UNIT -5

•GROUND WATER AND

GEOPHYSICAL STUDIES

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

RGUKT
RK VALLEY
 Groundwater
THE ground water is considered a very important natural
resources, in arid , semi aired, and dry regions.
this may be the only source of water supply even in the humid
areas, ground water is considered abetter resources for many
economic and hygienic reasons
Introduction
• ¾th Earth’s surface is water.
• 97.2% water on Earth occurs in sea.
• 2% of it is ice bodies.
• 0.8% is the only fresh water.
• 1/3 rd is from surface bodies (rivers, lakes.,)
• 2/3 rd is in the form of ground water
Demand of water

• 75 % of fresh water is needed

for irrigation
• 20 % for industries
• 5 % for all domestic needs

• Hence ground water is used to

fulfil our needs.
Hydrologic cycle/ water cycle
• The water moves from one reservoir to another, such as from
river to ocean, or from ocean to atmosphere, by physical process
of evaporation, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, runoff
and subsurface flow. In this process water goes through
different phases: liquid, solid (ice) and gas (vapour)

• It describes the continuous movement of water on, above and

below the surface of the earth. Although the balance of water on
earth remains fairly constant over time
 What is groundwater?

• It is the soil moisture that moves as

dictated by the gravity.

• The water that lies beneath the ground

surface, filling the pore space between
grains in bodies of sediment and clastic
sedimentary rock, and filling cracks in all
types of rock
• The groundwater is considered a very important natural resource, in
arid, semi arid and dry regions, this may be the only source of water
supply.
• Even in humid areas, groundwater is considered as a better resource for
many economic and hygienic reasons.
• It has a suitable composition in most cases and is free from turbidity,
objectionable colours, and pathogenic organisms and require not much
treatment.
• It is relatively much safer from hazards of chemical and biological
pollution to which surface bodies are exposed.
• Being available locally in many cases may be tapped and distributed at
much lesser cost using very little network of pipes.
 Civil Engineering Importance
• As a geological agent, ground water contributes to the decomposition of
rocks. This makes the properties of rocks such as competence, durability and
appearance deteriorate and renders them unsuitable for constructional
purposes. Thus, this is a matter of serious concern for a civil engineer.
• Formation of solution cavities or channels inside calcareous rocks(leading to
their weakness) is also one of the undesirable effects of ground water.
• Stability of Reservoirs, Tunnels, Dams is depends on the groundwater
movement
• It is used for all constructional activities, irrigation and domestic purposes
etc., a civil engineer may have to look towards ground water as a means or
source of water supply.
 Advantages of groundwater
• Where there was no surface water body, then ground water will be
only source
• Surface sources are not constant (seasonal), but ground water will be
constant doesn’t changes with seasons
• Dams and reservoirs requires large area and huge labour, where
groundwater wells will be constructed will less labour and with less
money
• Reservoirs needs large area so the evaporation loss will be higher
• Pollution in the surface sources will be higher
 Sources of groundwater
• It is the water derived from precipitation
(rain/snow) although bulk of the rain water
or melt water from snow reaches the sea
through the surface flows or runoffs a
considerable part of precipitation gradually
infiltrates into groundwater.
• This infiltrated water continuous its
downward journey till it reaches the zone of
saturation to become the ground water in the
aquifer.
 Porosity
• Porosity is nothing but the ratio
between the total voids or pores
or openings to the volume of
rock or sand
• Porous
• When a rock or soil that hold much
water
 Permeability
• Permeability is the ability of a formation to
transmit water through its pores.
• The capacity of a rock or soil to transmit a fluid
through pores and fractures
• Permeable
• A rock or soil that allows water to flow easily through it
• Impermeable
• A rock or soil that does not allow water to flow through
it easily
 Forms of sub surface water
• Water in the soil mantle is known as Sub surface water and is
considered in two zones.

• Saturated Zone
Aeration Zone

Saturated Zone :
• This zone is also known as ground water zone in which all pores of the
soil are filled with water. The water table forms the upper limit and marks
a free surface i.e., a surface having atmospheric pressure
• Zone of Aeration
• This is also known as Vadose Zone. In this zone the soil pores are partially
saturated with water . The spaces between the land surface and the water table
marks the extend of this zone .
• Capillary Fringe
• Layer of soil or rock above water
table which is partly saturated
because of capillary rise
Classification based on Porosity and
Permeability

• Aquifer
• Aquifuge
• Aquitard
• Aquiclude
Aquifer
• Water bearing strata of soil or rock that releases water relatively
easily. Eg: Gravels, Sandstones.,
• An aquifer is a saturated formation of earth material which not
only stores water but produce or provide it in sufficient
quantity
• Thus an aquifer transmits water relatively easily due to high
permeability
• Un-consolidation deposits of sand and gravel form good aquifer
Types of Aquifer
• Unconfined Aquifer
• An unconfined aquifer is the one in which water table forms the upper
surface of the zone of saturation.
• An aquifer where the water table is the upper surface limit and extends
below till impermeable rock strata is called unconfined aquifer
• Confined Aquifer
• When an aquifer is sandwiched between two impermeable layer, it is
known as confined aquifer.
• It is also known as pressure aquifer or artesian aquifer.
• Confined aquifers are completely filled with water and they do not
have free water table and the aquifer will be under pressure
Aquitard
• Strata of soil or rock that does not
release water easily
• It is a formation through which only
seepage is possible and thus the
yield is insignificant compared to an
aquifer
• It is partly permeable
• A sandy clay unit is an example of
aquitard
Aquiclude
• Impervious strata of soil or rock
• It is a geological formation which is essentially impermeable to
the flow of water
• It may be considered as close to water movement even though it
may contain large amount of water due to its high porosity
• Clay is an example of aquiclude and argillaceous rocks, shales
which are porous but not permeable
Aquifuge

• It is a geological formation which neither porous nor permeable

• There are no interconnected openings and hence it cannot
transmit water
• Massive compact rock without any fracture is an aquifuge
Geological controls of groundwater
• Permeability
• Porosity
• Geological structures (Folds, Faults, Joints)
• Occurrence of dykes
• Hydraulic gradient or difference in the water table levels
Groundwater Exploration
• Ground water does not occur every where below the earth’s
surface and its direct check up is not possible
• Hence suitable studies are necessary to tapping the ground
water occurrence successfully
• This investigation is of three kinds
• Geological Investigation
• Geo physical Investigation
• Hydrological Investigation
Geological Investigation
• In Ground water exploration program among three geological
investigation is the most important and deciding factor other
two are supplementary investigations
• This comprises study of given area from different angles and
predict the scope of ground water occurrence. In this geological
mapping is also carried and contour mapping is also done
• Study of rock type :
• This refers to not only the type of rock occur but also its thickness,
attitude, permeability and porosity also studied
• Study of topography :
• This involves the study of high lands and low lands (hills & valleys). The water
table is roughly parallel to the surface i.e., occur at higher level at hill areas and
low level at valleys. While conducting ground water exploration lowest
elevations are preferred.
• Study of weathering:
• In hard rock areas , surface occurrence of insitu rocks are of boulders without
soil. Sub Soil is not suitable for tapping of ground water because these hard
rocks are not only lack weathered zones but also the faults, joints . This means
porosity is less and ground water passage is low and availability is also less.
• Study of geological Structures:
• This involves the study of joints, faults, cracks, shear zones , folds., which not
only contributes secondary porosity but also act as channel ways or guide the
direction of movement of ground water. Synclinal folds accompany the suitable
lithological conditions create artesian conditions.
• Study of intrusive bodies :
• This refer to the occurrence of dolerite dykes, quartz veins . These are hard and
act as barriers to ground water flow , This results in occurrence of ground water
on one side only.
• Geo physical investigations
• Geo physical investigations are necessary because these provide quick,
inexpensive ,easy and fairly reliable means to get sub surface details
• Electrical resistivity methods
• Seismic investigations

• Hydrological investigations
• It involves study of water table
• Surface water bodies
• Rainfall and climate study
Effects of excessive of Groundwater

• Near spaced wells get dry

• Ground gets sink and causes sinking of Civil engineering
structures
• Near coastal areas it causes salinity increases.