. Appendages
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE CRAYFISH

1. Digestive system (tubular with stomodaeum, midgut and proctodaeum)
Two parts to the stomach: cardiac stomach and pyloric stomach
2. Respiratory system (pleurobranch, arthrobranch and podobranch are the proper gills, epipodite
separates gills if they get stuck due to increased mucus production)
3. Circulatory system (open blood system) with:

➢ Dorsal abdominal artery
➢ Ventral abdominal artery
➢ Ophthalmic artery
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➢ Antennal artery
➢ Gastric/hepatic artery
➢ Ventral thoracic artery
4. Nervous system (Annelidan type that contains dorsal ganglia, connectives, fused ventral nerve cord)
5. Reproduction system (di- and some monoecious species)
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UNIT 13
SUBPHYLUM CHELICERATA
CHAPTER 19 (pg 399): TB
EXERCISE 14 (pg 215): LAB STUDY GUIDE
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After completing Unit 13 you should be able to:
1. Identify and classify the main groups of Subphylum Chelicerata.

2. Distinguish between the Orders of the Arachnida, using external features.
3. Describe and discuss the digestive, respiratory, excretory and circulatory systems of the
Arachnids.
1. CLASSIFICATION
Phylum: Arthropoda
Subphylum: Chelicerata
Class 1: Merostomata eg. Limulus

Subclass Eurypterida (water giant scorpions)
Subclass Xiphosurida (sword tail-telson)
Class 2: Arachnida
Order 1: Araneae (spiders)
Order 2: Scorpionida (scorpions)
Order 3: Acari (ticks and mites)
Order 4: Opiliones (daddy- long-legs)
The Chelicerata differ from other Arthropoda (Crustacea and Insecta) in that their first pair of appendages,
situated on segment 2 and called chelicerae, are not sensory appendages like those of crustaceans and
insects; that their second pair of appendages, on segment 3 called pedipalps, often are chelate (e.g.
pincers of scorpions) and that true jaws or mandibles are absent in chelicerates. The coxae of the legs are
used as gnathobases to crush food. Except for merostomates, food is taken internally in liquid form –
arachnids usually have sucking mouthparts or a strong sucking pharynx with which they suck the fluids
and soft tissues from the bodies of their prey.
2.1 Class: Merostomata (e.g. Limulus, king crabs)
They are aquatic animals in which the prosoma articulates with the opisthosoma. The tergites of the
prosoma are fused to form a carapace. The 8 prosomal segments bear 7 pairs of appendages (chelicerae,
pedipalps, 4 pairs of walking legs and chilaria). Tergites of the opisthosoma are also fused. Ventrally on
the opisthosoma are 6 pairs of “biramous” appendages. The first pair, called genital operculae, partly
covers the next 5 pairs of appendages, the “exopodites” which bear the book gills, each consisting of about
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200 leaflike gills. The telson (a post terminal structure or tail-piece) is a long rod-like structure and is not
regarded as an appendage.
Fertilisation is external. The males and females come to shore and the female burrows into the sand and
lays her eggs. Before covering her eggs with sand, a male (or males) adds his sperm to the eggs. Trilobite-
like larvae hatch from the eggs and return to the sea by high tide.
2.2 Class: Arachnida, Order: Araneae
In the Araneae (spiders) the body is divided into a prosoma and opisthosoma (both unsegmented) and
joined by a slender pedicel. The appendages of the prosoma are: a pair of chelicerae, consisting of two
segments – the proximal segment houses the poison gland and its duct opens on the terminal segment,
the fang; a pair of pedipalps – the proximal segments are used for crushing prey and the distal segments
are used in the male to insert his spermatophore into the genital opening of the female; and 4 pairs of
walking legs. The opisthosoma is usually soft and leathery and shows no signs of segmentation. In the
embryos of most spiders 10 coelomic cavities and 5 pairs of rudimentary appendages are present. The first
pair of appendages in the opisthosoma atrophies, the next two pairs develop into book lungs and the
fourth and fifth pairs into spinnerets.
2.2.1 Digestive system and feeding
The mouth is situated between the bases of the chelicerae and pedipalps and bordered anteriorly by the
labrum (upper lip) and posteriorly by the labium or lower lip [The labium of spiders is not homologous to
the labium of insects, which is a single structure formed by the fused pair of second maxillae]. The mouth
leads to a short pharynx, followed by an oesophagus, the posterior part of which is differentiated into a
“sucking stomach”. Anteriorly, the midgut shows two caeca with branches to the 4 legs and posteriorly
several diverticula forming the digestive gland. The hindgut (ectodermal, proctodaeum) is short and opens
into the Malpighian tubule (excretory function) and the cloacal caecum (store faeces).
Spiders usually ingest food in liquid form. The prey (mostly insects) is killed by poison from the poison
glands in the Chelicerae. Digestive enzymes (proteolytic), secreted by glands in the labium are injected
into the prey which then digest the prey’s tissues (external digestion). Digested tissue, in liquid form, is
then sucked up by the sucking stomach.
2.2.2 Excretory organs
Spiders (and insects) have a unique excretory system called Malpighian tubules, which divide
dichotomously into the opisthosoma cavities. Waste products circulating in the haemolymph, are
absorbed by the cells lining the walls of the tubules and transported to the cloacal caecum [rectal gland,
stercoral (=L. stercus = dung) pocket], where water is reabsorbed, and urine excreted as uric acid (uric acid
is not toxic and is poorly soluble in water). Many spiders also have coxal glands (modified nephridia) that
open at the bases of the first and third walking legs.
2.2.3 Reproductive organs
The reproductive organs consist of paired ovaries (with oviducts opening together in a single vagina) and
testes each opening by a single gonopore ventrally on the first opisthosomal segment. Before mating takes
place, the male spins a small web and deposits some sperm on it. The spermatophore so formed is
temporally stored in special cavities of his pedipalps. During mating, the male inserts his pedipalps into
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the genital opening of the female and transfers his spermatophore to her spermatheca which is situated
inside the vagina. In most spiders mating is usually preceded by an elaborate courtship ritual. After
fertilisation the female lays her eggs in a cocoon (a silken net spun by her) which she may carry with her
or attach to the web or a plant. After several moults the embryos become adults.
2.3 Class: Arachnida, Order: Scorpionida
Scorpions are arachnids in which the prosomal tergites are fused to form a “carapace” and the
opisthosoma distinctly divided into a mesosoma with appendages (book gills) and a metasoma (the so-
called tail) without appendages. The telson is transformed into a sting. The basal segments of the
chelicerae, pedipalps, and first two pairs of legs are transformed into gnathobases that aid in crushing
food. The appendages of the mesosomal segments are the genital operculum (a small platelike structure
covering the genital aperture on segment 9; the pectines (L. pectin = comb) (seg 10) which are tactile
organs (for exploring the ground), and 4 pairs of book lungs (seg 11 -14).
2.3.1 Digestive system
In front of the true mouth opening is a preoral cavity bounded dorsally by the labrum, laterally by the
coxae (bases) of the pedipalps and ventrally by the coxae (bases) of the first two pairs of walking legs. A
“labium” is absent. The mouth leads to a muscular sucking pharynx, followed by a short oesophagus (into
which the salivary glands open) opening into the gizzard (proventriculus). The midgut is long and slender,
and 7 pairs of digestive glands open into it. The hindgut, which runs the entire length of the metasoma, is
also slender.
2.3.2 Excretory organs
Scorpions have one or two pairs of Malpighian tubules opening at the boundary between the midgut and
hindgut, and one pair of coxal glands opening on segment 5. The coxal gland consists of an end sac
(saccule plus labyrinth), a convoluted tubule, and a smaller bladder (vesicula).
2.3.3 Blood vascular system
The blood vascular system (open type) is well developed. The heart consists of 7 chambers (segments 7
to 13), each containing a pair of ostia and lateral arteries. A posterior aorta runs backward from the last
heart chamber to the sting. The anterior aorta gives off branches to the chelicera, pedipalps, and walking
legs.
2.3.4 Reproduction
Mating involves a complex courtship period called the “mating dance.” The male seizes the female’s
chelicerae and while holding them steps back and forth. While dancing, the male deposits a
spermatophore on the ground and then tries to position the female’s genital opening over it. The
spermatophore then bursts open (under pressure caused by the female’s body) and the sperm enters her
spermatheca. Scorpions are ovoviviparous or truly viviparous. Females carry the young on the back of
her mesosoma.
2.4 Class: Arachnida, Order: Acari
Ticks and mites differ from other arachnids in that the body is not distinctly divided into a prosoma and
opisthosoma. The body segments, gnathosoma or capitulum bearing the mouth appendages (chelicerae
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and pedipalp) usually are quite distinct from the idiosoma. The latter includes the podosoma (bearing the
4 pairs of walking legs) and opisthosoma. The gnathosoma and podosoma agree with the prosoma of
other arachnids.
The chelicera of a tick is surrounded by a sheath, and it can be completely retracted into the body. The
preoral cavity is formed by the dorsally situated labrum and the ventral hypostome.
2.5 Class Arachnida: Order Opiliones

This Order is composed of harvestman/ daddy long-legs that are characterised by fusion of prosoma and
opisthosoma (no constriction). The abdomen shows NO external segmentation.
They have four pairs of spindly legs that end in claws. They have a copulatory organ for direct sperm
transfer and are oviparous.
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UNIT 14
SUBPHYLUM: UNIRAMIA
CHAPTER 19 TB: MYRIAPODA
CHAPTER 20 TB: CLASS HEXAPODA (INSECTA)
LAB STUDY GUIDE EXERCISE 16
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Distinguish between the 3 Classes of the Subphylum Uniramia.

2. Know the external morphology of the grasshopper.
3. Describe the structure and function of the tracheal system of insects.
4. Describe reproduction and metamorphosis in insects.
5. Describe the biting-chewing trophi (mouthparts) of the grasshopper and compare them
with the types of trophi found in some other insects.
1. CLASSIFICATION
Phylum: Arthropoda (jointed appendages)

Subphylum: Uniramia (appendages are single branched)
Class 1: Chilopoda (centipedes)
Class 2: Diplopoda (millipedes)
Class 3: Hexapoda (animals with six legs-hexa; Class Insecta)
2. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE UNIRAMIA

1. Only one pair of antennae is present.
2. Jointed appendages are uniramous.
3. Tracheal system is present.
4. The body tagmata include the head, thorax, abdomen in insects and head and trunk in
Myriapoda = Chilopoda and Diplopoda
3. CLASS CHILOPODA Characteristics:
➢ Active predators (maxilliped are modified as poison fangs).

➢ Mandibles, labrum and maxillae II are present (mouthparts).
➢ Body is dorsoventrally flattened.
➢ Head region has: One pair antennae and simple eyes (ocelli).
➢ Trunk has: a pair of maxillipeds with terminal fangs.
➢ Gonopores are located on last segment of the body.
➢ Last segment appendages are sensory.
➢ Pair of spiracles in each somite (open to tracheal system) are present.
4. CLASS DIPLOPODA Characteristics:
➢ Diplopoda – double (double segments)

➢ Herbivorous
➢ Cylindrical body
➢ Gonopores located in 3rd segment.
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➢ Last segment of appendages is copulatory in males.
➢ Indirect development.
5. CLASS: HEXAPODA = (six legs) OR CLASS INSECTA
Characteristics
Insects differ from other Arthropods in having 3 pairs of legs and usually 2 pairs of wings, one or none at
times. The body is also divided into three distinct tagmata, e.g. cephalon (head), thorax and abdomen.
Insects are the most successful animal group (about one million known species, i.e. 75% of all
invertebrates) and are found in almost any habitat. Insects are divided into about 27 Orders. Due to their
variety of forms and functions, the study of insects has developed into an independent scientific discipline,
called Entomology.
5.1 EXTERNAL CHARACTERISTICS

The body is distinctly segmented and divided into 3 tagmata viz. a head (6 segments with 4 pairs of
appendages), thorax (3 segments with 3 pairs of legs and one or two pairs of wings), and an abdomen (9
to 11 segments) without any appendages. The cuticle of each segment typically is divided into four
sclerites (hardened plates), viz. a dorsal tergum (= notum), a ventral sternum and two lateral pleura (sing.
Pleuron). The sclerites of the tergum are called tergites; those of the sternum are called sternites and
those of the pleuron, pleurites.
5.1.1 Cephalon (head)
The head consists of six segments called metameres of which segments 1 and 3 are embryonic,
(ephemeral) and thus bear no appendages. Segment 2 bears a pair of antennae (sensory function)
whereas the appendages of segment 4, 5 and 6 perform a trophic (feeding) function and therefore, are
known as mouthparts. The mouthparts of the primitive insect consist of a labrum or upper lip (which is
not an appendage) a pair of mandibles (appendage of segment 4) a pair of maxillae (appendage of
segment 5) a labium, (fused second maxillae, appendages on segment 6) and a hypopharynx, (not an
appendage). The mouthparts vary considerably among different insect groups since their structure is
correlated with their feeding patterns. These modifications will be dealt with later (5.3).
The thorax consists of three segments, viz the prothorax, mesothorax and metathorax, each bearing one
pair of legs whereas the mesothorax and sometimes the metathorax as well bear a pair of wings. The legs
show many modifications in insects, and are used for walking, jumping, burrowing, swimming, seizing prey,
etc.
The abdomen usually consists of 11 segments without any appendages. The tympanum (eardrum) is
found on the first segment of the abdomen. The tergites of segment 11 are transformed into cerci (sing.
Circus (from Gr Kerkos-tail) of the male and the ovipositor of the female.
5.2 INTERNAL STRUCTURES
5.2.1. Digestive system
The alimentary canal consists of the usual foregut, midgut and hindgut. The foregut is differentiated into
a short pharynx followed by a long oesophagus which opens into the crop. Food is temporarily stored in
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the crop and then moves onto the proventriculus or gizzard where mastication takes place. The midgut
consists of a pouch, the stomach, where digestion and absorption take place. Several gastric caeca
(digestive glands) may open anteriorly into the stomach. The hindgut includes the intestinum, which
differentiates into an ileum, colon and rectum.
5.2.2 Blood vascular system
The open blood system consists of a dorsal tubular heart that runs the entire length of the abdomen. In
each segment of the abdomen, the heart is enlarged into a small chamber with a pair of ostia. In the last
abdominal segment, the heart ends blindly, ie. no vein takes blood back to the heart. When the heart
contracts, the blood is pumped anteriorly along the aorta (which is a single vessel) and into a haemocoel
of the head, from where it disperses posteriorly in the body cavities. When the heart relaxes, a vacuum is
created and haemolymph enters the heart through the 11 pairs of ostia. With the next contraction, the
ostia are closed by valves and blood moves forward along the aorta.
5.2.3 Respiratory system
In insects (and some arachnids) oxygen-carbon dioxide exchange is accomplished by the tracheal system,
an extensive network of thin-walled ectodermal tubes that branch into all tissues (and even individual
cells) of the body. The tracheae are microscopic structures composed of a single layer of cells and are lined
with a cuticle that is shed during molts. Spiral thickenings of cuticle called taenidia support the tracheae
and prevent their collapse. The trachea branches into smaller tubes called tracheoles, which may be less
than 0.1um in diameter and which eventually reach every cell in the body. Paired openings or spiracles
(usually one pair per thoracic segment and the first 7 or 8 abdominal segments) provided with valves to
cut down water loss, lead to the tracheal tubes.
5.2.4 Reproduction and Moulting and ecdysis

Study pages 424-426 Chapter 20
Additional information on this concept is included in your Lecture notes
Own study, will be tested on this material
5.3 MOUTHPARTS (TROPHI) OF INSECTS
The success of insects is, inter alia, due to their specialised mouthparts and nearly all possible ways of
feeding are found amongst insects ie. phytophagous, (feeding on plants), predaceous (eating other insects
or other smaller animals), saprophagous (living off dead animals) and parasitic (living off other animals).
Some insects make use of unusual food materials eg. horn, beeswax, cork, pepper, tobacco etc. For each
type of feeding, the mouthparts are adapted in a specialised way. Only a few of the many different types
of mouthparts will be considered in this course.
5.3.1 Biting- chewing mouthparts eg cockroaches and grasshoppers (Order Orthoptera)
This type is considered primitive and is found in grasshoppers (phytophagous) and cockroaches
(omnivorous). The mouthparts involved in feeding are the mandibles, maxillae, fused second maxillae
(known as labium or lower lip) and the labrum or upper lip. The structure of each mouthpart will be
discussed during the lecture.
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5.3.2 Chewing-sucking mouthparts eg. Honey bees (Apis mellifera, Order Hymenoptera)
The small labrum articulates with a large clypeus and the mandibles are flattened, spoon-shaped
structures. Parts of the maxillae and labium are transformed into a proboscis. The maxilla consists of a
palp and long galea and the labium consists of two long labial palps and fused glossae and short
paraglossae. The glossae form the inner tube of a tube-within- a tube system. The outer wall is formed by
the galea of the maxillae and labial palps. The glossae end in a knob-like structure called the flabellum
which is used for lapping up nectar. Fluid is sucked up when the glossae quickly move up and down the
sheath formed by the galea and labial palps.
5.3.3 Piercing-sucking mouthparts eg. aphids, bedbugs, fleas and mosquitoes
(Order Hemiptera, Siphonaptera, Diptera)
This type of mouthpart is found in insects that suck up sap from plants eg. Aphids and twigs, (Order
Hemiptera) and among blood-sucking insects eg. bed-bugs (Order Hemiptera), fleas (Order Siphonaptera)
and mosquitoes (Order Diptera).
5.3.3.1 Mouthparts of bed-bugs (Cimex lectularius: Order Hemiptera)
The labrum is relatively large and articulates with the clypeus. The mandibles and laciniae of the maxillae
are transformed into 4 stylets which are housed inside a semilunar-shaped groove, the labial groove.
The labium consists of 3 semilunar shaped telescopic segments forming a proboscis. When feeding, the
maxillary stylets come close together to form a sucking tube as well as a separate salival tube. The distal
end of the labium (ie proboscis) is pushed against the skin of the host and the mandibles, followed by the
maxillae pierce the skin until blood is found. Blood is sucked up in the feeding tube (formed by the
maxillae) by means of a pumping action caused by the walls of the cibarium (buccal cavity). The saliva
contains an anticoagulant to prevent clotting of the host’s blood.
5.3.3.2. Mouthparts of the flea (Pulex irritans: Order Siphonaptera)
The labrum is much reduced but the epipharynx (inner wall of the labrum in orthopterans) is transformed
into a long and thin stylet (appears X shaped in cross section). The semilunar (in cross section) laciniae of
the maxillae enclose the epipharynx (which thus lies inside the blood canal) and also contain the salival
canal (tube). The remainder of the proboscis is formed by the labial palps which in turn enclose the
laciniae in a tube. The remainder of the maxilla is represented by a flat maxillary plate (the cardo) and a
maxillary palp.
5.3.3.3 Mouthparts of the mosquito (Culex of Aëdes: Order Diptera)
The labrum and epipharynx are very long and form a tube-like feeding canal through which blood is
sucked. The mandibles and maxilla are transformed into long stylets. The maxillary functions in piercing
the skin of the host. The hypopharynx is very long and drawn out into a stylet-shaped structure housing
the salival tube. All the above-mentioned stylet-shaped mouthparts are housed inside a long trough-
shaped labium which forms a proboscis ending in two labella. In the female mosquito there are, therefore,
6 stylet-shaped mouthparts (2 mandibles, 2 maxillae, hypopharynx and labrum-epipharynx) instead of
4 (2 mandibles and 2 maxillae) as in males. When feeding, the two maxillae pierce the skin of the host
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and the other 4 mouthparts follow the maxillae into the wound. The labium is not pushed into the wound,
but only act as a guide (sheath) for the other 6 stylet-shaped mouthparts.
5.3.4 Non-piercing-sucking mouthparts, e.g. butterflies and moths (Order Lepidoptera)
The larvae (caterpillars) of Lepidopterans have typical chewing mouthparts, but after metamorphosis into
a moth or butterfly, these mouthparts are transformed into a long sucking tube. The labrum is much
reduced, and the mandibles are absent. Only the labial palps of the labia are present and the galeae of
the maxillae are greatly extended and lie close together to form a long, coiled tube (tongue or proboscis)
which can be extended to reach nectar at the bottom of bell-shaped flowers.
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UNIT 15
PHYLUM MOLLUSCA
CHAPTER 16: TB
EXERCISE 12: LAB STUDY GUIDE
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Distinguish between the 8 Classes of Phylum Mollusca.

2. Discuss the characteristics of the molluscs.
3. Describe the structure and operation of the radula.
4. Describe the structure of the shell and mantle.
5. Describe the phenomena of torsion and coiling of the visceral mass in molluscs.
6. Describe the structure of the garden snail (Helix) and of the squid (Loligo).
1. CLASSIFICATION
Kingdom: Animalia
Branch: Eumetazoa
Grade: Bilateria
Group: Eucoelomata
Phylum: Mollusca
1. Class Caudofoveata (Chaetoderma)

2. Class Solenogastres (Neomenia)
3. Class Monoplacophora (Neopelina)
4. Class Polyplacophora (Mopalia – chitons)
5. Class Scaphopoda (Dentalium)
6. Class Gastropoda (Helix-snails)
7. Class Bivalvia (Anodonta)
8. Class Cephalopoda (Squids)
2. MOLLUSCA CHARACTERISTICS
1. Bilaterally symmetrical (some forms are bilaterally asymmetrical), unsegmented, often with
a definite head.
2. Ventral body wall specialised as a muscular foot, usually for locomotion.
3. The dorsal body wall forms a pair of folds called the mantle, enclosing a cavity, the mantle
cavity which houses the ectodermal gills or lungs (in terrestrial snails of the Order Pulmonata,
Class Gastropoda). The mantle often secretes a shell.
4. Epidermis is usually ciliated and bears mucus glands.
5. The coelom is reduced to form a pericardial cavity, lumen of gonads and coelomoduct part
of the metanephridium.
6. The digestive system is simple or well-developed, consisting of a buccal cavity, housing the
radula, and into which the salivary glands open; a short oesophagus followed by the stomach
is present. The midgut is represented by a long, coiled intestinum. The rectum (hindgut) ends
in the anus, that opens into the mantle cavity.
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7. Open circulatory system with a heart (usually consisting of 3 chambers – 2 atria and one
ventricle) has arteries and sinuses.
8. Gaseous exchange occurs via gills, lungs, mantle, or body surface.
9. One or more kidneys (metanephridia) open into the pericardial cavity and empty into the
mantle cavity.
10. The nervous system consists of paired cerebral, pleural, pedal and visceral ganglia with
longitudinal nerve cords.
11. Sensory organs of touch, smell, taste, equilibrium, and vision are usually present.
12. Sexes separate (dioecious) or hermaphroditic forms (monoecious).
13. Development direct or a larval stage (trochophore or veliger) may be present.
3. NAME DERIVATIVE, HABITAT AND PHYSIOLOGY
➢ Name derivative: Mollusca (L- soft body)

➢ Habitat: freshwater, marine and terrestrial ecosystems
➢ Size – around 5cm, 1.5 -1.8 m
➢ Typical body plan: head–foot, visceral mass, mantle, and mantle cavity and
Radula.
➢ Radula: is a protrusible rasping tounge-like organ unique to Mollusca.
➢ Mantle: is the dorsal epidermis of the body wall that covers the visceral mass.
➢ Respiratory organs: include – gills, lungs, mantle and body surface.
➢ Open circulatory system in all species but closed in members of Cephalopoda.
➢ Separate sexes, monoecious, trochophore and glochidium larvae.
The body of molluscs is usually differentiated into a head-foot and visceral mass.
1. Head – foot
2. Visceral mass: has the digestive, circulatory, respiratory, excretory and reproductive
organs
3. Mantle – secretes the shell
4. Mantle cavity: houses gills/ctenidia, and nephridial openings.
4.1 The radula
The radula is a protrusible, rasping tongue-like organ found in all molluscs except the bivalves. The radula
consists of a ribbon-like chitinous membrane on which rows of tiny teeth are mounted (up to 250 000
teeth) and an odontophore (a cartilaginous structure) supporting the membrane. Both structures are
housed in a radula sac. Protractor and retractor muscles are attached to the odontophore and tooth
membrane. Food is rasped off with the tooth membrane and is continuously carried forward toward the
oesophagus in conveyor belt fashion. The pattern and number of teeth are specific for each species and
are used in the classification of molluscs.
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4.2 The mantle and shell
The dorsal body wall (epidermis), covering the visceral mass, forms a fold called the mantle, on each side
of the body, enclosing a cavity, the mantle cavity. The mantle cavity houses the respiratory organs (gills,
lungs). The excretory and reproductive products (coming from the kidneys, anus, and reproductive cells)
are liberated into the mantle cavity.
The shell, secreted by the outer layer of the mantle, typically consists of three layers: the outer
periostracum and a middle prismatic layer, secreted by the outer margin of the mantle. The inner layer of
the shell, the nacreous layer, is secreted by the entire epithelial layer of the mantle. The nacreous layer
(mother-of-pearl) is secreted in very thin wavy layers.
5. CLASSIFICATION OF THE EIGHT (8) CLASSES OF PHYLUM MOLLUSCA
5.1. CLASS APLACOPHORA
1. Class Caudofoveata (Chaetoderma)
2. Class Solenogastres (Neomenia)
➢ Placo = (G) Shell; Aplaco means without a shell; Molluscan shell absent.
➢ Include Class Caudofoveata and Solenogastres.
➢ Wormlike body, mantle margins rolled inward on ventral side.
➢ The posterior cavity functions as mantle cavity.
➢ The foot is highly reduced.
➢ Perceived to be ancestral to most molluscs.
➢ Found in most oceans in deeper ends of the sea.
➢ May or may not have a radula.
➢ The head is poorly developed.
➢ Members of both Classes are hermaphrodites.
➢ The feed on Cnidarians.
5.2 CLASS MONOPLACOPHORA
➢ This is the latest discovery with serially repeated structures such as:
➢ They have a single flattened shell that covers the ventral organs.
➢ 6 pairs gills, 6 pairs kidneys, 2 pairs auricles and 10 pairs pedal nerves.
➢ In all molluscans, repetition of organs is not common.
➢ Radula most confirming structure to group these with other Mollusca.
➢ Sexes separate.
➢ They feed on diatoms and sponges.
5.3 CLASS POLYPLACOPHORA
➢ Poly = many; placo = plate.

➢ Shell is composed of eight adjoining plates, instead of a single one as in Monoplacophorans.
➢ The body is dorsoventrally flattened.
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➢ Unique sensory structures = Estheses = Mantle photosensitive cells (in the head region) are
present.
➢ Osphradium (Little structure located in anal region used for water sampling)
➢ Separate sexes, single gonad, and external fertilisation resulting in trochophore larva, that,
➢ Develops directly into a juvenile.
➢ Ventrally= there is a broad creeping foot adapted for adhering onto rocks and substrates.
➢ They feed on algae and utilise radula to scrape algae off rocks.
5.4 CLASS SCAPHOPODA
➢ Taken from the word ‘scaphe’ (Greek) word meaning boat.

➢ The body is greatly elongated along the anterior – posterior axis.
➢ Also referred to as tusk shell/elephant shell.
➢ The entire mantle is wrapped around the body giving it a tubular shape.
➢ Valve/shells initially separated but later fused.
➢ The foot is highly reduced, respiration is by the mantle only.
➢ They are usually found burrowing in the sand with only the tusk protruding.
➢ Captactula are sensory organs located around the mouth.
5.5 CLASS BIVALVIA (freshwater clams and oysters)
Bivalves are laterally compressed, and their two shells (valves) are held together dorsally by a hinge
ligament that causes the valves to gape ventrally. Strong adductor muscles are used to close the valves.
The size of bivalves varies from 1 mm to more than 1 m (225 Kg). Bivalves are sedentary filter feeders,
and the well-developed gills stretch over the entire length of the body. Bivalves have no head or radula,
and the foot is relatively small and used as an anchor rather than for locomotion.
Freshwater clams (also known as mussels) are mollusks and are like their marine clam and oyster cousins.
They have two shells connected by a hinge-like ligament. Around the world, mussels live in a variety of
freshwater habitats but are most prevalent in streams and rivers. They vary in their adult sizes from those
as small as a thumbnail to others as big as a pie plate. On the stream bottom, mussels are sometimes only
noticeable by two small siphons, which are used to draw and expel water. When quickly dislodged, a large
muscular foot that is used to move amongst the stream bottom can be readily seen.
Freshwater clams (mussels) are an essential component of our rivers and streams. By their siphoning
actions, mussels filter bacteria, algae, and other small particles, which make them one of the few animals
that improve water quality. Mussels also serve as a food source to many species of fish, reptiles, birds,
and mammals. The outer shell of a live mussel is usually covered by aquatic insects, algae, and plants. Even
when dead, the empty shell functions as a nesting site for small fish like darters.
The life cycle of the freshwater mussel is one of the most complex and interesting in the animal world.
Unlike other animals that can actively search for a mate, the sedentary mussel depends on the river
current to reproduce. The process begins with the male releasing sperm, and the female located
downstream drawing it in through her incurrent siphon. Numbering in the 100’s to hundreds of thousands,
the fertilised eggs develop into glochidia within her gills. Once mature, they are released into the water
column to begin the second part of their lives, attaching to the gills, fins, or scales of freshwater fishes.
At this point, the process is further complicated because not only do the glochidia have to find a fish, but
57
it must be one of a few specific fish species for the life cycle to continue. If a glochidium attaches to the
correct fish species, it encysts into the fish’s tissue and undergoes a short life cycle as a parasite. If the
mussel is lucky enough to grow into an adult, it may live for 20-100 years or more depending on the
species.
MOLLUSCAN SHELL VISIBLE IN BIVALVES is divided into:
1. Periostracum: outer shell, protective function

2. Prismatic layer: middle layer, composed of calcium carbonate
3. Nacreous layer: innermost layer, laid down in thin wavy layers, area for pearl
production (Class Bivalvia)
CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Bivalvia – possess two shells

2. Pelecypoda – has a hatchet (hidden) foot
3. Size range from 0.1mm to 1 meter
4. Habitat: marine and freshwater
5. They are sedentary filter feeders (no radula)
6. Reproduction: external and internal fertilisation, glochidium larva
5.6 CLASS GASTROPODA
CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Largest, diverse, and most successful group of Phylum Mollusca

2. Habitat: marine, freshwater, terrestrial
3. Size: -8cm, up to 80 cm
4. Shell: that can coil either dextrally and or sinistrally, and has a columella (central axis)
5. Symmetry: bilateral asymmetry
CLASS GASTROPODA (Slugs and snails)
The Gastropoda forms the largest and most diverse group of molluscs (about 80% of all molluscs).
Gastropods exhibit torsion (a 90˚to 180º twisting of the visceral mass relative to the foot) and coiling
(spiral winding of the shell and visceral mass).
Torsion
Torsion is the phenomenon whereby the visceral mass undergoes an anticlockwise twisting of 90˚to 180º
so that the anus (emptying posteriorly into the mantle cavity) now lies anteriorly above the mouth.
Before torsion occurs, the anus and gills are situated in the posterior part of the mantle cavity, and with
the atria behind the ventricle. After torsion the gills and anus are situated in front, above the mouth, the
atria lie in front of the ventricle and the nerve cords are twisted in the shape of the number 8. Torsion
occurs during the veliger larval stage and takes a few minutes to be accomplished. Consequently, it is
caused by muscular action rather than differential growth. Detorsion i.e. a reversal of the visceral mass
after torsion has occurred, is found in the Subclass Pulmonata (terrestrial snails) where a 90˚detorsion
occurred and in the Opisthobranchia where a 180˚detorsion occurred.
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Coiling of the shell and visceral mass.
Coiling of the visceral mass has been correlated with an increase in the size of the digestive gland
(hepatopancreas). Instead of becoming enlarged over the entire area of the foot, the hepatopancreas
became winded in the shape of a planospiral i.e. all the whorls lay in a single plane. Such a shell was not
very compact since each whorl had to lie completely outside the preceding one. The compactness problem
of the planospiral shell was solved by the conispiral shape, in which each succeeding whorl is at the side
of the preceding one. Because of the unbalanced shape of a conispiral (it hangs over to one side).A better
mass distribution was achieved by shifting the shell upward and posteriorly. Since the largest whorl of
the shell pressed on the right side of the mantle cavity, the gill, kidney and atrium have been lost on this
side, leading to a condition known as bilateral asymmetry.
EVOLUTIONARY ADAPTATIONS OF THE GASTROPODA
1. Cephalisation: head development

2. Body dorsoventrally flattened
3. Shell-shaped shield evolved to a conical shape
4. Torsion and detorsion
5. Coiling
SUBCLASSES IN CLASS GASTROPODA
1. Subclass Prosobranchia
• Gills for respiration.

• Exhibit complete torsion.
• One pair tentacles present.
• Dioecious – single gonad.
• External fertilization.
• Eg. Haliotis (abalone).
2. Subclass Opisthobranchia
• Marine species
• No shell or true gill
• Partial or complete detorsion
• Two pairs’ tentacles (2nd pair rhinopores –chemosensory); monoecious
• Eg Nudibranch, sea hares
3. Subclass Pulmonata
• Mantle cavity modified to lungs

• Complete detorsion
• Land forms – two pairs of tentacles, posterior pair with eyes
• Eg. Helix (garden snail)
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5.7. CLASS CEPHALOPODA
The cephalopods are the most advanced group of the molluscs and include the octopuses, squids,
cuttlefish and nautiluses. Their size varies from about 2 cm up to 20 m (in the giant squid Architeuthis,
the largest invertebrate. Its “head” is about 2 m and its arms 18 m long, eyes 25 cm in diameter, mass 450
Kg.
CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Name derivative: Cephalopoda – kephale (G) Cephalus – head

Modified foot – is funnel-shaped
2. Size: range from 2-3cm, to giant squids up to 30 cm
3. Habitat: marine species, high salt concentration, bottom sea dwellers
4. Shell: absent in octopus, internal in squid, external in cuttlefish
5. Locomotion: jet propulsion (squids). Crawling (octopus)
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM:
• Complete mouth to anal opening

• Predatory: carnivore with powerful jaws, proteolytic enzyme (octopus)
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM:
• One pair of gills in most species; Nautilus – two pairs
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM:
• Closed blood vascular system in Cephalopoda

• Network of vessels and capillaries (only group with this system)
• Blood travels from – heart – systemic system - gills – and back into heart
• Vertebrates: blood leaves - heart –– gills – systemic system and back to heart
NERVOUS SYSTEM:
• The have the largest and complex brain in entire Animal Kingdom
• Nerve fibers are the largest in entire Animal kingdom
• Highly complex eyes
• Statocysts – equilibrium
• Tentacles – tactile exploration
• Protection; chromatophores (pigment), ink gland
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM:
• Separate sexes
• Hectecotylus (male copulatory organ)
• External fertilisation (Spermatophore)
• Direct development - juveniles
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• Adults – die after spawning
• Life span -3 yrs
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UNIT 16
PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA
CHAPTER 22
LAB STUDY GUIDE EXERCISE 17
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Distinguish between the 6 Classes of Phylum Echinodermata.

2. List and discuss the general characteristics of the Echinodermata.
3. Explain the structure of the Water Vascular System.
1. CLASSIFICATION
Kingdom Animalia
Branch Eumetazoa
Grade Bilateria
Division Deuterostomia
Group Eucoelomata
Phylum Echinodermata
Class 1. Crinoidea (sea lilies)
Class 2. Asteriodea (sea stars, star fishes)
Class 3. Ophiuroidea (brittle stars)
Class 4. Echinoidea (sea urchins)
Class 5. Holothuroidea (sea cucumbers)
Class 6. Concentricycloidea
2. UNIQUE FEATURES/ CHARACTERISTICS IN EACH CLASSIFICATION
Division Deuterostomia:
- During ontogeny the anal opening forms first in the blastopore region and the mouth forms
secondarily.
Group Eucoelomata:
- Animals in this group contain a true body cavity, a fluid-filled cavity called a coelom, that is
surrounded by a peritoneum, which is a transparent membrane of mesodermal origin. The coelom
forms enterocoelously (outpocketing or outpouching of the endoderm).
Phylum Echinodermata:
- Possess external spines on the surface of the body, that have pedicellariae-pincerlike structures.
62
Class 1. Asteriodea
Sea stars, star fishes- demonstrate basic features of Echinoderms bauplan, they have a central disc
from where arms radiate, have pentaradial symmetry.
Class 2. Crinoidea:
- Sea lilies – the most primitive group, attached to a substrate, flowerlike animals.
Class 3. Ophiuroidea:
- Brittle stars – snake-like form, move by hands instead of tube feet, most active and diverse group.
Class 4. Echinoidea:
- Sea urchins- typically lack arms, but test reflects typical pentamerous plan of echinoderms.
Class 5. Holothuroidea:
- Sea cucumbers – because of their resemblance to the vegetable cucumber, mouth surrounded by
tentacles/ modified tube feet, they have a soft leathery body without spines.
Class 6. Concentricycloidea
- Sea daisies.
- Latest addition to Echinodermata classification, they have a disc-shaped body with marginal spines
and no arms.
3. DEUTEROSTOMIA vs PROTOSTOMIA
DEUTEROSTOMIA PROTOSTOMIA
3.1 Radial cleavage Spiral cleavage
3.2 Fate of cells not fixed Fate of cells fixed
3.3 Indeterminate development Determinate development
3.4 Blastomeres loosely packed Blastomeres tightly packed
3.5 Coelom forms enterocoelously Coelom forms schizocoelously
3.6 Blastopore region forms anal opening Blastopore region forms mouth first and
first, and mouth secondarily anal opening secondarily
Eg Starfish Eg Earthworm
63
4. CLASS ASTEROIDEA (star fishes)
➢ Deuterostomes, enterocoelomate animals, ie blastopore becomes the anal opening first and
the coelom develops enterocoelously.
➢ Radial cleavage with bilateral symmetrical larvae (bipinnaria, brachiolaria.)
➢ Body unsegmented with pentamerous radial symmetry, and with radial areas (ambulacra)
alternating with interambulacral areas.
➢ No head or brain, Sensory organs of touch, taste, vision, and equilibrium are present.
➢ Nervous system consists of circumoral ring and radial nerves.
➢ Endoskeleton is composed of dermal calcareous ossicles with spines.
➢ Pedicellaria (pincers) usually present.
➢ Unique water vascular system of coelomic origin. It consists of a madreporite, stone canal, ring
canal, 5 radial canals and lateral canals associated with ampulla and tube feet.
➢ Locomotion by tube feet, arms and or spines.
➢ Digestive system complete, situated in central part of the body.
➢ Coelom extensive, forming perivisceral cavity and water-vascular system.
➢ Respiration by dermal branchiae, tube feet, respiratory tree, (holothuroids) and bursae
(ophiuroids)
➢ Anal opening, madreporite used as excretory organs.
➢ Sexes separate, fertilisation usually external.
5.1 External features
Sea stars are composed of a central disc that merges gradually with the tapering arms; the body is
somewhat flattened, covered by a ciliated epidermis; the mouth is centered on the oral side, and is
surrounded by a peristomial membrane; the anus is located on the aboral side. An ambulacral area runs
from the mouth on the oral side of each arm to the tip of the arm. The ambulacral groove is bordered by
rows of tube feet (podia). The aboral side is usually rough and spiny. Around the bases of the spines are
groups of minute, pincer-like pedicellariae which aid in cleaning the body surface and papulae (dermal
gills).
5.2. Endoskeleton
Beneath the epidermis is a mesodermal endoskeleton of small calcareous plates or ossicles, bound
together by connective tissue.
5.3 Coelom, excretion and respiration
The embryonic coelom gives origin to a spacious coelomic cavity filled with fluid. The peritoneum of the
coelom forms a layer surrounding the digestive system and gonads. Exchange of respiratory gases and
excretion of nitrogenous waste takes place by diffusion through the thin walls of the papulae and tube
feet.
5.4 Water vascular system
The water vascular system is a coelomic compartment unique only to the Echinoderms. The water vascular
system is a derivative of the coelom and consists of a system of hydraulic canals. It is a system of canals
64
and tube feet that, together with dermal ossicles, form a hydraulic system. The functions include
locomotion, food gathering, respiration and excretion.
Structurally the water vascular system opens from the outside through small pores in the madreporite on
the aboral side. The madreporite of the asteroids leads into a stone canal which descends towards a ring
canal around the mouth. Also attached to the ring canal are four to five pairs of folded pouch-like Polian
vesicles that store fluid and regulate internal pressure. A pair of Tiedmann’s bodies alongside each Polian
Vesicle produce coelomocytes which are phagocytic cells.
Radiating from the ring canal and into each arm are the radial canals. Radial canals diverge from the ring
canal into the ambulacral groove of each arm. A series of lateral canals each with a one-way valve
connects the radial canal to the cylindrical podia or the tube feet. Each podium is a hollow, muscular
tube, the inner end of which is a muscular sac called ampulla which lies within the coelomic cavity. The
outer end usually bears suckers used for attachment. Thus, the water vascular system operates
hydraulically and is an effective locomotory mechanism.
5.5 Digestive system
The mouth leads through a short oesophagus to a large stomach in the central disc. The lower (cardiac)
part of the stomach can be everted through the mouth during feeding. The upper (pyloric) part of the
stomach is smaller and connects by ducts to a pair of large pyloric caeca (digestive glands). A short
intestine leads aborally from the pyloric stomach and ends in the anus. Many sea stars are carnivorous
and feed on molluscs, crustaceans, polychaetes and other invertebrates.
5.6 Reproductive system
Most sea stars have separate sexes. A pair of gonads lies in each interradial space below the gastric caeca.
Fertilisation is external when sperms and eggs are shed into the water. Sea stars can regenerate lost parts,
they also have the power of autotomy where they can cast off injured arms, and regeneration of the lost
parts may take a few months.
Physiology of Class Asteroidea
• External features
• Digestive system
• Respiratory system
• Circulatory system
• Excretory system
• Reproductive system
•
Water Vascular System Functions
- Locomotion
- Food gathering
- Respiration
- Excretion
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66
UNIT 17
DEUTEROSTOMIA DIVISION
CHAPTER 23
PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA
PHYLUM HEMICHORDATA
PHYLUM CHORDATA
LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Give the layout of Chordate Classification.
2. Name and describe the specific characteristics and the general biology of the taxa.
3. Locate and describe all internal organs (and their function), identified during a frog dissection
practical.
1. INTRODUCTION
Chordates show a remarkable diversity of form and function ranging from Protochordates to humans.
Most chordates are vertebrates, but the Phylum also includes a few invertebrate animals. The
Hemichordata are marine animals formerly considered a Subphylum of Chordates based on their
possession of the gill slits and a rudimentary notochord. The Echinodermata, Hemichordata and Chordata
are lumped into the Division Deuterostomia and their characteristics were discussed in Unit 16. The
Chordata must have at some point in their lifecycle the following characteristics often called the Chordate
Hallmarks:
1.1 Hallmark (unique) characteristics of the Chordates

a) Notochord
b) Single, dorsal, hollow tubular nerve chord
c) Pharyngeal gill slits
d) Post anal tail
e) Endostyle
NB: THESE ARE DISCUSSED IN DETIAL IN THE LECTURE NOTES OF UNIT 17
OTHER CHARACTERISTICS
a) Living endoskeleton (Vertebrata)
b) Closed circulatory system
c) Pharynx with efficient respiratory function
d) Advanced nervous system
e) Paired appendages
2. CLASSIFICATION OF THE CHORDATA
Phylum Chordata
Subphylum Urochordata
1. Class Ascidiacea (sea squirts)
2. Class Thaliacea (salps)
3. Class Larvacea
67
Subphylum Cephalochordata
Genus Amphioxus (Lancelet)
Subphylum Vertebrata (Craniata)

1. Class Fishes
2. Class Amphibia
3. Class Reptilia
4. Class Aves
5. Class Mammalia
3. VERTEBRATE CLASSIFICATION WITH EMPHASIS ON CLASS AMPHIBIA
Phylum Chordata
Subphylum Vertebrata
Class Amphibia
a) Order Anura (Salientia)
(Frogs and toads)
b) Order Urodela (Caudata)
(Salamanders)
c) Order Gymnophiona (Apoda)
(Caecilians, limbless amphibians)
3.1 ORDER ANURA CLASSIFICATION
Phylum Chordata
Subphylum Vertebrata
Class Amphibia
Order Anura (Salientia)
Family Ranidae
Genus Rana
3.2 General characteristics of modern amphibians

Amphibians are quasiterrestrial (live in both aquatic and terrestrial environment).
Respire through gills, mouth and pharyngeal epithelium and skin.
Have a three-chambered heart, double circulation through heart.
Bony skeleton and notochord are absent in adults.
3.3 Physical properties for terrestrial adaptation

a) Oxygen content
b) Air with less buoyancy in aerial space than in water
c) Temperature fluctuation in air
d) Habitat diversity
3.4 Structural adaptation for terrestrial existence

a) Internal nostrils
(For chemoreception function)
b) Air filled cavity (swim-bladder or lungs)
(Cavities permit gaseous exchange with body fluids)
68
c) Bony elements of paired fins
(Modified for support t and movement under water)
(Provide sufficient strength for support and movement on land)
d) Skeletal framework to support body weight
e) Double circulatory system (systemic and pulmonary)
69

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FACULTY OF SCIENCE

COMPILED BY PROF H. SWANEPOEL

1.1. HOW TO USE THIS LEARNING GUIDE?

1.2. DEPARTMENTAL INFORMATION

1.2.1 DEPARTMENT SECRETARY

1.2.2 THE LECTURER

Office #: D3 Lab 130, Histology Laboratory, Zoology Department

4. PURPOSE OF THE MODULE

An integrated approach is followed.

An integrated approach is followed:

Discussion Board/ Forum

Theory test 1: August 23, 2023

Theory test 2: October 11, 2023

5.1. PASS REQUIREMENTS

Pass requirement 50% as a final mark.

Final mark weigthing:

= Semester mark : Exam mark

Semester Mark (SM) 50%

Examination Mark (EM) 50%

Final Mark (FM) 100%

5.2 ENTRANCE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE EXAM

5.3 FINAL EXAM:

ZOO11B1 EXAM: NOVEMBER 1, 2023 TIME: 08:30-11:30 SESSION 1 VENUE: TBA

6.1. TEXTBOOK (TB) (Theoretical work)

Title: Integrated Principles of Zoology

LABORATORY TEXTBOOK (LS) (Practical work)

Title: Laboratory Studies in Integrated Principles of Zoology

• Important dates will be placed on the calendar or discussed in class or online.

6.3. TUTORS AND DEMMIES

7.1 Practical sessions

• Lab coat (white only)

8. HOUSEKEEPING RULES (IN PERSON LEARNING)

9.1 REFERENCING TECHNIQUES

10. APPLICATION FOR SUPPLEMENTARY (SICK NOTE)

11. GRIEVANCE PROCEDURE

THESE WILL BE MODERATED TO ACCOMMODATE ON-LINE TEACHING AND LEARNING

LEARNING OUTCOMES ASSESSMENT CRITERIA

• Define and explain fundamental Evolutionary processes and patterns

ARCHITECTURAL PATTERNS OF ANIMALS

After completing Unit 2, you should be able to:

1. THE HIERARCHICAL ORGANISATION OF ANIMAL COMPLEXITY – LEVELS OF

Increasing complexity of organisation (from unicellular protozoans to mammals) is the most

1.1 Protoplasmic grade of organisation

2. COMPLEXITY AND BODY SIZE

3. DEVELOPMENTAL PATTERNS IN ANIMALS

The process by which the architectural structure of an organism develops, is referred to as

Cleavage results in the formation of an embryo called a coeloblastula and morphogenetic

The gastrula, formed by invagination or epiboly, contains a blastopore and an archenteron

3.3 Formation of the coelom

4. ORGANISATION OF THE BODY

Extracellular components of the body and various types of tissues.

5. ANIMAL BODY PLANS

5.1 Animal symmetry

6. HOMOLOGY AND ANALOGY

DEVELOPMENT (ONTOGENY) AND DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES IN MULTICELLULAR ANIMALS

(See Diagram titled “The fate of the blastocoel”)

TAXONOMY AND PHYLOGENY OF ANIMALS

After completing Unit 3, you should be able to:

1. LINNAEUS SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION

2. TAXONOMIC CHARACTERS AND PHYLOGENY RECONSTRUCTION

4. THE SPECIES CONCEPTS

4.1 Typological species concept (Linnaeus)

4.2 Biological species concept (Mayr)

“A species is a reproductive community of populations (reproductively, isolated from others)