CHAPTER 2: Sources of water

Sishir Dahal
28th May, 2023
 Sources of water
Classification of Sources of water
• The primary source of water supply is
precipitation which is the water falling from the
atmosphere to the surface of the earth in the
form of rain, snow, hail, etc.
• Rainfall is the most important part of
precipitation
• Water obtained from the precipitation is retained
in surface depressions, carried away as surface
run-off in natural streams or rivers and percolates
into the ground and joins the groundwater
Classification of Sources of water
• This portion of precipitation which may be
utilized for water supply obtained partly at the
ground surface and partly below the ground
surface.
Surface Sources
• Those sources of water which are available at
the ground surface.
• The quality and quantity of surface water
depends on a combination of climate and
geological factors.
• The quality of water varies all the time from
its origin until it reaches to oceans.
Surface Sources
1. Rivers
• A river is a natural channel which carries surface
run-off received by it from its catchment or
drainage basin.
• It also carries the ground water flow added to it
and the run-off resulting from the melted snow
• Either perennial or non-perennial
• Quantity of water available is very large
• Can be used as a source of water supply for
towns and cities
2.Streams
• Streams are natural drainage channel found in
the mountains regions.
• Either perennial or non-perennial
• The discharge in streams is much in rainy season
than other seasons.
• The quantity of water available in streams is
much less in compared to rivers due to its small
catchment area.
• The quality of water in streams is normally good
expect the water of first run-off
• Run-off water while flowing over the ground is
mixed with sand, silt, clay, minerals, and
suspended impurities
3. Lakes
• A large natural depression or hollow formed in the
earth’s surface, which gets filled with water is called a
lake.
• It is generally found in the mountainous regions.
• The surface runoff from the catchment area contributing
to a lake enters the lake through small natural streams.
• The ground water also may enter a lake through springs.
• If sufficient quantity of good quality water is available
from a lake then it will be very useful sources of water
supply
• Quantity of water available from a lake depends upon its
size, catchment area, annual rainfall, porosity of the
ground and geological formations
4. Ponds
• A pond is man-made body of standing water
smaller than a lake.
• The ponds are formed by digging of ground and
they are filled up with water in rainy season.
• The quantity of water in a pond is generally very
small and often it contains many impurities.
• As pond is generally not suitable for drinking
purposes and it can be used for other purposes
like bathing, washing of clothes or for animals.
4. Impounded Reservoir
• The flow rate of river or natural stream may vary considerably
during different periods of a year.
• It may carry little or no water during dry weather period and may
carry huge amount of water during rainy season.
• If water drawn directly from a river then during extremely low flows
it may not be possible to meet the demands of the consumers,
• while during high flows there may be operational problems.
• As such it is essential to create a storage reservoir or an artificial
lake by constructing a bund, weir or dam which can store the
excess water that flows in the river during period of high flow,
called as impounded reservoir
• Quality of water depends on the quality of the water flowing in the
river
• Can be used to supply water for big cities
• Also used for irrigation, hydro-power generation, navigation, flood
control, etc, called as multipurpose reservoir
Sub-Surface Sources(Ground Sources)
• The water which is available below the ground surface
is termed as ground water.
• Precipitation is the main source of groundwater
• Entrance of water into the ground is called infiltration,
which depends on rainfall intensity, porosity of soil and
soil cover
• The ground water reservoir consists of water held in
voids within a geological stratum.
• The quality of groundwater is generally good due to
natural filtration as it percolates then infiltration to
deeper strata.
Sub-Surface Sources(Ground Sources)
• As G/W is not exposed to atmosphere it may
be free from direct contamination and
pollution from run-off.
• The occurrence of groundwater and its
transmission largely depends on the type of
water bearing formation and the geological
characteristics of the region.
• Polluted water from agricultural areas that
percolate to the groundwater can contains
herbicides, pesticides and nutrients
Major types of geological formation are as follows:
1. Aquifer
• An aquifer is a geological formation that contains
sufficient permeable material which permits
storage as well as transmission of water.
• Thus an aquifer contains saturated material which
will yield significant quantities of water to springs
and wells
• Unconsolidated sands and gravels are the
examples of the formations which serve as
aquifers. There are two types of aquifers
A. Unconfined Aquifer
• An unconfined aquifer is one in
which water table forms the
upper surface of the zone of
saturation. Pheratic/ Non-
Artesian Aquifer
B. Confined Aquifer
• A confined aquifer is the one in
which groundwater is confined
under pressure greater than
atmospheric pressure by
overlaying relatively
impermeable strata.
Artesian/Pressure Aquifer
2. Aquiclude
• Geological formation of relatively impermeable
material which permits storage of water but is
not capable of transmitting water in sufficient
quantity. Clay is an example of such a formation.
3. Aquifuge
• An aquifuge is defined as a geological formation
of relatively impermeable material which neither
contains nor transmits water. Solid granite
belongs to this category of formation.
The various ground sources of water are:
1. Springs
2. Wells
3. Artesian wells
4. Infiltrations galleries
5. Infiltrations wells
1. Springs
• A spring is a natural outflow of groundwater
which appears at the ground surface as a current
or stream of flowing water.
• Formed when water table is higher than ground
level
• Springs may be classified into:
A. Those resulting from gravitational forces, and
B. Those resulting from non- gravitational forces
1. Gravity Springs
A. Depression springs
• These springs are formed
due to overflowing of the
water table, where the
ground surface intersects the
water table.
• The flow from such springs is
variable with fluctuations of
water table
• A deep trench may be
constructed near such a
springs to meet with such
fluctuations
• The deeper is the trench, the
greater is the continuous
flow
B. Contact Springs or Surface
Springs
• These springs are created by
a permeable water bearing
formation over lying a less
permeable or impermeable
formation that intersects
the ground surface.
• However, in such springs,
because of the relatively
small amount of
underground storage
available above the
elevation of the overflow
crest, the flow from them is
uncertain and is likely to
cease after a drought.
• As such these springs can be
also be developed by the
construction of a cutoff
trench or cutoff wall.
C. Artesian Springs
• These springs result from release
of water under pressure from
confined aquifers either at an
outcrop of the aquifer or through
an opening in the confining bed.
• The amount of water available in
an artesian may be large if the
catchment area is large.
• The rain water flowing on the
surface enters into the basin
through the exposed portions on
the top, flows down and is finally
stored between the two
impervious layers under
hydrostatic pressure.
• The flow may be slightly increased
by the removal of obstructions
from the mouth of the springs.
2. Non-gravity springs
• Non-gravity springs include volcanic springs and
fissure springs.
• The volcanic springs associated with volcanic
rocks and fissure spring result from fractures
extending to great depths on the earth crust
• These are usually thermal springs and discharge
is highly mineralized and often contains sulphur.
• However, the water obtained from some of hot
springs is found to be useful for cure of certain
skin disease.
 Wells
• A well is a hole or shaft, usually vertical, excavated
in the ground for bringing groundwater to the
surface.
• Wells may be classified as :
1. Opens wells or Dug wells,
2. Tube wells
Open wells or Dug Wells
• Opens wells are the wells which have
comparatively large diameters but low yields and
are not very deep.
Open wells or Dug Wells
• Diameters of the open wells usually vary from 1 to
10 meters
• The depths of opens wells may generally range
from 2 to 20 meters
• Since these wells are usually constructed by
digging, these are also known as dug wells
• The walls of an open well may be built of brick or
stone masonry or precast concrete rings
• The thickness generally varies from 0.5 to 0.75
meter depending on the depth of the well.
• Open wells may be further
classified as
a. Shallow open wells
b. Deep open wells
• Shallow open wells are those
which rest in the top water
bearing strata and draw their
supplies from the surrounding
materials. Have risk of
contamination of water due to
the topmost pervious layer
• Deep open wells are those which
rest on impervious strata and
draw their supplies from the
permeable formation lying below
the impervious strata through
bore holes made in the
impervious strata. Quantity and
quality is high compared to
shallow open wells.
• The wells may be also be classified as
i. Gravity well
ii. Pressure well
• Gravity well is one in which the surface of the
water in the aquifer outside and surrounding the
well is at atmospheric pressure
• In the pressure well, the aquifer is confined
between two overlying impervious strata so that
pressure may be high enough to raise the water
from the well and will not require pumping
Tube wells
• Tube well is a long pipe sunk into the ground
intercepting one or more water bearing strata.
• Compared to open wells the diameter of tube
wells are much less.
• The tube wells may also be further classified as
a. Shallow tube wells
b. Deep tube wells
Depth of tube wells up to 30 m is shallow tube wells
and up to 600 m are deep tube wells
Tube wells
• The tube wells may be classified as
A. Strainer type tube well
B. Cavity type tube well
C. Slotted type tube well
D. Perforated type tube well

Strainer type Tube well

• It is the most common and widely
used tube well
• The pipe introduced into the ground is
an assembly of strainer pipes and blind
pipes which are alternatively placed.
• The strainer pipe rest against water
bearing strata and the blind pipes rest
against impervious strata.
Cavity Tube well
• It consists of pipe sunk into
ground and resting on the
bottom of a strong strata.
• In the initial stage of
pumping fine sand comes
out with water and
consequently a cavity is
formed at the bottom.
• Though in the beginning
sandy water is obtained from
a cavity type tube well but
with the passage of time
clear water is obtained
Slotted type Tube well

• It consists of a pipe which is

slotted for part of its length at one
end and the rest of length its plain
pipe.
• The mixture of gravel and coarse
sand placed around the pipe to
prevent the fine sand entering the
well pipe.
• The slotted portion of pipe is
surrounded by mixture of gravel
and coarse sand called shrouding
which is filled between casing pipe
and slotted pipe.
• The well pipe of 150 mm diameter
casing pipe about 400 mm
diameter is required .
Perforated Type tube well
• Perforated type tube well is shallow depth tube
well and used for short duration such as in
construction site.
• The pipes having pores covered by jute ropes act
as strainer and which prevent the fine particles
entering the well pipe.
 Artesian Wells
• An artesian well is a
pumpless water source
retained in confined
aquifer, which flows
automatically under
pressure
• Mostly they are found in
the valley portion of the
hills where aquifers on the
both sides are inclined
towards valley.
• The HGL passes much
above the mouth of well
which cause flow under
pressure
 Infiltration Galleries

• A horizontal or nearly horizontal tunnel

having permeable boundaries for tapping
underground water near rivers, lakes or
streams are called infiltration galleries
• Usual depth at which gallery is placed
ranges from 3 to 10 m
• Infiltration galleries may be constructed
with dry brick masonry wall or porous
concrete blocks with weep holes and RCC
slab roof or an arch roof
• Perforations covered by gravel filters to
prevent the entry of fine sand particles
• The gallery is laid at a slope and the
water collected in the gallery is led to a
sump from where it is pumped out and
supplied to consumers after necessary
treatment.
 Infiltration wells

• A shallow well constructed in series

along the banks of a river to collects
the water seeping through the
banks of the river is called
infiltration wells
• These wells are constructed of brick
masonry with open joint and RCC
slab in the top with manhole for the
• Various infiltration wells are
connected by porous pipes to a
collecting sump well known as jack
well.
• The water from the jack well is
pumped to the treatment plant and
supplied to the consumers after
treatment .
• Quantity of water available is small
compared to infiltration gallery
 Selection of water source
• The following factors are generally considered
while selecting the source of water supply
1. Quantity of water (sufficient to meet the demand
throughout the year)
2. Quality of water (wholesome water)
3. Location (near the consumers’ area)
4. Cost of w/s project
5. Sustainable and safe
6. Non-conflict among the water users
7. Reliable