CHAPTER 3

TRANSFORMER
List four preliminary tests
(a) Core Insulation (b) Core Loss Test
(c) Check of Ratio, Polarity, Vector Relationship and Winding Resistance of Transformer
(d) Preliminary Load Loss and Impedance Voltage Measurement
Tests are carried out at different stages, before the core and coil assembly of the transformer is placed
in its tank. These checks help in detecting any fault at an early stage.
DESCRIPTION OF THE ABOVE TESTS

(a) Core Insulation

After the core is assembled, 2 kV test is done to ensure that the insulation between clamp plates, core
bolts and core is adequate.

(b) Core Loss Test

This is conducted on the core assembly to ensure its correctness. Some turns are wound over the core
and it is energized at normal flux density. Core loss and magnetizing current are noted and compared
with design value.

(c) Check of Ratio, Polarity, Vector Relationship and Winding Resistance of Transformer
Assembly

Ratio test is conducted to ensure the correctness of voltage ratio between different windings on each
tapping. The tolerance allowed for ratio is ±0.5% of the value specified on transformer, or ±10% of the
percentage impedance voltage, whichever is smaller.. In order to get accurate ratio, a ratio
meter is employed. It also indicates the polarity of transformer windings.

(d) Preliminary Load Loss and Impedance Voltage Measurement

Preliminary load loss and impedance measurements at reduced current are carried out to ensure that
these are within guaranteed limits.

Final Tests : List 3 final tests

(a) Routine tests (b) Type tests (c) Special tests

The completely assembled transformer is tested in accordance with the International Standards.

(a) Routine tests

(i) Measurement of winding resistance

(ii) Measurement of voltage ratio and check of voltage vector-relationship

(iii) Measurement of impedance voltage (principal tapping) short circuit impedance and load loss

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(iv) Measurement of no load loss and current

(v) Measurement of insulation resistance

(vi) Dielectric tests

(vii) Tests on-load tap changers (where appropriate)

(b) Type tests

(i) Measurement of winding resistance

(ii) Measurement of voltage ratio and check of voltage vector relationship

iii) Measurement of impedance voltage , short circuit impedance and load loss

(iv) Measurement of no load loss and current

(v) Measurement of insulation resistance

(vi) Dielectric tests

(vii) Tests on-load tap changers.

All above tests along with the temperature rise test and Dielectric type tests are to be conducted

(c) Special tests

(i) Dielectric special tests.

(ii) Measurement of zero-sequence impedance of three-phase transformers

(iii) Short-circuit test

(iv) Measurement of acoustic noise level

(v) Measurement of harmonics of the no load current (

vi) Measurement of power taken by the fans and oil pumps

(vii) Measurement of capacitances between windings to earth and between windings.

(viii) Measurement of transferred surge voltage on low voltage windings.

(ix) Measurement of insulation resistance to earth of the windings, or measurement of dissipation

factor (tan delta) of the insulation system capacitances.

Explain Routine Tests

(i) Measurement of winding resistance.

For calculation of I2R losses in the winding, it is necessary to measure dc resistance of each winding.
The resistance measurement should be done after the direct current circulating in the winding has

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 reached a steady state. In some cases this may take several minutes depending upon the winding
inductance.

Temperature of the winding must be stable and for this reason, this test is carried out usually before
load loss measurement. The average oil temperature is determined as the mean of top and bottom oil
temperatures and is taken as average winding temperature.

(ii) Measurement of voltage ratio and check of voltage vector group.

These tests are conducted to check that all connections to the bushings, tap-changers, etc., have been
made correctly during final assembly.

(iii) Measurement of impedance voltage and load loss.

The load loss comprises the sum of the I 2R -losses in the windings and the stray losses due to eddy
currents in conductors, clamps and tank. The stray losses vary with frequency. It is thus important to
give supply to the transformer at the rated frequency. The load loss and impedance voltage are
guaranteed at 75°C but are measured at the ambient temperature of the test room. Measured load loss
is corrected to reference temperature (75°C). It is known that I 2R losses are proportional directly to
resistance, which varies with the temperature. The stray losses vary inversely with the temperature.

Procedure

The test is carried out by short circuiting, usually the LV winding and by supplying the impedance
voltage to HV winding. The measured power will also include small core-loss. Since the supply voltage
during the test is a small fraction of normal voltage, this loss can be ignored. However, for a high
impedance transformer (i.e. Z > 15%) The core-loss may become appreciable and can be subtracted
after separately measuring it at impedance voltage.

While measuring load loss and impedance at different tap positions, readings should be taken quickly,
and the interval between the measurements at different taps should be adequate to avoid significant
errors due to momentary temperature rise of the windings. The difference in temperature between the
top oil and bottom oil should preferably be small enough to enable the average temperature to be
determined accurately.

Three-wattmeter method should be used instead of two wattmeter method to avoid large value of
wattmeter multiplier constant.

The power factor during load loss test can be less than 0.1 and wattmeters suitable for such low power
factor should be used.

Following tolerances. Table are applicable as per IS : 2026, for specified values of losses and impedance
voltage.

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 (i) Measurements of no-load loss and current.

The measurement of no-load loss and current is important not only for the purpose of assessing the
efficiency of the transformer, but also as a check that the high-voltage tests have not caused any
damage to winding insulation.

For large transformers, therefore, no-load loss measurement is carried out before and after
completion of the dielectric tests.

Measurement of no-load loss is carried out at rated frequency feeding usually LV winding. Since the no-
load current is very small, the I 2R losses in the windings will be negligible. The power factor, while
measuring no-load loss for medium power transformer, is generally around 0.3. The power factor for
large units, especially when working at higher flux densities is about 0.1.

The core-loss consists of hysteresis and eddy current losses. The hysteresis loss is dependent on average
value used and the eddy current loss on RMS value of supply voltage. Two voltmeters are used during
the test, a bridge rectifier type instrument is used to indicate average voltage, and a dynamometer type
instrument is used to indicate rms voltage. The supply voltage is set so that the specified value is
indicated on the average voltmeter. With this, hysteresis component of no-load loss will be measured
correctly, while the eddy current loss will be either lower or higher than the true value, depending
upon the form factor of the supply voltage.

(v) Measurement of insulation resistance.:- Insulation resistance is measured between all windings and
the tank with a megger. The insulation resistance varies inversely with the temperature. Thus the oil

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temperature is also recorded. Sometimes insulation resistance values at 15th and 60th second are
noted to determine polarization index of the insulation system.

(vi) Dielectric tests.

(1) Separate source voltage withstand test. This test is intended to check the adequacy of main
insulation to earth and between windings.The line terminals of the windings under test are connected
together and the appropriate test voltage is applied to them while the other windings and tank are
connected together to the earth. Windings with graded insulation, which have neutral intended for
direct earthing, are tested at 38 kV.

The supply voltage should be nearly sinusoidal. The peak value of the voltage is measured and for this a
digital peak voltmeter associated with capacitive voltage divider is employed. RMS value shall be equal
to the test value. The duration of application of test voltage is 60 s.

(2) Induced over-voltage withstand test. The test is intended to check the inter-turn and line end
insulation as well as main insulation to earth and between windings.

For transformers with uniformly insulated windings, the test voltage is twice the corresponding rated
voltage.

For transformers with non-uniformly insulated HV windings, which are usually designed for systems
with highest voltage Um > 72.5 kV, the values of test voltage For test voltage up to 66 kV, three-phase
transformers are generally supplied direct from a three-phase source.

The high voltage is normally measured by means of a digital peak voltmeter associated with capacitive
voltage divider.

(b) Type Tests

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(i) Temperature rise test. The test is conducted to confirm that under normal conditions, the
temperature rise of the windings and the oil will not exceed the specified limit. Temperature rise limits
for oil-immersed type transformers are indicated in Table

The temperature rises are measured above the temperature of the cooling air for all types of
transformers except those water cooled. In the latter case, the temperature rise is measured above the
inlet water temperature.

(ii) Temperature rise for top oil.

Normally, LV windings of the transformer under test is short circuited and a voltage of such a value
is applied to HV winding that power input is equal to no-load loss plus load loss corrected to a
reference temperature of 75°C. For multi-winding transformers, the temperature of the top oil
refers to the specified loading combination for which the total losses are the highest. The total
losses are measured by the three-wattmeter method in the circuit and maintained constant until
the top oil rise has reached a steady value

During the temperature rise test on an oil-immersed type transformer, hourly readings of the top oil
temperature are taken by means of a thermometer placed in a pocket in the transformer top cover.
The temperature of oil at inlet and outlet of the cooler bank is also taken hourly and mean oil
temperature is determined. Ambient temperature is measured by means of thermometers placed
around the transformer at three to four points situated at a distance of 1m to 2 m from and half-
way up the cooling surface of the transformer. The thermometers are inserted in oil cups, which are
filled with transformer oil.

Duration of temperature rise test

The test is continued until the requirement of one of the following methods have been met:

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 Method (a):- The test should not be regarded as complete until the temperature rise increment of
top oil is less than 3°C in 1 hour. The method described for winding temperature rise shall be
employed for the determination of the final oil temperature rise.

Method (b):-It should be demonstrated that the top oil temperature rise does not vary more than
1°C per hour during four consecutive hourly readings. The last reading is taken for determination of
top oil rise.

(iii) Winding temperature rise. When top oil temperature rise is established, the current is
reduced to its rated value and is maintained for 1 hour to allow the winding to attain normal
temperature. If the rated current cannot be supplied, the tests can be performed with a
current not less than 90% of the rated current.

At the end of the test, the supply is switched off. The cooling fans or water pumps should be stopped
but the oil pumps should remain running. The short-circuit connection is removed. The value of hot
resistance of the winding is measured by Kelvin's double bridge .A certain time, about 3 to 4 minutes,
usually elapses between switching off the power supply and taking the first reading, during which the
resistance of winding will be decreasing. In order to determine the temperature of winding at the
instant of power switch-off, the resistances are measured at intervals over a period of about 15 min

v Lightning impulse test. (vi) Switching impulse test.

(vii) Partial discharge test.

(c)Explain Special Tests

(i) Measurement of zero-sequence impedance of three-phase transformer.

The zero-sequence impedance is measured on star-connected windings, which have a earthed

neutral, in order to determine the current which will flow in the event of a line-to-earth fault, the
value of zero sequence impedance depends upon type of core used in a transformer. Usually the
value of zero sequence impedance lies between 80-90% of positive sequence impedance for
transformer having three-limb core, whereas it is between 90-100% of positive sequence
impedance for transformer having five-limb core construction.

Figure shows the connection for carrying out this test on a delta-star connected transformer. The
line terminals on the star connected windings are joined together and single-phase supply is

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applied between these and the neutral point, the delta terminals being left floating during this
test.

(ii) Short-circuit test. :- This test is carried out on a special test setup available at specific
laboratories. After transformer passes all routine tests short circuit test is carried out. The
symmetrical short circuit current is calculated using measured short circuit
impedance .there are two types of tests
1.pre-set method 2.post-set method

(iii) Measurement of the harmonics of no-load current. The harmonics of the no-load current
in all the phases are measured by means of harmonic analyzer at rated voltage and the
magnitude of the harmonics is expressed as a percentage of the fundamental component.

iv)Measurement of acoustic sound level. Acoustic sound test measures the average sound level
generated by the transformer, when energized at rated voltage and frequency at no-load with
cooling fans and pumps in operation. The main sound comes from the core vibration, since there
are no moving parts in the transformer. Noise level measurements are taken in accordance with
NEMA-TR1. standards

IMPULSE TEST :---EXPLAIN causes of Impulse voltages and its effects

1)Lightning is probably the most common cause of flashover on overhead transmission lines.
Two mechanisms can be distinguished. In the first, the lightning stroke makes a direct contact
with a phase conductor producing a voltage on the line in excess of the impulse voltage level and
in the other, the stroke makes contact with an earth wire or tower and the combination of tower
current and tower impedance produces a voltage near the tower top sufficient to cause back
flashover. Insulation is one of the most important constituents of a transformer,any weakness of
insulation may result in failure of a transformer.. The distribution of impulse voltage stress along
the transformer winding is different from the power-frequency voltage distribution. The power-
frequency voltage distributes itself throughout the winding on a uniform volts per turn basis

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2) Switching impulses occur during all kinds of switching operations in the system, for example
by switching a transformer 'on' or 'off a system, switching of distribution line, etc. The
magnitude and form of impulses produced differ from case to case. The magnitudes of switching
impulses occurring in the network are proportional to the network voltage. The maximum
voltage can be about 3.5 times the service voltage (the ratio of the maximum switching impulse
voltage to the maximum peak phase-to-earth service voltage). The need for switching impulse
tests is based on the possibility that switching impulses in service can cause insulation damage to
a transformer designed for greatly reduced insulation level.

EXPLAIN LIGHTENING IMPULSE TEST CIRCUIT

For testing of transformers, the basic arrangement of test circuit has been shown in Fig. The
physical arrangement can be sub-divided into three major circuits:

_-- The main circuit, which includes the impulse generator, wave-shaping components and the
test object,

— The voltage measuring circuit, and

— The chopping circuit, where applicable.

The standard lightning impulse is a full lightning impulse having a virtual front time of 1.2
micro seconds and a virtual time to half-value of 50 microseconds with tolerances of ±3% on
peak value, ±30% on front time and +20% on time to half-value.
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While testing high voltage windings of large transformers, viz. 400 kV, 250 MVA, it becomes
difficult to obtain the wave front within the specified limits. This is due to the large capacitance
of the transformer, the inherent self-inductance of the generator and the leads connecting the
generator and transformer. On low-voltage winding of these transformers, it becomes difficult to
obtain the specified wave tail due to extremely low impedance of these windings.

The effective impedance of the transformer controls the wave tail duration. The effective
impedance can be varied by different terminal impedances at the non-impulsed winding
terminals. If they are isolated, the effective impedance will be maximum. However, they cannot
be left isolated because high voltages are induced in these windings. It is desirable that the
voltage on terminals that are not being tested is limited to 75% of its BIL. To ensure this, non-
impulsed terminals of the windings are earthed directly of through resistors (maximum up to
400 ohms)

The full-wave test sequence consists of application of a reduced full-wave and three full waves.
The dielectric stress distribution in a transformer under impulse test depends on the tapping
connection and the design in general. Thus, for lightning impulse test, different tappings are
selected for the tests on the three phases of a three-phase transformer or the three single-phase
transformers of a three-phase group, for example, the two extreme tappings and the principle
tapping.

SWITCHING IMPULSE TEST CIRCUIT

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The test circuit of direct application of switching impulses on the HV winding is shown in Fig.
Above .In Case of switching impulse test the windings are left open circuited as the loading
impedance at short-circuit is low and prevents the application of switching impulse voltages of
the required duration and magnitude. The iron core becomes magnetized due to long duration
switching impulses. The application of successive impulses causes a progressive increase in the
residual flux in the core. The front of the wave depends mainly on the value of series resistance
Rse, the effective capacitance to ground of tested winding and the divider capacitance. As long
as the core is unsaturated, the current flowing through the winding remains relatively low. After
the peak of the wave is reached, the electric charge is practically conducted only through the
parallel resistance Rp. The test voltage remains practically constant. Thus, The flux increases
linearly and reaches after a certain time ts, the value flux, the saturation flux for the
corresponding test voltage. The impedance of the winding and consequently the test voltage
collapses at saturation. The current in the winding increases rapidly and reaches the peak value
when voltage reaches zero. The higher the test voltage, the faster is the saturation point reached
and consequently shorter becomes the wave duration. Core saturation is, therefore, the limiting
factor for the wave duration. Even a large source of energy (i.e. high energy rated impulse
generator) cannot prolong the duration of the wave. Biasing magnetically the core in the
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opposite direction helps in increasing the wave duration considerably. One reduced full-wave
(75%) and two full-waves of rated voltage are applied on the winding under test. For fault
detection, the recording of voltage wave is done, neutral current can also be recorded. Exact
comparison of oscillograms is not possible as both the voltage and current waves change in
magnitude and duration.

EXPLAIN Measurement and Recording of Impulses

To measure the amplitude and shape of the applied impulses which have values ranging
from a few tens to over thousands of kV and duration 0.2 to 250 micro seconds for the peak,
special measuring equipments are used.

1)Oscillographs with high writing speeds and good accuracy and voltage dividers with
response time suitable for extremely fast transients are required.

2)Digital readout impulse peak voltmeters are used for amplitude measurements.

There are three basic types of dividers that are suitable for impulse testing.

The resistance divider utilizes the principle that the voltages across a resistor varies
directly as the resistance,

The capacitance divider the voltage varies inversely as the capacitance.

The compensated dividers are the combination of the two. The capacitance and
compensated dividers also serve as the load capacitor while generating impulses.

For switching impulse test, capacitive types of voltage dividers are preferred. Resistive
voltage dividers have an influence on the efficiency of the circuit and wave shape.

Oscillographic Recording

(i) Lightning impulse test.

The applied voltage wave and one other parameter, whose choice depends on the
selection of method of failure detection, are recorded. For best comparison,
oscillograms taken at reduced and full test levels should be recorded to give equal
amplitude by the use of attenuators at the oscilloscope.

a)Recording of Voltage
(a) Wave shape recording. The preferred sweep time for the wave front record is 5-10
us (longer sweep time may be required when testing transformer neutrals) and for wave tail 50-
100 |is.
(b) Test wave recording. For full waves, the sweep time should not be less than 50 us
and the chopped waves should be recorded at 10-25 us sweep.
b) Recording of Current
The impulse current are normally the most sensitive parameters in failure detection and
record of current waves are the main criteria of the test result. The use of more than one

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recording channel at different sweeps gives better resolution. The criteria for selection of sweep
is
(a) to obtain a clear representation of the oscillations including the high frequency components
near the front of wave;
(b) to be able to detect any discrepancies occurring late in time.
Recording of current at 10 microseconds and 100 micro seconds sweep covers the above
requirements in general.
(iii) Switching impulse test.
During switching impulse test, only the recording of applied voltage is required. The
voltage record will indicate any fault developed on winding under test or other non-
tested windings.

a)Recording of Voltage

(a) Waveshape recording. For the wave front record, a sweep time 100-200 microsecs is used.
For the wave tail record, by which the time above 90% is determined, a sweep time of 1000-
2000 micro secs is adequate.

flb) Test wave recording. The sweep time for test wave recording should be long enough to
encompass the first zero passage, generally a sweep time of 1000-3000 microsecs is used.
Logarithmic time sweep is also used.

b) Recording of Current

A switching impulse current comprises three parts:

— an initial current pulse

— a low and gradually rising value of current coincident with the tail of applied voltage
— a peak of current coincident with any saturation

It is usual to employ the same sweep time as used for voltage record.

EXPLAIN Fault Detection

The detection of faults is the most important phase of impulse testing. The detection of failure
with CRO is most effective and sensitive. It is based on the fact that an insulation failure will
change the impedance of the transformer, causing a variation in the impulse current and in the
voltage. Both the voltage and current oscillograms are taken during impulse test. Reduced full-
wave oscillogram represents the characteristic waveshape of the transformer winding and circuit
at a voltage stress, when transformer is considered to be healthy. Subsequent full-wave
oscillograms are compared with reduced wave oscillograms taken as reference. Full-wave
oscillograms prior to and after the chopped wave application match when winding is sound.

For failure detection during lightning impulse test, three different currents can be measured and
used separately, or in combination as shown in Fig. Below

(a) The neutral current

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(b) The capacitively transferred current

(c) The tank current

In addition, the transferred voltages to non-tested windings can also be used for detection of
failure. For failure detection in switching impulse test, normally the measurement of applied
voltage is adequate, but the current flowing through the winding to earth can also be used. For
recording of current, a non-inductive resistor is used as the impedance for producing the voltage
drop
Definition of Partial. Discharge
A partial discharge can be defined d as localized electrical discharge in insulating media
which only partially bridges the insulation between conductors. Some of the conditions that
can initiate partial discharges in transformers are:

— Improper processing or drying of the insulation.

— Over stressed insulation due to a lack of proper recognition of the voltage limitation of
the insulation.

— High stress areas in conducting parts, which can be caused by sharp edges on either the
conducting part or the ground plane.

These factors may cause ionization in cavities within solid insulation, in gas bubbles in
insulating liquids, or along dielectric surfaces. Although, involving small amounts of energy,
the partial discharges may lead to progressive deterioration of the dielectric properties of
insulating materials.
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Partial discharge TEST CIRCUIT

The absolute value | q | of the apparent charge is referred to as the discharge magnitude and
is expressed in coulombs. Figure 14.12 shows a basic partial discharge test circuit.

On the inception of P.D. in the test object, the voltage across the terminals A = B will be U -
Δ U at the instant t - 0, because of the voltage drop ΔU caused by the charge transfer.
However, across the capacitor, the voltage at the instant t = 0 will still be U, due to the time
constant introduced by the series resistance Zm (measuring impedance).

The charge transferred from Ck via Zm into Ca, i.e. the measured charge will be= qm*K

where (K=1+Ca/Ck)

LIST & Explain different methods of Location of P.D.

Precise location of P.D. requires great skill and experience. Several methods are in vogue for
the location of partial discharges. Some of them are described here briefly.

(a) Acoustic Detection (b) Visual Detection

(c) Electrical Location (d) Ultrasonic Method

(a) Acoustic Detection

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For the location of corona discharges in air, directionally selective microphones with high
sensitivity above the audible frequency range are used.

(b) Visual Detection

Visual observations are carried out in a dark room with or without the aid of field-glasses of
large aperture, Alternatively, a photographic record can be made, but fairly long exposure
time is usually necessary. For special purposes, photomultipliers are sometimes used.

(c) Electrical Location

The method consists in multi-terminal calibration by injecting known charge between each
pair of terminals available (e.g. HV terminal and tank, neutral terminal and tank, HV and
neutral terminal, HV and bushing tap). This procedure makes it possible to know the
instrument response at different measuring terminals for each simulated P.D. position. A
correct evaluation of the P.D. source location can be done by comparing the ratio between
two simultaneous readings at different terminals during the HV test with the corresponding
ratio obtained during circuit calibration. The closest pair of ratios give the approximate
electrical location of the P.D. source.

(d) Ultrasonic Method

Ultrasonic method facilitates location of the space coordinates of the P.D. source with
respect to the transformer tank. The principle of ultrasonic method of location is very simple.
Partial discharges produce high frequency electrical pulses that spread through the windings
and can be picked up at the bushing tap almost instantaneously.

Partial discharges, being very, similar to small explosions, also produce pressure waves that
are propagated in all directions and can be collected by the transducers placed on the outer
surface of the tank

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Each transducer picks up the ultrasonic signal with delays, depending on its distance from
the P.D. source. The time of propagation of the pressure wave may be assumed as equal to
the delay between electric pulse at the terminals and the signal detected by the transducer.
The delays obtained with a few transducers make it possible to trace the origin of the partial
discharge by a trigonometric procedure. In principle, the delay of the ultrasonic signal can be
observed with an oscilloscope, triggered by the terminal electric pulses.

MAINTENANCE OF TRANSFORMERS

State the important step in maintenance of power transformers.

It is essential to have periodic preventive maintenance of power transformers by trained

persons, and with maintenance facilities. The earlier notion that the transformer does not
need maintenance is wrong. Transformer needs regular maintenance for satisfactory service.

The transformer maintenance includes the following :

— Routine daily inspection ...DI — Routine weekly inspection ...WI

— Routine monthly inspection ...MI — Quarterly inspection ...QI

— Annual inspection ...AI — Un-scheduled maintenance ...US

1. Daily checks include the following :

1.1. Check tank and radiators for unusual noise, oil and water leaks. Check oil level in
conservator.

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1.2. Check oil level in main tank bushings.

1.3. Check relief vents whether normal or open.

1.4. Check whether cooling water is flowing, whether oil circulation pump is operating
when necessary, whether fans start when necessary.

1.5. Check relay panel temperature indicators and confirm normal condition.

1.6. Check position of tap-changer.

1.7. See that all control/alarm/power/supply circuit switches are closed and fuses in the
circuit are well placed.

2. Monthly checks include the following :

2.1. Check oil level in main tank, oil filled bushing etc. If oil level has fallen down below
specified level for given temperature the cause of leakage should be determined.

Oil level varies with change in oil temperature.

2.2. Check and record oil temperature.

2.3. Check bushing surface for signs of chipping, dirt, oil, film etc.

2.4. Check presence of nets, vines, shrubs etc. in the neighbourhood of transformers.

2.5. Check terminal connections, earthing connections for tightness.

2.6. Other checks mentioned in daily check.

3. Annual Inspection of Transformer and Tap-changer.

3.1. Check foundation for cracking and settling. A slight shift of the transformers may break
bushings or connecting oil or water lines..

3.2. Clean dirt and oil from radiating surfaces. Repaint as necessary. Stop excessive
vibration of radiator tubes, tighten loose or vibrating parts. Check for unusual internal noises.
Inspect oil and water piping, valves, and plugs.

3.3. See that relief diaphragm is in operating condition and closes tightly. The non-
shattering-type diaphragm should be actuated to see that it is not stuck shut from rust or
paint.

3.4. Clean dirty gauge glasses and connections. Check oil level indicators and relays for
proper operation. Replenish oil if below normal. Drain out and replace bushing oil if dirty or
discoloured.

3.5. Check external supply and drain piping for leaks. Flush out cooling coils of heat
exchanger water passages with air and water. Test coils for leaks by applying air pressure to

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coils and absorbing for bubbles rising in oil and drop in air pressure with supply valve
closed, or use a hydrostatic pressure test.

3.6. Check water flow indicators and relays for proper operation.

3.7. Clean and test water tubes similar to cooling coil, check for oil and water leaks.

3.8. Check motors and control.

3.9. Check calibration of temperature indicators and relays, check and clean relay contacts
and operating mechanism.

3.10. Check setting and operation of regulator and relay, see that gauges are indicating
properly.

3.11. Check for gas leaks by applying liquid soap on all joints valves, connections, etc. with
gas pressure raised to the maximum recommended by the transformer manufacture.

3.12. Clean porcelain with water, chloro ethylene, or other suitable cleaner.. Inspect gaskets
for leaks tighten bolts, check power factor, check oil sample from bottom of bushing for
dielectric strength and presence of water which may be entering at top. Replace or replenish
oil if necessary.

3.13. Check top settings and adjustment at terminal board to see that they agree with
diagrams. Check insulation resistance of wiring with devices connected.

3.14. Tighten all bus and ground connections. Refinish joint contact surfaces if they have
been overheating. Inspect ground cable to see that it is not loose or broken.

3.15. Lower the oil level to atleast the top of the core. Inspect for sludge on core and
windings. Inspect under side of cover for moisture and rust and clean up. Check connections
at terminal board, tighten all bolted connections, core bolts, etc. within reach.

3.16. Inspect contacts and clean if reachable on internal inspection. If not reachable for
visual inspection, check each position with Wheatstone bridge across winding to detect poor
contact. Work adjusted back and forth over complete range several times.

3.17. Drain oil from contact compartment, clean and refinish contact surfaces. Check
contact spring pressure. Check contact operating mechanism. Tighten connections and other
bolts of OLTC.

3.18. Check motor check and adjust brake, check gears shafts and lubrication of OLTC.

3.19. Check condition of contacts and refinish if burned or corroded. Check contact springs,
operating rods, and levers, check closing and operating position with respect to position of
main contacts of OLTC.

3.20. See that positions indicated correspond to position of main contacts. Check remote
electrical indicators for correct operation, obstruction to movement of pointer, etc.
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3.21. Check operation counter for correct registration.

3.22. Run tap changer or regulator through several complete cycles by both control relay
and manual control, and observe contacts and mechanism for proper operation.

3.23 Inspect fuses or circuit breakers on all power, control and alarm supplies to auxiliary
equipment and devices. Check and tighten wiring connections at all terminal points. Inspect
wiring for open circuits, short circuits, and damaged insulation.

3.24. Check the insulation resistance between each winding and between each winding and
ground.

3.25. Check, the dielectric strength of the insulating oil in the main and auxiliary tanks and
oil filled bushings.

The acidity of the insulating oil in the main tank should be checked at intervals of not more
than 5 years. Transformers operating at high temperatures or showing signs of sludging or
dark colour of the oil should be checked more frequently. Oil may be checked in the field
with a dielectric test kit or samples sent to laboratory.

Explain Un-scheduled Maintenance of transformer

If the transformer has been properly maintained and not overheated and barring internal
failure, it should not require untanking within the normal life. If sludge has been allowed to
form due to overheating and oxidation of the oil, transformer should be untanked and the
core, coils oil passages, tank and water cooling coils are washed down with clean oil under
pressure to remove sludge and other accumulations which prevent proper circulation of the
oil. Inflammable liquids should not be used in cleaning the core, coils, or inside of tank.
While untanked, check for loose laminations, core bolts, insulating blocks etc., and other
pertinent features on the check list.

The necessity for filtering and/or reclaiming the insulating oil will depend on the results
obtained from the oil dielectric and oil acidity tests. It may be more economical to replace
the oil in small transformers rather than filter and reclaim it.

Explain the Procedure of Maintenance of Transformer Oil.

Maintenance of Transformer Oil. Dielectric Oil (Transformer Oil).

Insulating oil from transformers and switchgear (IS 335—1963), is recommended for
Transformers.

The fresh dielectric oil has pale clear yellow colour. A dark colour of cloudy appearance
indicate deterioration. Impurities have a bad effect on the properties of the oil. The oil
sample is taken in a standard oil test cell. Electrodes are polished brass spheres 12.7 mm dia
mounted horizontally. The gap spacing is 2.5 mm + 0.02 mm. Dielectric strength of oil is
very important.

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A sample of insulating oil is taken from the bottom of the transformer tank. Dark and brown,
clouds indicate deterioration. Oil in good condition has pale yellowish uniform colour. It is
tested by means of probable oil testing which consists of a auto-transformer, voltmeter,
tripping device, etc. The voltage can be gradually increased. Oil in good condition should
withstand 30 kV, r.m.s. for one minute in a standard oil testing cup with 1 minute, 2.5 mm
gap between electrodes. (See Table).

The oil should be tested during the periodic check-up and whenever the circuit breaker clears
a fault.

Oil Maintenance. Oil maintenance is carried out in accordance with the standards titled
'Code, Practices of Maintenance of Insulating Oils'. The code refers to the contamination of
oil and determination of whether the oil is suitable for further service. It also gives the
procedure of treatment of oil at site

Contamination of oil due to moisture or solids can be dealt with satisfactorily at site.
Centrifugal separators are effective in removing free water and find solid impurities. Filters
remove with solid impurities. The oil is heated to about 60°C by means of electric heater.

The purification set consists of purifier, heater, vacuum chamber de-aerator, oil pumps,
strainer and other accessories. The oil is circulated through the purifier till the desired
dielectric strength is obtained.

The dielectric oil should never contain suspended particles, water soluble acids and bases,
active sulphur or colloidal carbon, these impurities of the dielectric oil resulting in internal
flashover.

The dust particles, carbon particles and sludge in the oil which is in suspended form in the oil
gathers along the conductors and the insulator surface in precedence of electric field.
Thereby a thin conducting layer is formed gradually along the surface of internal insulation
during service. The fiash-over can occur along the surface of the insulation or tank due to
tracking. Dust and other particles are removed by means of filters in the oil filtering unit.

Moisture in oil lowers the dielectric strength. Thereby causing internal flashover. Moisture is
introduced in the circuit breaker through defective seals. Sometimes, oil filled in the

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transformer may itself have higher moisture content. During the periodic maintenance, the
moisture is reduced from say 30 parts per millions to below 5 ppm by filtering the same.

Viscosity indicates fluidity. Oil with low viscosity has more fluidity and gives better cooling
and shorter opening time. At lower ambient temperature the viscosity sharply rises and the
speed of contact travel reduces. Hence viscosity should be measured at various temperatures
and the characteristics of contact travel should be plotted at various temperatures.

Higher flash point (145°C) is preferred. Flashpoint indicates tendency to evaporate. For flash
points lower than 135°C, the oil tends to evaporate rapidly, thereby the viscosity rises and
total volume of oil reduces.

EXPLAIN the reconditioning of condenser bushings

In case of moisture found in the bushings ,the oil has to be drained through drain plugs .Two
nylon tubes of suitable diameter are to be connected to the oil filtering plant through suitable
adaptors. The outlets of tube is to be connected to the drain plugs and the inlet of the tube of
filter to be submerged in the oil at the top.The filtered hot oil should be circulated through
bushings for 3 days by injecting it at the bottom .and shaking it form top. This improves oil
quality and dries out the bushings insulation during the entire period of circulation the
bushings must be covered so that no dirt particles enter the bushings and maintain dielectric
strength of oil according to specification

TESTING OF CT'S Tests on CT's can be classified as Type Tests and Routine Tests.
Type tests are conducted on one or first few CT's of each type, to confirm the design and
ratings. Routine tests are conducted on each CT before despatch.

LIST the various Type Tests on C T

— Verification of terminal markings and polarities.

— Short time current test.

— Temperature rise test.

— Impulse voltage test (for outdoor CT's)

— Power frequency voltage withstand test on primary.

— Over-voltage interturn test, etc.

— Error Measurement. Routine Tests

— Verification of terminal markings and polarities.

— High voltage power frequency voltage withstand test on secondary.

— Over-voltage interturn tests.

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— Determination of errors and accuracy class.

LIST Various Routine Tests

— Verification of terminal markings and polarities.

— High voltage power frequency voltage withstand test on secondary.

— Over-voltage interturn tests.

— Determination of errors and accuracy class.

Furthermore, tests are performed on protective systems by injecting current in primary.

Thereby the correctness of polarity connections and stability of protection is ascertained.
Some tests on CT's are briefly described below :

Explain Error Measurements.

The error measurements are carried out in two different methods namely

1. Direct method.

2. Comparison method.

In direct method, two ammeters are used. One is connected to measure the primary current,
the other to measure secondary current, as shown in Fig. 35.13.

In comparison method a sub-standard CT is taken, whose error is known. The CT under test
is compared with the sub-standard CT. There are several methods based on comparison
principle. These are not given here.

Specially designed test equipment is available for testing CT's.

EXPLAIN Turns Ratio Tests. The usual method is to measure magnitudes of primary and
secondary currents near rated secondary current with a low value of secondary burden.

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3. Exciting Currents. Exciting current is measured for several secondary e.m.fs. This is
accomplished by applying appropriate voltage to the secondary winding, measuring the
current taken by secondary winding, the primary and other windings being open circuited.
4. Current transformers for balanced differential protective schemes. The CT's are connected
in the test circuit. The spill current is measured for through faults.
5. Polarity Test. If at any instant, current is entering the primary from P^ the current should
leave secondary from terminal marked S^ A set-up shown in the figure can show whether the
polarity markings are correct or not. When the key is pressed, current enters the primary
through terminal P1( the voltmeter connected as shown, should read positive.
6. Insulation Tests. These are conducted according to B.S. 3938 (1965). Specified power
frequency voltages are applied to primary for one minute. Impulse tests are conducted on
high voltage current transformers. For secondary circuit test, voltage of 2 kV, 50 Hz is
applied for one minute between secondary terminals and ground.
7. Overvoltage Interturn Test. In this test the secondary winding is open circuited. Rated
frequency, rated primary current is flowed through primary for about one minute. The
secondary winding is then checked to see if the insulation has passed the test.
EXPLAIN PRECAUTION to be taken while using CT
An important aspect in CT operation is, the voltage appearing across open circuited
secondary. Normal voltage across secondary of a 15 VA CT with current of 5A, secondary
voltage is 15/5 = 3V.

However, if by mistake, secondary is open circuited, the voltage across the secondary rises to
a high value. The peak value may reach some kilovolts. Open circuiting of secondary’s
results in zero secondary current, hence reduced back e.m.f. The working flux Φ increases
and core gets saturated. The secondary e.m.f. increases due to increased flux.

The primary gets overheated and the core also gets overheated. Voltages are induced in the
secondary by electro-magnetic induction. The peak value of the secondary voltage on open
circuit may be several times the r.m.s. value since the core is saturated and waveform of
voltage is distorted. This may cause danger to personnel working on

secondary side. Therefore, when primary current is flowing, secondary should never be
disconnected. In bus zone protection, a non-linear resistor may connected across secondary
to limit the peak voltage to safe value.
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TESTING OF VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER (BRIEF)

(a) Error Measurements. The errors are generally measured by comparison method, i.e.
comparing the voltage transformer under test with a sub-standard voltage transformer of high
accuracy and known errors. Errors are measured for various primary voltages, for rated
burdens.
(b) Core losses. Measurement of core loss and exciting current are made to check the quality
of core material and short-circuits in winding between turns.
(c) Insulation Tests. Routine insulation tests are of two kinds, applied and induced
overvoltage tests. In applied tests, the primary winding is short-circuited and test voltage is
applied between primary winding and earth, for specified time and of specified value.
Induced voltage tests are made to test inter-turn and inter-layer insulation of the windings.
The supply is usually applied to the secondary winding at a frequency two to four times
normal frequency to prevent core saturation and excessive exciting current. The secondary
insulation is tested by applying 50 Hz. 2 kV for one minute type tests on voltage transformer
include impulse tests.
d) High voltage tests. Power frequency with stand tests and impulse withstand tests.

IMPULSE VOLTAGE TESTS AND STANDARD IMPULSE WAVES :---

This test is necessary for all indoor and outdoor breakers. The test is carried out as follows.
Standard impulse wave of specified amplitude is applied five times in succession. If flash-
over or puncture of insulators does not occur, the circuit-breaker is considered to have passed
the test. If puncture occurs or if on two or more applied test wave flash-over occurs, the
circuit-breaker is considered to have failed the test. During the test some waves should be
applied with several of polarity.

The impulse voltage wave is generated in an Impulse Voltage Generator. During the test one
terminal of the impulse generator is connected to the terminal of the circuit-breaker pole. The
other terminal is connected to the earth and the frame of the circuit-breaker.
The peak value and wave shape of the test voltage is recorded by means of Cathode Ray
Oscillograph with a calibrated voltages divider. Voltage divider is used to reduce the voltage
for measurement.

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Standard lightning Impulse is a full impulse having a front time 1.2 m-sec and time to half
value of 50 |i.-sec. It is 1.2/50 impulse (Fig. 12.2).

Standard switching impulse wave is characterised by prolonged wave-front and wave tail.
The typical switching impulse wave has front time of the order of 250 us and half-time of
2500 us. The permissible deviation in the crest value is of the order of 4 to 12%. The
switching impulse wave has been specified for high voltage circuit-breaker rated 420 kV and
above.

In impulse tests impulse voltage wave having a steep wave front and flat wave tails and high

amplitude are usually applied to called 'Mark Circuit'. (Ref. Fig. 12.3). Capacitors C1
C2.......are charged by the rectifier to certain voltage. When the gas S is triggered by means
of a spark the capacitors Ci, C2........etc. discharge through series gap Sj, S2 etc. and the
impulse wave is applied to the apparatus under test. The total d.c. voltages is sum of voltages
of capacitors.

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(e) Polarity Test. These are similar to the test on CT's

TESTING OF POLARITY IS DONE TO ENSURE PROPER OPERATION AND

CONNECT THE CT PT PROPERLY TO THE CIRCUIT UNDER MEASUREMENTS.

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