Types of Transformer Tests

Tests of transformer done at the manufacturer’s premises −

Type tests
Routine tests
Special tests
Tests of transformer done at the consumer’s site −

Pre-commissioning tests
Periodic tests
Emergency tests
Type Tests of Transformer
The type tests of a transformer are performed at the manufacturer’s premises to prove the design
expectations and consumer’s specifications. The type tests are performed in a prototype unit,
not in all manufactured units and these tests confirm the basic and main design criteria of the
transformer.

Following transformer tests are included in the type tests −

Transformation ratio test

Winding resistance test of transformer
Measurement of core losses and no-load current through open-circuit test

Measurement of short circuit impedance and copper losses through short-circuit test

Transformer vector group test

Measurement of insulation resistance
Dielectric test of transformer
On-load tap-changer test
Temperature rise test
Vacuum test of tank and radiators
Routine Tests of Transformer
The routine tests of a transformer are performed to confirm the operational performance of the
transformer and being performed on every units manufactured.

Following tests are included in the routine tests −

Winding resistance test of transformer

Transformation ratio test
Measurement of core losses and no-load current through open-circuit test
Measurement of short circuit impedance and copper losses through short-circuit test

Transformer vector group test

Dielectric test of transformer
On-load tap-changer test
Oil pressure to check against the leakages of joints and gaskets.

Special Tests of Transformer

The special tests of transformer are performed depending upon customer’s requirements to
gathering the information which is useful during the operation and maintenance of the
transformer.

The special tests of transformer include the following tests −

Dielectric test of transformer

Short-circuit test
Measurement of acoustic noise level
Measurement of no-load current harmonics
Measurement of zero-sequence impedance of the 3-phase transformer
Measurement of power drawn by cooling fans and oil pumps
Tests on accessories e.g. buchholz relay, oil preservator, temperature indicators, pressure relief
devices etc.

The some important tests of transformer are discussed below.

Winding Resistance Tests of Transformer

The winding resistance tests are performed to determine the I2R loss in the windings of the
transformer. These tests are carried out as a type test as well as routine test. There are various
methods available for the measurement of resistance of the transformer winding as follows −

Ammeter-voltmeter method
Bridge method
Kelvin bridge method
Automatic winding resistance measurement kit.

Transformation Ratio Test

The voltage transformation ratio is the principle factor which greatly affects the performance of
a transformer. Therefore, the transformation ratio test is an essential test of transformer. The
transformation ratio test is performed by applying a 3-phase 415 V supply to the high voltage
winding, with keeping the low-voltage winding open circuited, the induced voltage is then
measured at HV-winding terminals and LV-winding terminals of the transformer to determine
the actual transformation ratio of the transformer.

Insulation Resistance Test of Transformer

The insulation resistance test of transformer is carried out by the megger, so it is also known as
megger test of transformer. This test is performed to ensure the healthiness of the overall
insulation of the transformer.

The procedure of the insulation tests of transformer is as follows −

Step 1 – Disconnect the all line and neutral terminals of the transformer.

Step 2 – The megger leads are to be connected between the LV and HV bushing studs to
measure the insulation resistance between the LV and HV windings.

Step 3 – The megger leads are to be connected between the HV bushing stud and earth terminal
of the transformer (body of the transformer) to measure the insulation resistance between the
HV winding and the earth.

Step 4 – The megger leads are to be connected between the LV bushing stud and the body of
the transformer (earth terminal) to measure the insulation resistance between the LV winding
and the earth.

All the readings taken above should be tending to infinity for a healthy transformer.

Dielectric Test of Transformer

The dielectric test of a transformer is also a kind of insulation test. This test is carried out to
ensure the expected insulation strength of the transformer. The dielectric test is mainly
performed in following steps −

Step 1 – This step is called as separate source voltage withstand test of transformer, in which a
single phase supply of prescribed voltage level is applied to the winding of the transformer for
60 seconds. Another winding and the body of the transformer is connected to the earth and it is
observed that any failure of insulation occurs or not during the test.

Step 2 – This step is called as the induced voltage test of the transformer, in which a 3- phase
voltage supply that is twice of the rated voltage of secondary winding in magnitude and
frequency is applied to the secondary winding of the transformer for 60 seconds and the
primary winding is kept open-circuited. The test is started with a voltage lower than 1/3 of the
full rated voltage and it has to be quickly increased upto the desired value. The test would be
successful if no failure of insulation occurs at full test voltage during the test.
In addition to the dielectric tests of the transformer, there are other types of test for checking the
insulation strength of the transformer such as BDV test of transformer oil, lightening impulse
test, switching impulse test and partial discharge test etc.

Temperature Rise Test of Transformer

The temperature rise test of a transformer is performed to ensure that the temperature of the
transformer windings and oil is in the specified limits or not. This test is done with the help of
winding temperature indicator (WTI) and oil temperature indicator (OTI) meters.

What does a dielectric test do?

Dielectric tests apply a high level of alternating currents (AC) or direct currents (DC) to the
insulation barrier and measure the reaction of the material. AC voltage is more commonly used
in dielectric testing. The purpose of a dielectric strength test is to reach the point of breakdown,
or failure.

What is the dielectric of transformer?

The dielectric system consists of the dielectric materials (fiberglass, mica, aramid fiber paper,
NOEMX, Mylar, etc.) in combination with the process materials and air that provides the
electrical insulation of the transformer.

What is dielectric test also known as?

In electrical engineering, a dielectric withstand test (or pressure test, high potential or hipot test)
is an electrical safety test performed on a component or product to determine the effectiveness
of its insulation. The test may be between mutually insulated sections of a part, or energized
parts and ground.

What is the difference between IR test and dielectric test?

Although the the dielectric withstand test and the insulation resistance test are similar,
insulation resistance tests generally run below 1000 Vdc and return a value in ohms, while
dielectric withstand test voltages can run up to 5000 Vac and 6000 Vdc depending on the
requirements and returns a value in milliamps.

Why do we use dielectric in transformer?

Dielectrics are used as a capacitor for storing energy. The dielectric material in a transformer is
used as an insulator and as a cooling agent. To enhance the performance of a semiconductor
device, high permittivity dielectric materials are used.

What is the voltage for dielectric testing?

The method of dielectric testing: A high voltage (typically 1000 Volts or higher) is applied
between two conductors that are “supposed” to be electrically insulated from each other.
What is hipot test?
Hipot test is an abbreviation of High Potential test, also known as a Dielectric Withstand Test.
Basically it is a test that applies high voltage to assets to determine the adequacy of the
electrical insulation to withstand voltage transients and make sure the insulation is not marginal.

What is the duration of dielectric test?

Dielectric Withstand Test

The test (output) voltage is applied for a defined period of time (Hold time), ranging from a few
minutes for a type test, to as low as a second for production (routine) testing

What is the current limit for dielectric test?

The following are the relevant parts of IEC 60079 series standards regarding dielectric strength
test. The applied voltage shall remain constant during the test. The current flowing during the
test shall not exceed 5 mA r.m.s. at any time.

What is dielectric strength in kV?

kV/mm
Dielectric strength is a measure of a material's insulating performance, and is measured in
kV/mm, or volts per unit thickness. A material's dielectric strength also tells engineers and
materials scientists at what voltage the material will decompose and start conducting.

What are types of hipot tests?

Types of measurement performed by hipot testers include AC dielectric strength, DC dielectric
strength, arc detection or tracking, insulation resistance, AC/DC selectable, and earth
continuity. An AC dielectric test measures the withstand capability of an insulator.

What is the timing of BDV test?

The BDV Test of Transformer Oil has a breakdown time of less than 10 milliseconds, a rise rate
of voltage is 2 KV per second, and the KV indication appears in three digits.

What is dielectric measured in?

Measurement of dielectric properties involves measurements of the complex relative
permittivity (εr) and complex relative permeability (r) of the materials. A complex dielectric
permittivity consists of a real part and an imaginary part.
 Types of losses in transformers: 
 An ideal transformer is very efficient, they don’t have energy losses. It means power supplied to
the transformer’s input terminal must be equivalent to the power supplied to the transformer’s
output one. So the input power and output power in an ideal transformer are equal including
zero energy losses .In reality, both the input and output powers of the transformer will not equal
because of electrical losses within the transformer. Because the transformer is a static device, it
doesn’t have any movable parts, so we cannot observe mechanical losses but electrical losses will
occur like copper and iron. This article discusses an overview of different types of losses in a
transformer. 

There are different kinds of losses that will be occurred in the transformer such as copper,
hysteresis, eddy, iron, stray & dielectric. The copper loss commonly occurs due to the resistance in
the transformer winding whereas hysteresis losses will be occurred due to the magnetization
change within the core.

1. Core Losses Or Iron Losses

Eddy current loss and hysteresis loss depend on the magnetic properties of the material used for the
construction of the core. So, these losses are also known as core losses or iron losses.

 Hysteresis loss in transformer: The reason is the reversal of magnetization in the transformer

core. This loss depends on the volume and grade of the iron, frequency of magnetic reversals and
value of flux density. We have the Steinmetz formula:

        Wh= ηBmax1.6fV (watts)

        Where,   η = Steinmetz hysteresis constant

        V = volume of the core in m3

Hysteresis loss is loss caused by the magnetism that remains (lags) in a material after the
magnetizing force has been removed. Magnetic domains are small sections of a magnetic material
that act together when subject to an applied magnetic field. Magnetic domains have magnetic
 properties and move in iron when subjected to a magnetic field. When the iron is subjected to a
magnetic field in one polarity, the magnetic domains will be forced into alignment with the field.
When the polarity changes twice each cycle, power is consumed by this realignment, and this
reduces the efficiency of the transformer. This movement of the molecules produces friction in the
iron, and thus heat is a result. Harmonics can cause the current to reverse direction more frequently,
leading to more hysteresis loss. Hysteresis is reduced through the use of highly permeable magnetic
core material.

 Eddy current loss in transformer: The  AC current is supplied to the primary winding which sets
up alternating magnetizing flux in the transformer. When this flux flow to a secondary winding, it
produces induced emf in it. But some part of this flux also gets linked with other conducting parts
such as steel core or iron body or the transformer, which will result in induced emf in those parts,
causing small circulating current in them. This current is called as eddy current. Due to the current,
some energy will be dissipated in the form of heat.
2. Copper Loss
The ohmic resistance of the transformer windings creates copper loss.  The copper loss for the
primary winding is I12R1 and for the secondary winding is I22R2. Where, I1 and I2 are current in
primary and secondary winding respectively, R1 and R2 are the resistances of primary and
secondary winding respectively. We can see that Cu loss is proportional to square of the current,
and current depends on the load. So that copper loss in transformer varies with the load

3. Stray Loss

The reason for the types of loss is the occurrence of the leakage field. When compared with copper
and iron losses, the percentage of stray losses are less, so these losses can be neglected.

 4. Dielectric Loss

The oil of the transformer is the reason for this loss. Oil in transformer is an insulating material.
When the oil in the transformer gets deteriorates then the transformer’s efficiency will be affected.

5. Measure Efficiency of Transformer

Like any other electrical machine, the efficiency of a transformer can be defined as the output
power divided by the input power. That is efficiency = output / input .

In electrical devices, transformers are the most highly efficient ones. It is due to the fact that most
of the transformers have full load efficiency between 95% to 98.5%. 

As a transformer being highly efficient, the output value is equivalent to input value, and hence it is
impractical to measure the efficiency of the transformer by using output/input.

 Another methor to find efficiency of a transformer is using, efficiency = (input - losses) / input = 1
- (losses / input).
 6. Condition For Maximum Efficiency

You can see in the below formular: 

We have, 
Copper loss = I12R1
Iron loss = Wi

Hence, the efficiency of a transformer will be maximum when copper loss and iron losses are
equal.

So that, Copper loss = Iron loss.

Technical details of c.r.g.o.

c.r.g.o. or Cold Rolled Grain Oriented Steel is available in various grades (generally called M3,
M4, M5 & M6, Major international standards such as Japanese (JIS), American (ASTM),
German (DIN) and British Standards which specify c.r.g.o. grade).
Conventional c.r.g.o. grades generally M3, M4, M5, and M6 are used regularly for Lamination
cores in Transformers. However recently due to environmental protection, energy savings are
becoming a must. Nippon Steel Corporation and other c.r.g.o. producing mills has come out
with low loss Hi-B materials, which guarantee low Watt Losses at 1.7 Tesla flux density. Such
materials are called Hi-B materials.
Below given table indicates magnetic properties of Hi-B material.
Popular c.r.g.o. Hi-B grades are 23 MOH & 27 MOH ZDKH, ZDMH/HPDR.
Manufacturing mills of c.r.g.o. Steel guarantee the core loss figure at flue density of 1.5 Tesla in
case of c.r.g.o. conventional grain oriented steel and at 1.7 Tesla in case of c.r.g.o. Hi-B Steel
and c.r.g.o. Hi-B-LS Steel.

Flux Density V/s Losses

These results were measured in Vilas Transcore Limited Testing Laboratory

These values are for reference only. All values are in Watts/kg @ 50 Hz

Flux 23
23PH 27ZD 27ZDK 27 30
Density MO M3 M4 M5 M6
D85 K H90 H95 MOH MOH
(Tesla) H
1.30 0.46 0.51 0.48 0.53 0.57 0.57 0.49 0.64 0.68 0.73
1.35 0.49 0.55 0.51 0.57 0.60 0.62 0.53 0.68 0.74 0.79
1.40 0.53 0.59 0.57 0.61 0.66 0.65 0.58 0.74 0.80 0.86
1.45 0.57 0.63 0.61 0.66 0.70 0.70 0.64 0.78 0.87 0.94
1.46 0.58 0.64 0.62 0.67 0.71 0.71 0.65 0.80 0.88 0.97
1.48 0.60 0.66 0.64 0.66 0.73 0.74 0.67 0.82 0.91 1.03
1.50 0.61 0.67 0.66 0.70 0.74 0.76 0.70 0.84 0.94 1.11
1.52 0.63 0.69 0.68 0.72 0.76 0.78 0.72 0.88 0.97 1.14
1.54 0.65 0.71 0.70 0.74 0.79 0.80 0.75 0.90 1.01 1.18
1.56 0.67 0.73 0.72 0.76 0.81 0.83 0.78 0.93 1.04 1.22
1.58 0.69 0.75 0.74 0.78 0.83 0.85 0.81 0.96 1.08 1.26
1.60 0.71 0.77 0.76 0.80 0.85 0.87 0.85 1.00 1.12 1.30
1.62 0.73 0.79 0.79 0.83 0.89 0.90 0.89 1.03 1.16 1.35
1.64 0.75 0.81 0.83 0.85 0.91 0.93 0.93 1.07 1.20 1.40
1.66 0.78 0.84 0.87 0.88 0.94 0.96 0.98 1.10 1.25 1.45
1.68 0.81 0.87 0.91 0.93 0.96 1.00 1.03 1.15 1.30 1.51
1.70 0.84 0.90 0.95 0.95 1.00 1.05 1.09 1.20 1.36 1.57
1.72 0.86 0.93 1.01 0.98 1.02 1.07 1.15 1.24 1.42 1.64
Important physical properties of c.r.g.o.
Density gm/c3 7.65
Silicon content% 3.10
Resistivity micro Ohm-centimeter 48.00
Ultimate tensile Strength 00 to Rolling Direction Kg/mm2 32.60
Ultimate tensile Strength 900 to Rolling Direction Kg/mm2 38.20
Stacking factor % M4 (.27mm) 96.00
Stacking factor % M5 (.30mm) 96.50
Stacking factor % M6 (.35mm) 97.00
CRGO materials come either in the form of coils or sheets. Given below the details of CRGO
dimensions and tolerances as per JIS C 3553.

Testing Parameter for Toroidal Core

Reluctance - Toroidal Core
Grade of AT 0.5 Tesla AT 1.0 Tesla AT 1.5 Tesla AT 1.7 Tesla
Material AT/CM AT/CM AT/CM AT/CM
0.23
0.06 0.10 0.20 0.30
ZDMH/HPDR
0.23 ZdKH 0.07 0.12 0.22 0.32
0.23 MoH 0.08 0.15 0.26 0.35
0.23 M3 0.09 0.18 0.30 0.45
M4 0.12 0.22 0.32 -
M5 0.15 0.28 0.40 -

What is watt loss in electrical steel?

Magnetic properties

Hysteresis loss is determined by a standard Epstein tester and, for common grades of electrical
steel, may range from about 2 to 10 watts per kilogram (1 to 5 watts per pound) at 60 Hz and
1.5 tesla magnetic field strength.

What are the properties of CRGO?

Properties of CRGO Steel

High magnetic permeability. Reduced magnetostriction. High resistivity. High stacking or
laminating factor allows compact core designs.

What is CRGO used to reduce?

CRGO laminations in a transformer are used to minimize both eddy current and hysteresis
losses. CRGO is cold rolled grain oriented steel and as the name suggests, its grains (crystals)
are aligned in the direction of rolling

What is permeability and flux?

Permeability is the ability of a material to allow the magnetic flux when the object is placed
inside the magnetic field where magnetic flux is the measure of the number of magnetic lines of
forces that can pass via a given surface. Permeability is denoted by a Greek symbol 'm' m is
measured in: Farad / Meter (F/ M)

Over Fluxing in Transformer

How the transformer works?

The transformer has two coils wound around the common magnetic core. When an alternating
voltage is applied to the primary coil, the current flows through it. The current flowing in the
primary coil produces the magnetic flux.

The magnetic flux produced in the primary coil is proportional to the ratio of the applied
voltage to the frequency. According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, the EMF is
induced in the primary and as per the Lenz’ law, the induced EMF always opposes the primary
current that is responsible for begetting the EMF.

The voltage induced in the coil can be expressed by the following mathematical expression. 

E= 4.44 Φf N

Where,    

E =  Induced EMF in the primary coil   

Φ = The magnetic flux   
f  =  Frequency   
N  = Turns /Phase

The flux travels through the magnetic core and it gets linked to the secondary coil. Practically,
all the flux produced in the primary does not link to the secondary. Some parts of the magnetic
flux links to the primary coil and other parts of the transformer. The flux that does not link to
both primary and secondary coils is known as the leakage flux. The losses in the
transformer increase with an increase in the leakage flux. The useful flux that links to the
secondary coil induces a voltage in the secondary according to the Faraday’s Law of
Electromagnetic Induction. The voltage induced in the secondary coil is  

Es= -N dΦ/dt  

The secondary voltage remains constant if the rate of change of the flux is constant. It is

desirable that the flux in the transformer must remain constant.  

The Flux density of the CRGO Core:

The transformer designer first checks the rated flux density of the colled rolled grain
oriented(CRGO) core. The maximum flux density of the CRGO core is about 1.9 Tesla. If the
flux density of the transformer is above 1.9 Tesla, the core of the transformer gets saturated, and
it will lead to insulation failure of the laminated core. The designed maximum flux density of
the core must be below the maximum rated flux density of the core. The core must not get
saturated in any case. The magnetization curve of the different material is as given below.

The flux density of the core can be controlled during the design stage of the transformer. The
flux density of the core can be controlled by adjusting the cross-sectional area of the core during
transformer designing. The flux through the core is the product of the flux density and the
cross-sectional area of the core(Φ=B*A). The flux density of the core can be reduced by
increasing the cross-sectional area of the core.

The voltage induced in the primary when the sinusoidal voltage is applied is

E=4.44 ΦfN
Φ=E/4.44f N

The Number of turns in the primary is constant for a given transformer

Φ=K* E/f

The induced voltage is approximately proportional to the applied voltage if the primary
impedance is ignored.

Φ=K*V/f   ———-(1)

The flux density in the core of the core is as given below.

B=Φ / A

Where A is the cross section area of the core that is also constant.
B=K/A*V/f
B=K1*V/f   ———–(2)
B ∝ V/f 

Thus the flux density in the core is directly proportional to the ratio of V/f if the number of
turns of the primary is fixed. For on load tap changer transformer, the number of turns is not
fixed but changes according to the output voltage requirement so we will also discuss the flux
density in the core with the tap changer is not at the center tap position.

The over fluxing in the transformer happens with an increase in the supply voltage or decrease
of the supply frequency. If the transformer has tap changer and the number of turns is reduced
to increase the secondary voltage the flux density in the core will increase. The designer always
takes the margin of increase in the flux due to tap changer operation. Also, the margin of
allowable increase of voltage and decrements of the frequency is taken into consideration while
designing the transformer.

Reasons for transformer Over fluxing :

1. The Increase of the supply voltage due to sudden load through.

2.  The receiving end voltage can be more than the sending end voltage due to the Ferranti
effect if the line is lightly loaded.

3. The transients and overshoots in the electrical network

Why important to keep the flux constant in the core?

The rated maximum flux density of the CRGO core is 1.9 Tesla. The transformer core gets
saturated if the flux density is more than 1.9 Tesla. The transformer is designed at the flux
density of 1.73 Tesla in order to have the 10 % margin in the flux density. If the flux density in
the core is below 1.9, the flux is confined in the core because the permeability of the core is
more than the permeability of surrounding materials.

What happens if the flux density in the core goes above the saturation point of the CRGO core?

The flux remains confined in the core if the flux density is below the rated flux density of the
core. If the flux density exceeds beyond the maximum rated flux density, the flux starts linking
to other parts of the transformer through the air. Beyond the saturation point, the flux density of
the core becomes constant, and the additional flux starts linking to the steel parts and induces
the eddy current in the loops. The eddy current heats up the structural parts and it will raise the
temperature of the core. The core of the transformer can get damaged if the over fluxing is
allowed for a longer period.

Moreover, if the core of the transformer is over excited it operates in the non-linear region of
the B-H curve. The exciting current is no more sinusoidal and generates harmonics. The 5th
order harmonics is produced when the core of the transformer gets saturated.
The higher frequency current tends to flow at the outer surface of the winding conductor
because of the skin effect. The effective area of the conductor gets reduced and its resistance
increases. This all causes the higher I^2*R loss, and cause additional heat loss in the winding.
Also, the higher frequency current cause temperature rise of the transformer core on account of
eddy current as the eddy current loss is proportional to the square of the frequency. If the
transformer is operated on over fluxing for a longer period of the time, the laminated stamping
insulation is apt to fail. Therefore, the transformer must not be operated under over fluxing.

The over fluxing in the transformer can be judged by inspecting the transformer during the
maintenance. The over fluxing cause temperature rise of the core, winding and the transformer
parts. The temperature rise adversely affects the useful life of the transformer life. The
transformer oil properties get changed with temperature increase. The dissolved gas analysis
(DGA) must be performed once in a year to check the health of the transformer. The heating
cause discoloring of the paint of the tank, carbonized material in the transformer oil, discoloring
of the insulation of the winding and blistering of the paint.

Permissible flux density:

The saturation flux density of the Colled rolled grain oriented(CRGO) core is 1.9 Tesla. As per
the present design practice, the peak rated value of the flux density is kept about 1.7 Tesla
which is about 0.9 times of the rated value. The design margin of 10 % in the flux density is
kept for taking care of increased flux density with an increase in the system voltage or with a
decrease in the system frequency and the thermal time constant of transformer heated parts.

The maximum over fluxing in transformer shall not exceed 110%. the transformer can be
continuously operated at 110 % of the designed flux density. However, the operation of the
transformer above 110%  and up to 130 %  of the flux density can be allowed for a shorter
period of the time. If the flux density increases to 140 % the transformer shall be tripped
instantaneously to avoid the permanent damage.

The below-given table shows the permissible over fluxing of the transformer.

Over Fluxing (V/f) 1.1 1.2 1.25 1.3 1.4

Duration (Minutes) Continuous 2 1 0.5 0

The over fluxing protection relay is used to trip the transformer breaker in the condition of over
fluxing.

What is the flux density of CRGO steel?

Manufacturing mills of CRGO Steel guarantee the core loss figure at flux density of 1.5
Tesla in case of CRGO conventional grain oriented steel and at 1.7 Tesla in case of CRGO HI-
B-Steel and CRGO HI-B-LS Steel.
What do we measure in tesla?
Tesla is the unit of measurement to define the magnetic flux density. This is a unit of
measurement on the International System of Units, which is the metric system. One tesla is the
same as one weber (the representation of magnetic flux) per square meter

What is the relationship between tesla and weber?

One tesla equals one weber per square metre, corresponding to 104 gauss. It is named for Nikola
Tesla (q.v.). It is used in all work involving strong magnetic fields, while the gauss is more
useful with small magnets.

Permeability is a measure of how easily magnetic lines of force can pass through a material.
The permeability of a material is defined as the constant of proportionality between the
magnetic flux density and the magnetic field.

In electromagnetism, permeability is the measure of magnetization produced in a material in

response to an applied magnetic field. Permeability is typically represented by the (italicized)
Greek letter μ. It is ratio of the magnetic induction

It is ratio of the magnetic induction B to the magnetizing field H as a function of the field H in
a material.

In SI units, permeability is measured in henries per meter (H/m), or equivalently in newtons per
ampere squared (N/A2). The permeability constant μ0, also known as the magnetic constant or
the permeability of free space, is the proportionality between magnetic induction and
magnetizing force when forming a magnetic field in a classical vacuum.

A closely related property of materials is magnetic susceptibility, which is a dimensionless

proportionality factor that indicates the degree of magnetization of a material in response to an
applied magnetic field.
Values for some common materials[edit]
The following table should be used with caution as the permeability of ferromagnetic materials
varies greatly with field strength. For example, 4% Si steel has an initial relative permeability
(at or near 0 T) of 2,000 and a maximum of 35,000[5] and, indeed, the relative permeability of
any material at a sufficiently high field strength trends toward 1 (at magnetic saturation).

Magnetic susceptibility and permeability data for selected materials

Susceptibility Relative
Magneti
, permeability Permeability, Frequency, max
Medium c
volumetric, , μ (H/m) .
field
SI, χm max., μ/μ0

1.25663706212 × 10−6 (μ0
Vacuum 0 1, exactly[6]
)

Metglas 2714A
1000000[7] 1.26×100 At 0.5 T 100 kHz
(annealed)
 Magnetic susceptibility and permeability data for selected materials

Susceptibility Relative
Magneti
, permeability Permeability, Frequency, max
Medium c
volumetric, , μ (H/m) .
field
SI, χm max., μ/μ0

Iron (99.95% pure
200000[8] 2.5×10−1
Fe annealed in H)

At 0.002
Permalloy 100000[9] 1.25×10−1
T

NANOPERM® 80000[10] 1.0×10−1 At 0.5 T 10 kHz

Mu-metal 50000[11] 6.3×10−2

At 0.002
Mu-metal 20000[12] 2.5×10−2
T

Cobalt-iron
(high permeability 18000[13] 2.3×10−2
strip material)

Iron (99.8% pure) 5000[8] 6.3×10−3

At 0.002
Electrical steel 4000[14] 5.0×10−3
T

Ferritic stainless
1000 – 1800[15] 1.26×10−3 – 2.26×10−3
steel (annealed)

Martensitic
stainless 750 – 950[15] 9.42×10−4 – 1.19×10−3
steel (annealed)

Ferrite (manganes At 0.25 approx. 100 Hz –

350 – 20 000[16] 4.4×10−4 – 2.51×10−2
e zinc) mT 4 MHz

At ≤ 0.25 approx. 1 kHz –
Ferrite (nickel zinc) 10 – 2300[17] 1.26×10−5 – 2.89×10−3
mT 400 MHz[citation needed]

Ferrite (magnesiu
At 0.25
m manganese 350 – 500[18] 4.4×10−4 – 6.28×10−4
mT
zinc)

Ferrite (cobalt At 0.001 approx. 2 MHz –

40 – 125[19] 5.03×10−5 – 1.57×10−4
nickel zinc) T 150 MHz
 Magnetic susceptibility and permeability data for selected materials

Susceptibility Relative
Magneti
, permeability Permeability, Frequency, max
Medium c
volumetric, , μ (H/m) .
field
SI, χm max., μ/μ0

Mo-Fe-Ni powder
compound approx. 50 Hz –
14 – 550[20] 1.76×10−5 – 6.91×10−4
(molypermalloy 3 MHz
powder, MPP)

Nickel iron powder At 0.001 approx. 50 Hz –

14 – 160[21] 1.76×10−5 – 2.01×10−4
compound T 2 MHz

Al-Si-Fe powder
approx. 50 Hz –
compound 14 – 160[22] 1.76×10−5 – 2.01×10−4
5 MHz[23]
(Sendust)

Iron powder At 0.001 approx. 50 Hz –

14 – 100[24] 1.76×10−5 – 1.26×10−4
compound T 220 MHz

Silicon iron powder approx. 50 Hz –

19 – 90[25][26] 2.39×10−5 – 1.13×10−4
compound 40 MHz

Carbonyl iron At 0.001 approx. 20 kHz –

4 – 35[27] 5.03×10−6 – 4.4×10−5
powder compound T 500 MHz

At 0.002
Carbon steel 100[12] 1.26×10−4
T

At 0.002
Nickel 100[12] – 600 1.26×10−4 – 7.54×10−4
T

Martensitic
stainless 40 – 95[15] 5.0×10−5 – 1.2×10−4
steel (hardened)

Austenitic stainless 1.003 – 1.05[15][28] 1.260×10−6 – 8.8×10−6

steel [note 1]

Neodymium
1.05[29] 1.32×10−6
magnet

Platinum 1.000265 1.256970×10−6

Aluminum 2.22×10−5[30] 1.000022 1.256665×10−6

Wood 1.00000043[30] 1.25663760×10−6

 Magnetic susceptibility and permeability data for selected materials

Susceptibility Relative
Magneti
, permeability Permeability, Frequency, max
Medium c
volumetric, , μ (H/m) .
field
SI, χm max., μ/μ0

Air 1.00000037[31] 1.25663753×10−6

Concrete (dry) 1[32]

Hydrogen −2.2×10−9[30] 1.0000000 1.2566371×10−6

Teflon 1.0000 1.2567×10−6[12]

Sapphire −2.1×10−7 0.99999976 1.2566368×10−6

−6.4×10−6 or
Copper 0.999994 1.256629×10−6
−9.2×10−6[30]

Water −8.0×10−6 0.999992 1.256627×10−6

Bismuth −1.66×10−4 0.999834 1.25643×10−6

Pyrolytic carbon 0.9996 1.256×10−6

Superconductors −1 0 0

Magnetisation curve for ferromagnets (and ferrimagnets) and corresponding permeability

A good magnetic core material must have high permeability.[33]

For passive magnetic levitation a relative permeability below 1 is needed (corresponding to a negative
susceptibility).
Permeability varies with a magnetic field. Values shown above are approximate and valid only at the magnetic fields
shown. They are given for a zero frequency; in practice, the permeability is generally a function of the frequency.
When the frequency is considered, the permeability can be complex, corresponding to the in-phase and out of
phase response.
What is the permeability of the steel core?

Values for some common materials

For example, 4% Si steel has an initial relative permeability (at or near 0 T) of 2,000 and a
maximum of 35,000 and, indeed, the relative permeability of any material at a sufficiently high
field strength trends toward 1 (at magnetic saturation).

What is permeability of the core?

Core permeability μc is a dimensionless quantity that decreases with an increase in the number
of gaps, ng, the length of single gap, lg1, the cross-sectional area of the core S, and also with a
decrease in the mean magnetic path length, l.

Why is the permeability of a material important?

A material's permeability is important because it allows you to anticipate the performance of a

magnet when used in a design.

What is the permeability of a ferrite core?

The permeability of power ferrite materials is in the range of 1500 to 3000 (relative). As shown
in the low frequency characteristic of Fig. 2-1, a ferrite core will store a small amount of
energy, as shown by the areas between the hysteresis loop and the vertical axis

What does high permeability mean?

Permeability refers to how connected pore spaces are to one another. If the material has high
permeability than pore spaces are connected to one another allowing water to flow from one to
another, however, if there is low permeability then the pore spaces are isolated and water is
trapped within them.

Is the permeability of steel high or low?

The opposition of the magnetic force lines on that material is called reluctance. Reluctance is
inversely proportional to permeability. Hence, due to the high reluctance value in steel material,
the permeability is very low

What is permeability value?

The permeability of free space is called Permeability constant and has the value μ0 = 4𝝅×10-7
H/m It is a scalar quantity of isotropic medium and second rank tensor for anisotropic medium.
Magnetic permeability plays an important role in classifying the magnetisation property of a
material.

What is the advantage of high permeability?

Permeability helps contain magnetic fields and reduce total reluctance. More permeability is
useful on up to a point. Permeabilities of <100 are often more than enough, and most materials
met this easily.

What is permeability of a coil?

Magnetic permeability μ (Greek mu) is thus defined as μ = B/H. Magnetic flux density B is a
measure of the actual magnetic field within a material considered as a concentration of
magnetic field lines, or flux, per unit cross-sectional area.

Does iron core have high permeability?

The core of a transformer is made of soft iron because it has high permeability so it provides
complete linkage of magnetic flux of the primary coil to the secondary coil. Therefore ithas
high coercivity and low retentivity.

Core Materials, Permeability and Their Losses

Primarily inductors consist of a coil. If we insert a core of magnetic material the inductive
properties of the coil will increase. Such coils are then called chokes. This article explains the
basic core materials, their losses and material permeability.

The article is split into three chapters:

brief introduction into Core Types

Core Materials and their Losses

Permeability

Core Types
When we draw current through a choke electric currents are induced in the magnetic material
that try to create a counteracting magnetic field. These currents are undesired both for that
reason and because they create heat losses.

Figure 1. B-H curve magnetic flux density as a function of an imposed magnetic field

Homogeneous magnetic bodies are excluded; the induced current would be too high. Instead
mutually isolated ribbons are used or a powder technology where the binder material between
the magnetic granules limits the induced current by their resistivity.

Soft Iron Cores

The magnetic flux can be increased by means of a core of laminated soft iron or iron powder
mixed with a binder. As stated in the introduction the distribution in electrically isolated disks
or surface oxidized powder granules reduces the eddy current losses in the choke. The
saturation induction according to Figure 1., is relatively high in chokes with iron materials in
the core, up to 2.3 T. They can operate at high frequencies; metal alloys to 100 kHz and iron
powders to more than 100 MHz. The temperature stability is good. The temperature range for
iron powder cores is -55/+105 °C.

Amorphous Magnetic Materials

Figure 2. Example of BH characteristics for a ferrite and an amorphous material.

These non-crystalline magnetic materials consist of ferro or cobalt based powdered amorphous
alloys that are baked into some shape impervious material. The core material with the magnetic
powder granules constitutes a core with “distributed air gaps” that limits eddy currents. Another
manufacturer heats up the magnetic foils/bands and precipitates the cooling process so rapidly
that the metal becomes amorphous. The eddy current limitation is achieved by using these thin
ribbons mutually isolated, in the cores. The ribbons are approximately 20 mm (0.8 mils) thick.

Amorphous core materials produce a narrow and high, nearly rectangular BH characteristic that
has its highest inductance when the current passes through zero and a nearly negligible
inductance as soon as the current reaches a certain strength. Thus the hysteresis losses will be
small. The saturation flux is high (Figure 2.). For some laminated cores it is more than 1.5 T.
The Curie temperature may, depending on material, vary between 200 and 400 °C. The initial
permeability is in some materials very high, up to 100 000.

Learn more about Saturation: Inductor Saturation Current Explained, Influence of Temperature
to Inductor Saturation Current

Ferrite Core Materials

The most common inductor material is still the ferrites. They are ferro magnetic and are ceramic
materials. They consist of a mixed mass of pulverized oxides of iron and other alloys that is
pressed to the desired shape and then sintered. The material resistivity is much higher than that
of iron and the eddy current losses correspondingly low, which makes them suitable for high
frequency applications.

They have a wide range of permeabilities from 10 to 20 000 but a fairly low saturation
induction, < 0.5T. The temperature range is –55/+105 °C. The following figure shows a
comparison of characteristics of metals, amorphous materials and ferrites.

Core Shapes

There are a number of different manufactured styles and shapes. Some of the most common are
shown in following figure 3. The different manufactured shapes are not shown to the same
scale. Rods, E cores, toroids and pot cores are provided with a winding, either direct on the core
or via a bobbin. Attenuation ferrites surround the current path.
Figure 3. Common inductor core shapes and styles
· a) cylindrical rod core
· b) toroid or “attenuation bead”
· c) E core with yoke
· d) attenuation ferrite for flat conductor cable
· e) pot core
· f) SMD ferrite.

Core Materials and Their Losses

In deeper theoretical background introducing solid material into a magnetic field, its behaviour
can be classified in three groups:
diamagnetic materials
paramagnetic materials
ferromagnetic materials

Diamagnetic and paramagnetic materials have a relative permeability close to one. They are
therefore only of limited suitability in the construction of inductive components. Ferromagnetic
materials have a relative permeability between 10 and 100 000. In order to understand
ferromagnetic core materials, the internal structure of these materials must be examined closer.

The atoms in ferromagnetic materials (termed magnetic materials as follows) have a magnetic
moment. In the unmagnetized state, the magnetic moments of the atoms are aligned in all
spatial directions, whereby atoms show a preferred direction within limited cells (Weiss
domains). The boundaries between these Weiss domains are termed as Bloch walls.

If an external magnetic field is now applied, this attempts to orientate the magnetic moments
along the magnetic field direction, whereby the crystal direction remains the preferred direction.
This occurs because the Weiss domains with a magnetic moment in the direction of the field
grow at the expense of neighboring domains. This is described as shifting of the Bloch walls.
This is a reversible process within certain limits.

If the field strength is increased, the Bloch walls jump from one defect site to the next. This is
then no longer reversible. If all domains are aligned, a further increase in the magnetic field
rotates the magnetic moments from their crystal direction. Here one speaks of rotating
processes.

This behaviour is reflected in the hysteresis curve (also known as the B-H curve) as shown in
Figure 1. Reversible Bloch wall shifts predominate in the lower region of the new curve. In the
middle region, where the magnetic flux density B rises almost linearly with the field strength H,
the irreversible jumps of the Bloch domains (so-called Barkhausen jumps) may be identified. In
the saturation range where the rise in the magnetic flux density is very much slower, the
rotating processes predominate. Further growth of the Weiss domains is no longer possible.
Reducing the field strength further, many of the shifted Bloch walls remain stuck at defect sites.
The magnetic flux density falls along another curve. Magnetic flux is still present even when
the field strength has returned to zero. This refers to remanent flux density Br. In order to reset
the flux density to zero, a certain negative field strength has to be applied, the so-called coercive
field strength HC. The hysteresis curve profile is dependent on the material.

According to the value of the coercive field strength, “soft magnetic” and “hard magnetic”
materials are distinguished.

soft magnetic materials: HC < 1000 A/m are mainly used in inductive components

hard magnetic materials HC > 10000 A/m are mainly used as permanent magnets and with
electromagnets

The area within the hysteresis curve corresponds to the core losses per cycle. At higher
frequencies there are also eddy current losses.

A frequently asked question concerns core material losses and the resulting power dissipation
through ripple current in the storage choke. We will provide some basic information in this
section.

Expensive measuring techniques are required to determine core losses. These are generally
based on the measurement of parameters defined for toroidal ferrites and in order to obtain
relatively accurate results, phase-accurate power amplifiers and multiplying measuring
instruments are required for power measurement with a low phase difference. The classical
specification of core losses is given by the “Steinmetz formula” named after its inventor:

core losses Steinmetz equation formula [1]

B = peak value of induction

Pcore is the average power dissipation per volume unit

f is the frequency of the sinusoidal measurement voltage. For ferrites the coefficient “a” is
between 1.1~1.9 and the coefficient “b” is in the range 1.6 ~ 3. An iterative approach is required
for other materials in order to identify the coefficients.

However, in switching controller applications we find rectangular voltages across the storage
choke. For a 50% duty cycle, the accuracy of the Steinmetz formula is already reduced, for
small or large duty cycles errors of 100% can arise ! See Figure 4.

Figure 4: Example for the error in the Steinmetz formula with a duty cycle > 50% (f = 100 kHz;
MnZn core)

Figure 5. Power dissipation in the core material as a function of temperature based on the
example of a NiZn power ferrite

The accuracy of the Steinmetz formula is further compromised by:

ignoring the DC premagnetization (→ a different B-H curve is produced!)

ignoring the current harmonics

ignoring the Vμsec product (higher Vμsec product ~ higher losses)

temperature dependence of the core material (many core materials only attain their loss
minimum at elevated temperatures!)

For these reasons, all calculations with the classical Steinmetz formula must always be
evaluated in the light of these facts. The safest method of assessing whether the design of a
storage choke works optimally is efficiency measurement on the switching controller and the
measurement of self-heating in operation (taking into account the heat coupling with hotter
components such as diodes and switching transistors!).

Example: Material 1P2400

MnZn-ferrites are mainly used for transformers working in the range between 50 and 500 kHz.
The material 1P2400 used in example, is characterized as follows in Table 1. that provides an
overview of the most important parameters of the material. The permeability μ is around 2400.

Table 1. Characterization of Mn-Zn ferrite material 1P2400

Figure 6. Specific losses dependent on the magnetic flux density

Figure 6. shows the specific core losses as a function of magnetic flux density at different
frequencies for a sinusoidal input and temperatures of +23 °C and +80 °C. The core losses at
+80 °C are lower than at +23 °C. As transformers usually work in the range between +60 °C
and +100 °C due to self-heating, one can assume the +80 °C curves when calculating losses.
The so-called Steinmetz coefficients may be obtained from the curves and by entering into the
Steinmetz formula the losses at other frequencies and flux densities may be interpolated.

As the magnetic behaviour of ferrites is not linear, the respective Steinmetz coefficients only
apply within certain ranges. Also, switching transformers are usually not driven sinusoidally. So
the calculated core loss values may deviate in reality.

Permeability μ

Figure 7. Ferromagnetic material in a magnetic field

Permeability describes an important effect in ferromagnetic materials. If a ferromagnetic

material is placed in a magnetic field, it is observed that the magnetic flux becomes
concentrated in this material. Analogous to electric resistance, the ferromagnetic material
presents a good conductor for the field lines. Permeability may therefore be described as a
magnetic conducting or penetrating property.

The factor by which the induction (B) changes through the introduction of the material is called
the relative permeability (μr).

The equation for relative permeability is extended for the space filled by the material:

relative permeability equation [2]

The induction in the core material (B) is given by:

induction in core material equation [3]

The relative permeability of the material is however not constant but strongly non-linear. The
permeability of a material is essentially dependent on:

The magnetic field strength H (dependent on operating conditions → hysteresis curve)

The frequency f (frequency dependent complex permeability)

The temperature T (→ temperature drift, → Curie temperature)

The material used

Typical permeabilities (μr):

Iron powder cores, superflux cores: 50 … 150

Manganese-zinc cores: 300 … 20000

Nickel-zinc cores: 40 … 1500

Complex Permeability

The introduction of complex permeability allows separation into an ideal (zero loss) inductive
component and a frequency dependent resistive component which represents the losses of the
core material. This treatment can be applied to all core materials and clearly differentiates
between inductors and EMC ferrites.

complex permeability expression [4]

Figure 8. Frequency dependence of permeability and impedance

The inductive component is represented by (μI) and the resistive component by (μII). The
following applies to transformation on the impedance level:

impedance of ideal inductive component [5]

with L0 = inductance of an air coil of the same construction and field distribution, without core
material (μr = 1).

For the series impedance (Z):

complex impedance of inductive and resistive components [6]

Figure 9. Equivalent impedance circuit diagram

Multiplying out and dividing into real and imaginary parts provides the following relationship:

Loss component RS = ωL0μSII

Inductance component XLS = ωL0μSI

complex loss angle for inductive and resistive components [7]

Figure 9. Loss angle (δ)

For the loss angle (δ), tan δ is given by:

A large angle (δ) means a high core loss; the phase relationship between voltage and current at
the inductor is less than 90°.

Furthermore:

μSI = μi

μSII = μi · tan δ

(μi = initial permeability)

Similarly, inductance and resistance can also be presented as a parallel equivalent circuit; the
following relationships [8] apply. These frequency dependent components can be measured
with the aid of impedance analysis and represented in an associated graph example on Figure
10.

parallel equivalent circuit equation [8]

Figure 10. Impedance curve example for SMD ferrite 742 792 034

Observations from the above measurement graph:

The inductance is stable in a certain frequency range, to show strong frequency dependence
above approx. 10 MHz. Above 100 MHz the inductance falls sharply, down to zero at approx.
250 MHz.

The loss component (R) grows continuously with frequency and reaches the same value as the
X component at the so-called ferromagnetic resonance frequency. The resistance value rises
until the high MHz range and dominates over the impedance (Z).

The component shown here – a SMD ferrite – serves the user as a broadband absorber or filter
component, as a result of its broadband loss resistance (R).

Core Materials Comparison

Core materials are only used effectively in the construction of inductors within a limited
frequency range, as a result of the frequency dependent loss components. Core losses rise
sharply above a typical frequency limit. The core material may then be used then as a filter
component. See Impedance vs frequency chart on Figure 11.

Figure 11. Impedance vs Frequency of different magnetic core materials

This relationship and also the limits of core materials are illustrated in the following graph on
Figure 12. and 13.:
Figure 12. Inductive parts of impedance and their frequency dependence for various core
materials

Figure 13. Resistive parts of impedance and their frequency dependence for various core
materials

Observations:

Iron powder materials (Fe): May be used as pure inductance up to approx. 400 kHz; the R loss
component dominates thereafter up to approx. 10 MHz (also beyond depending on the core
material). The core is no longer effective in the frequency range above approx. 20 MHz.

Manganese-zinc cores are inductive up to frequencies around 20 MHz – 30 MHz, typically with
losses rising above 10 MHz. The core material is no longer effective in the frequency range
above –approx. 80 MHz.
Nickel-zinc cores are inductive up to frequencies around 60 MHz, above this, the core material
shows losses up to frequencies of 1 GHz and more.

This quantitative comparison illustrates why nickel-zinc ferrites have become predominant in
the EMC field. The core material can perform an effective filter function in the frequency range
of greatest interest.

reluctance in Electrical Engineering

(rɪlʌktəns) noun. (Electrical engineering: Circuits, Electrical power, Computing and control)
The reluctance of a magnetic material is its ability to oppose the flow of magnetic flux. The
magnetic flux created by the field windings follows the path of least magnetic reluctance.

What is reluctance in electrical formula?

Reluctance is obtained by dividing the length of the magnetic path l by the permeability times
the cross-sectional area A; thus r = l/μA, the Greek letter mu, μ, symbolizing the… Read More.
In magnetic circuit. The reluctance r of a magnetic circuit is analogous to the resistance of an
electric circuit.

What is the reluctance unit?

Unit of reluctance is: A) Henry B) Weber C) Weber/m2 D ...

The unit of Reluctance is (Henry)-1. The simple definition of magnetic reluctance is the
property of any material that works to oppose the magnetic flux that is being created in the
magnetic circuit. Magnetic reluctance is known as a magnetic insulator and magnetic resistance.

What is reluctance in electrical symbol?

The reluctance is denoted by the symbol 'S' and is measured in ampere-turn per weber (AT/Wb)
or 1/Henry. The reluctance is also known as magnetic reluctance, magnetic resistance or
magnetic insulation

What is reluctance vs resistance?

Basically, Reluctance is defined as unwillingness or hesitancy to participate fully in the helping

process because of reluctance to change, while resistance is about disagreement of the clients
regarding the approach of changing process of the therapists.

What is reluctance and inductance?

electromagnetism - Reluctance and inductance are opposites ...

Reluctance and inductance are opposites. Inductance L relates a certain magnetic flux linkage λ
to an electric current i through an N turn coiled conductor: λ(i)=NΦ(i)=Li. Reluctance R, on the
other hand, relates a certain magnetomotive force (mmf) F to a magnetic flux through a
magnetic core