Irrigation Management

Tank Irrigation
 Tank Irrigation

• An irrigation tank is a small reservoir constructed across the slope of a valley to

catch and store water during the rainy season so it can be used for irrigation
during the dry season.

• A small reservoir created behind earthen dams are also called tanks.

• Tank irrigation systems also act as an alternative to pump projects, where

energy availability, energy cost and ground water supplies are constraints for
pumping.

• The distribution of tanks has been dense in some areas. However, over the
years the performance of the tanks has been declining.
 Tank Irrigation Systems of India

• Tank irrigation contributes significantly to agricultural production in parts of

South and Southeast Asia. Especially in South India and Sri Lanka, tank
irrigation has a long history and many currently used tanks were constructed in
the past centuries.

• The tanks have existed in India from time immemorial, and have been an
important source of irrigation especially in southern India. They account for
more than one-third of the total irrigated area in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka
and Tamil Nadu States.

• The tank irrigation system has a special significance to a large number of

marginal and small scale farmers that essentially depend on tank irrigation
because these systems are less capital intensive and have a wider geographical
distribution than large projects.
• In ancient days, tanks were considered to be the property of the rulers.

• The farmers paid a portion of their produce to the ruler.

• Farmers also were in charge of maintenance of the tanks, and supply channels.

• Zamindars ensured the proper maintenance of the tanks and channels,

because they reaped benefits to farm large areas.

• However, when the British introduced the ryotwari system in 1886, tanks with
an area of 40 ha and above were brought under the control of the Public Works
Department (PWD) and smaller tanks were under the administrative control of
local bodies or vested with the villagers themselves.
• Since the local bodies did not have qualified engineers and the duties of the
ayacutdars were not clearly outlined, the system of the farmers themselves
taking up the maintenance work known as kudimaramathu work slowly
declined.

• ayacut. (India): The area served by an irrigation project such as a canal, dam or
a tank.
'Kudimaramathu' or maintenance of waterbodies with participation of local
farmers

• Tanks became silted up, and supply and distribution channels choked. The
deterioration of the tank irrigation system has been a subject of considerable
discussion.
• The Report of the Public Works Commission stated that there was little
voluntary community labor involved in tank maintenance, and it reported that
in all districts laborers were more or less forced to work.

• In fact an act was passed, namely the Madras Compulsory Labour Act of (or
what is known as the Kudimaramath Act), with a goal to legalize compulsory
labor for certain aspects of maintenance, and also to penalize the lack of
kudimaramath labor.

• The entire administration of the act for levying and collection of fines was left
with the irrigation panchayats.
• The Famine Commission of 1878 forcefully brought to light the deteriorating
conditions of tanks and advocated a systematic policy of maintenance.

• However, the local villages are presently responsible for water distribution and
management of only tanks with a command area of less than 40ha.
Functions of Tank Irrigation

• Like a pond an irrigation tank is an artificial reservoir of any size.

• Tanks are part of an ancient tradition of harvesting and preserving the local
rainfall and water from streams and rivers for later use, primarily for
agriculture and drinking water, but also for sacred bathing and ritual.

• Tanks are especially critical in regions without perennial rainfall with cycle of
dry seasons alternating with monsoon seasons.

• Due to limited storage tanks are unable to meet the demand in case of long dry
spells. In extreme hydrological events the failure of one tank infrastructure
results in large scale damage due to cascading
effect.
 Components
of
Tank Irrigation
• Earthen bund to form a tank

• Structure to dispose surplus water

• Sluice

• Delivery chamber

• Distribution system
 Earthen bund to form a tank

• A bund is the man-made earthen embankment of a tank.

• The bunds are constructed across the slopes of the land or surface or according
to the topography.

• The first step in bund-construction is to survey the topography and water flow.

• In some place, bunds can also be constructed in plain land, if the water flow
appropriate and allow farmers to fetch the water for agricultural land.

• However, sandy area are unsuitable for bund construction since their water
storage capacity is low.
• The bund size depends upon the storage capacity of the tank and type of soil.
These earthen bunds or levees are normally in a U shape with greater height at
the center and a gradual reduction in height at both of the flanks.

• The tank bund will be extended so that the water stored in the tank does not
escape at the flanks when the tank is full.

• Depending upon the location normally the bunds are 1 to 3 m wide at the top,
facilitating the transport of silt away from the tank by bullock-carts. Heights
vary from 1 m to 4 m.

• After assessing the location of the phreatic line for the available soil type, core
wall of clay or masonry has to be designed to achieve a safe c/s for the earthen
bunds.

• If necessary toe filters are to be provided for embankment safety.

Structure to dispose surplus water

• Surplus weirs are used to dispose of the surplus water from tank to
downstream channels, downstream or surplus courses, or drainage channels.

• It disposes the water from upstream catchments to down stream catchments

or downstream tanks.

• These interlinked tanks in a certain area are called a “Cascade”. Tanks in a

cascade all have a common supply channel.
Isolated tanks and tanks grouped tanks in series
• A masonry weir is constructed for a certain length and height, and should be
designed to dispose of any excess water.

• The length and height of this masonry structure is based on the following
factors:
a) Amount of rainfall,
b) Area of the catchment and
c) Characteristics of the catchment.
• The excess surplus water is spilled from a tank, into the downstream channel,
so as to avoid the rise of water in the tank above the M.W.L.

• In fact, the water will generally start spilling over the crest of this escape weir,
as and when it rises above F.T.L. (Full Tank Level) ; and the discharging capacity
of this weir will be designed so as to pass the full maximum flood discharge
(likely to enter the tank) with a depth over the weir equal to the difference
between F.T.L. and M.W.L.
Full Tank Level

• The full tank level is the highest level which water could be stored in the tank.

• Since or any excess water will go out through the surplus weir.

• The height of the surplus weir is same as the full tank level.

• The full tank level and the height of the tank depend upon the storage of the
tank, strength of the bund, and type of soil.

• In some of the rocky areas, the full tank level is low because of the tank is
shallow.

• If the full tank level is high, more water could be stored in the tank leading to
an increase in the ground water table.
Maximum Water Level

• The maximum water level is higher than full tank level in the water spread area
of the tank for storing the water.

• When the inflow is higher than outflow of water in surplus weirs that time the
water could reach the maximum water level.

• It restricted to store the water up to this maximum water level during rainy
days.

• The full tank level and maximum water level differs in small tanks and big tanks
respectively 0.45m to 0.90m and 1.2m to 2.4m.
 Free Board

• The free board is the difference in height between the top of the bund and the
maximum water level.

• If we store water up to free board level, the bund will definitely be damaged
because during the rainy season, the soil of the bund might erode.
Tank Bund Level

• The Tank bund level is the level of the top of the bund. The Tank bund level is
equal to the freeboard level and is higher than the maximum water level.

• The height of the tank bund level depends upon the type of the soil,
topography or slope of the area, and the depth of the tank.
 Sluice

• A sluice is another structure of tanks, and is the outlet of the tank through
which water goes to supply channels and sub channels, before reaching the
field.

• There is a plug and rod at the entrance of the barrel to open or close the sluice.
Bigger sluices have rods with plugs operated by standing on the top of bund.

• Sluices help to prevent the collapse and erosion of bunds from the wave action
of stored water during monsoon seasons.

• If the sluices are damaged, the leakage of water will go to the field
continuously, crop failure is likely, and lean season farmers suffer without
water.
 Sluice Outlet

• Sluice outlet is a part of the sluice used for disposing the water by pipes
operated under the bund to distribute the water from the tank to canals or
channels.

• It has a head wall on the upstream of the tank bund.

• There should be wing walls at the head and tail end of the sluice outlet.
Distribution System

• The distribution system consists of the main canal, distributaries, and field
channels.

• The length of canals and the area irrigated varies widely. Distribution networks
and their performance depend upon the terrain and the slope of individual
command areas.

• Maintenance of the main canal, distributaries, and field channels is the

responsibility of area farmers.
Distribution System

• In cases where the main channel (due to breaches) is severely damaged, the
PWD will assist farmers with repairs.

• Since the entire distribution system is usually unlined, water losses are high
and water is not distributed equitably among head and tail-end farmers.

• In some cases, the canals are so wide and the drainage conditions so poor, that
the excess water reduces crop yields particular in areas near the head of the
canals.
 Advantages of Irrigation by Tanks

• Minor irrigation works will give higher and quick returns

• In minor irrigation disturbance to natural ecological balance is almost nil

• It is a cheap and popular method of irrigation

• It maintains level of groundwater

• Where construction of wells is very costly due to hard rock surface, irrigation
by tank is cheaper.
 Advantages of Irrigation by Tanks

• Expenditure is much less as compared to canals.

• Use of additional water from rainfall is possible through tanks.

• Management is easier and farmers can be involved easily.

• It is economically sound and can be executed using local technology.

Disdvantages of Irrigation by Tanks

• Source of water in tanks is only from rainfall. If there is variation in rainfall, it

has adverse effects on agriculture.

• Rain water flowing towards tanks carries sediments also which reduces the
depth of tanks. It requires desilting from time to time, which is very costly.

• Taking water from tanks for irrigation is very costly.

• Tanks occupy large space because many natural tanks are very extensive.
Disdvantages of Irrigation by Tanks

• The proportion of irrigated land to total cultivated land is lower under tank
irrigation as compared to canal and wells.

• Intensity of cropping is much lower under tank as compared to canal and wells.

• Lower level of yields, low fertilizer uses and lower valued crops grown under
tanks as compared to wells and canals.

• Water is evaporated from the large expanse of shallow water and is thus not
available for irrigation.
Developmenmt issues related to Tanks

 Absence of local management

• Traditionally, tanks and their components had an institutional

mechanism to governing it, and were managed by the community.

• Some of the services related to tanks like administration, tank

management, revenue generation tanks, conflict resolution, and water
management are rooted services related to the tank management
committee.
Developmenmt issues related to Tanks

• Since the British period, there was no formal governing mechanism followed
by the community.

• After that, the government directly owned and supervised the water resources.
Then, slightly, tank maintenance and management was shifted to the hands of
Panchayat.

• Afterwards, local village committees were left in charge of tanks complexes

and maintenance.

• Eventually, modernization leads to an erosion in community feelings, a

decrease in taking care of common property resources, and a decrease in
collective action. This decrease leads to damages in tanks and its components.
Developmenmt issues related to Tanks

 Infestation of weeds

• Many tanks in Tamil Nadu, whether Panchayat tank or Public Welfare

Department tank, have the weeds like prosophis juliflora, water hyacinth, and
ipomea cornea occupied the water-spread area, feeder channels, and bunds.

• Ipomea cornea spreads quickly over very large area.

• This ipomea weeds spread the disease to animals and human beings by
swallowing the waste.

• Weeds also obstruct the water flow in the channels, leading to decreased
inflow levels.

• Ipomea weeds also prevent grass from growing during the summer.
 Development issues related to Tanks

 Weak tank bunds

• Many tanks now have weak bunds which should be strengthened to improve
water storage in rainy seasons.

• There are several reasons for weak bunk.

• The top soils are exploited by the people who take soil from the bund for
constructing houses or making bricks,

• Villagers use the bund as pathways to neighbouring villages.

• Farmers with cattle put them on the bund itself.

• The government does not allocate funds for strengthening the tank bunds.
These issues lead to breaching the bund of the tank..
 Development issues related to Tanks

 Siltation of Tank beds and Channels

• Siltation happens because of people's activities. The problem is that the community is
not aware about the proper use of tanks.

 When people cut down trees in forests, or in rain fed areas, roots of the trees cannot
hold the soil, leading to soil erosion in forests, arid, or semi-arid areas.

 From the catchment area, the top soil or sand runs off with water, accumulates in the
tank, and forms tank silt.

 Traditionally, tank silt was transferred from tanks to agricultural fields, but after the
Green Revolution, these practices were abandoned in favour of fertilizers, and chemical
manures.

 When tanks are not silted, their water storage capacity decreases. This led to problems
in water distribution and reduced productivity.
 Development issues related to Tanks

 Leak Sluices and Damaged Surplus Weirs

 Sluices and surplus weir are masonry work.

 Many farmers do not know how to repair even the most basic damages,
because of the decreased in social responsibility.

 The surplus weir can become damaged when there is encroachment in tank
beds.

 For example, if plants are grown in inappropriate places, their roots can enter
the concrete, and damage the weirs.
 Development issues related to Tanks

 Leak Sluices and Damaged Surplus Weirs

 Sometimes being farmers intentionally damage the structures to dispose of

excess water, and save their standing crops from submerged in water.

 In case like these, the village committee will decide how to deal with the
breacher.

 Thus, gather at a common place and discuss about the breacher.

 They may collect penalty or prevent the farmers from fetching water for
agriculture.
 Development issues related to Tanks

 Encroachment in Tank Complex

 Encroachment is an illegal occupation of the tank land.

 Encroachment takes on different forms. For example, the brick layers may
encroach inside the tank, while nomads may encroach in the bund of some
tanks.

 The reasons for encroachment differ according to the context.

 Encroachment is prevalent in the feeder channels, on the tank bunds, and in

the water-spread area.
 Development issues related to Tanks

 Encroachment in Tank Complex

 Encroachment can be either: public or private.

 When the farmers and general public are the encroachers, it is called “private
encroachment”.

 This form of encroachment includes activities like cultivation, digging wells,

constructing house, planting trees, dumping waste, and constructing cattle
sheds.

 “Public encroachment” is Encroachment by government agencies for

construction of roads, building, bridges, courts and even temples. This kind of
encroachment is common in Tamil Nadu.
 Development issues related to Tanks

 Urbanization

 Urbanization in India, severely affects the tank eco-system.

 In addition to individuals or households purchasing land for house

construction, as different area become more urbanized.

 The government buildings such as revenue and housing departments, housing

colonies, bus stands, and depos are constructed in the tank areas.
 Development issues related to Tanks

 Urbanization

 Urbanization also leads to improper usage of tanks.

 Some tanks are used as waste dumps.

 In a semi-urban area in Madurai, K. Pudhur, a tank is being used as a graveyard.

 These actions create extreme environmental pollution, affect the tank eco-
system, and reduce the ground water potential.
 Development issues related to Tanks

 Decrease on Revenues from Tank Resources

 The revenue collected from the resources by selling of the tank silt, trees on
the bund, fuels wood on water-spread area, and fish rearing. These revenues
are called “usuruft revenues”.

 The tanks have sustainable sources for revenue generation, and this revenue
used by local villagers, if it is a small tank. This revenue could spend for village
function, festival, and common expenditure of the village.

 Now a days, the revenue from this resource is coming on downwards. Because
the local community does not give much more importance to this revenue and
commitment to preserve the resources is poor.

 The local panchayat have the power to collect this revenue and spend it for
providing services and infrastructure.
 Warning Signals Suggesting The
Decline Of Tank Irrigation

The following are warning signals to the Government and local communities on
the declining tank irrigation in the states.

 Most tanks are reported to function only in normal and excess rainfall years
and not in poor and low rainfall years.

 The consequences are: many farmers have started abandoning tank agriculture
due its continuous uncertainties in water supplies and moving to the nearby
towns for other jobs and only the older people are remaining in the tank
villages.

 The lands are not maintained properly and the prosophis trees are growing
freely in the cultivated lands thus making the lands unsuitable for cultivation
during years when the tank has adequate water.
 Warning Signals Suggesting The
Decline Of Tank Irrigation

 Due to the declining commitment to the maintenance of the tank structures,

the upkeep of the structures is a cost for the farmers when they really want to
use the tank for irrigation during normal supply periods.

 Livestock support activities are also completely gone in the villages, thus
eroding the livelihood options for the village.

 Farmers previously removed the silt using bullock carts and after the
introduction of the social forestry scheme in the 1980s in the water spread
area, silt removal from the tanks has been prevented thus making the bullock
operations limited.
 Warning Signals Suggesting The
Decline Of Tank Irrigation

 Somehow, the micro-finance concept has emerged among rural women that
manage families with livestock and credit integration.

 However, the livestock also need adequate fodder. Hence, if the tanks are not
properly managed then the entire tank ecosystem based rural economy will
completely collapse.

 The impact of social forestry has already been felt with an increase of silt
accumulation in the tank water area and it will be difficult to sustain the tanks
if social forestry is allowed to continue.

 However at the same time, even without social forestry in the tanks, there are
possibilities that the prosophis trees will quickly spread and have more severe
impact on the tanks than social forestry with acacia trees that have a market
(timber) value
 Warning Signals Suggesting The
Decline Of Tank Irrigation

 Due to intensification of watershed development programs by the

Government, several structures such as small check dams and percolation
ponds have been developed upstream of the tanks in several locations
affecting inflows into the tanks.

 Hence a clear demarcation should be made between the watershed programs

and tank improvement programs.

 Disappearance of the supply channels is very common.

 Warning Signals Suggesting The
Decline Of Tank Irrigation

 House construction due to population increases and village development

activities such as roads, schools, and other buildings are concentrated in the
government common lands that are the main sources of inflow to the tanks as
well as interlink the tanks in a chain.

 This is one reason tanks are not receiving adequate inflow even though rainfall
is normal

 The growing self-interest and non-cooperation of the well owners in the

routine tank maintenance also makes tank management a difficult task.

 This is because in several villages, well owners feel that the tanks will not be
useful, because most of the time they are dry. Also the reliability of the tanks
for recharging the wells has also decreased due to siltation and encroachment.
 Policies for improving tank systems

 Tank rehabilitation options that can restore the original standards should be
given priority.

 Desilting is an important option. However, it has been observed that in a 10

year cycle, for only 3 years the tanks reach full storage, for five years deficit
storage and for two years the tanks fail.

 Hence, tank Irrigation in South India desilting the tank fully is not economical,
as the benefits of desilting will be for only three years with tanks at full supply.

 Also disposal of all the desilted material is difficult, because the fertile silt is
found only in the top (0.4 meter) layer. Therefore, full scale desilting may not
be warranted.
 Policies for improving tank systems

 Considering a high cost of silt, partial desilting that helps to restore the original
dead storage could be attempted as part of tank rehabilitation options to
increase non-irrigation benefits of tank water particularly in the non-tank-
irrigation season.

 Also recharging of wells could be improved. Partial desilting can be done

nearer to the lower sluice as well as around the periphery of the tank water
spread area.

 Most of the tanks do not receive an adequate water supply and the chain
system of tanks has almost become broken.

 Hence, there is an urgent need to revive the tank-chains through appropriate

modernization strategies for improving the supply channels connecting
different tanks.
 Policies for improving tank systems

 This highlights the need for taking up modernization works at the chain-level
i.e. by considering the entire hydrological boundary as a single unit rather than
viewing individual tanks as separate entities for new investment.

 Community wells should be installed in the tank water spread area to provide
some supplementary irrigation to the non-well farmers during critical periods.

 Extension efforts and marketing support to farmers should be strengthened to

introduce crop diversification particularly in the wet season.
 Policies for improving tank systems

 Crop demonstrations by the Department of Agriculture would help speed up

the process. To complement the above options, tank structures should be
repaired for effective water control.

 Lining the main canals can be followed without disturbing the field boundaries.

 Tank management strategies such as sluice rotation can help save a great
amount of the tank water. Instead of continuous water withdrawal from tanks,
sluices can be opened and closed on alternate weeks (rotation of sluices).
 Policies for improving tank systems

 More tanks have become dysfunctional in due to encroachment, siltation,

choking of supply channels and pollution from industries.

 Tanks close to the cities should be protected from environmental pollution and
further be improved as groundwater recharge structures for domestic
purposes.

 Strict regulations and penalty mechanisms should be imposed on the

encroachers of catchment, supply channel, and foreshore areas.